Construction costing and contracts assignment 1

Table of contents
Introduction
Systems thinking
o

Setting out

Construction of the base

Construction of columns and beams

Curing

Environmental protection

Systems to control the appropriate level of strength and accuracy of concrete

Health and safety hazards
Reference

Introduction
A system is an organized collection of parts or subsystems that are highly integrated to accomplish an
overall goal. The system has various inputs, mechanisms and certain processes to produce outputs,
which together, accomplish the overall desired goal for the system. This system is subject to constraints
and offers opportunities. The current goal is to design a system for the water tank construction process.
1.0. Systems thinking
Systems thinking is defined as an approach to problem solving, by viewing "problems" as parts of an
overall system, rather than reacting to specific part, outcomes or events. One of the best ways of solving
problems using system thinking is to model a problematic scenario into simple input-output system. The
input-output system consists of;

Opportunities

Input things to be converted by the conversion process

/ Constraints
Output things produced or created as a result of the
conversion process
Conversion
Output
Constraints elements that limit the conversion process
Inputs
process
Opportunities sub product of conversion process
which benefits another process
Mechanisms
Mechanisms personnel, equipment and technology
used in conversion process
Conversion process- is an activity which uses a mechanism to
Figure 1 - Input-Output Model
convert an input into an output under certain constraints while
offering opportunities for other conversion process.

Setting out
This is the construction process by which the specific locations of structures to be constructed are
located in the site. The input of this process is the bare land and the output will be the location of the
structural elements to be constructed such as columns. The mechanisms used in this process are skills
of surveyors and surveying equipment. The main constraints of this process are the difficulty to locate
points due to possible weather conditions and uneven topology of the construction site.
Construction of the base
This is the construction process by which the foundation for the water tank is constructed. The inputs for
this process are the bare lands with marking of perimeter of foundation and construction materials. The
outputs will be the foundation of the water tank. The mechanisms used in the process are the skills of
labour, excavating machinery, steel bar bending machines and concrete mixer. The main constraints will
be unforeseeable adverse weather conditions and unexpected ground conditions and the opportunities
are the fact that the workshop setup to make concrete and bend reinforcement steel can be used for
other construction process like construction of columns and beams.
Construction of columns and beams
This is the construction process by which columns and beams for the water tank is constructed. The
inputs for this process are construction materials and the output is the columns and beams of the water
tank. The mechanisms used in the process are the skilled labour, steel bending machines and concrete
mixer. The constraints are unexpected adverse weather conditions and the fact that there are many
mistakes that can be made in the dimensions of structures and when mixing of concrete.

Curing
This is the process by which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and kept within a reasonable
temperature range so that the concrete can reach it complete strength. The inputs for this process are
water and concrete and the output is fully cured concrete structure. The mechanisms used in the
process are the curing techniques like ponding and spraying. The constraints are the fact that hot
weather can decrease moisture content of concrete due to evaporation and the fact that the process
must be continued for 7 days hence there is a possibility to miss curing of at certain places
Environmental Protection
This is the process by which harm caused to the surrounding environment due to the construction
process is reduces to appropriate levels or eliminated altogether. Input for this process is the
surrounding environment and the output is the surrounding environment with minimum change due to
the construction. The mechanisms used are environmental protection techniques such as recycling
waste materials and proper disposal of construction waste. The constraints are the extra costs that occur
for proper environmental protection and this can delay construction too. Opportunities are the fact that
cleaner environment paves way for a more sustainable future and recycling construction waste can
reduce the overall cost of construction.

2.0. Systems to control the appropriate level of strength and accuracy of concrete
During the construction process there are three main places where the strength and the accuracy of the
concrete is decided; during manufacturing of cement and admixtures, during mixing of concrete and
during curing of concrete.

Manufacturing of cement and admixtures is not a part of the actual construction process therefore
there is a possibility the materials bought is of low quality.
The construction process is fairly large hence it requires many batches of concrete with different
composition of aggregates and admixtures which can lead to mistakes in mixing of concrete
which in turn can affect the strength of the concrete.
After the laying of the concrete its moisture level must be controlled to make sure the concrete
reaches its maximum strength. If the moisture level is not properly controlled the concrete
strength will reduces and form cracks and also its permeability will increase which can affect the
long-term strength of reinforced concrete structures

Different concrete testing methods and quality control mechanisms can be used in a systematic way to
ensure that appropriate levels of strength and accuracy of concrete is achieved at each stage of
construction. The system of quality control can be made chronologically and using feedback loop system
so that mistakes at each level can be detected and rectified.

Cube test this is used before construction to find the compressive strength of concrete. This
has to be performed 7 days before construction using the cement bought for concreting. This
should be carried according to BS EN 12390-1:2012
Slump test this is used to test the workability and stability of concrete and to ensure uniformity
between different batches of similar concrete. This should be carried out according to BS EN
12350-2:2009
Windsor probe test this is a penetration test used to find the strength of concrete after
construction. This should be carried according to BS 1881-207:1992.

Concrete curing ponding and regular spraying of water are methods of concrete curing which is
used to make sure concrete is cured properly
Return materials
to manufacturer
Fail

Construction
materials received

Increase moisture
level by adding water

Discard cement
batch
Fail

Cube test

Slump test for

every batch

Pass

Fail

Pass

Check moisture
levels in curing
method regularly
Pass

Windsor probe
test

Appropriate level of
strenght of concrete
reached

Pass

Fail

Build extra supporting structure

or destroy current structure and
reconstruct

Figure 2 - System for quality control of cement

3.0. Health and Safety hazards

During the construction process the workers are exposed to many health and safety hazards therefore
there is significant need for a safe work system to identify and to reduce the risk to an acceptable level or
to eliminate it altogether. Below are some of the possible health and safety hazards pertaining to this
construction process and their Risk rating;
Impact

magnitude

Likelihood

magnitude

No injuries

Within the bounds of possibility, but

Negligible injuries

A rare occurrence

Minor injuries

Not very likely

Major injuries

A 50/50 risk

Single fatality

Very likely

Multiple fatalities

Expected

Hazard
Falling objects from above
Collapse of form work and false work
Excavation collapse
Trips and falls
Electric shocks
Injuries from hand tools
Exposure to hazardous chemicals
Exposure to high vibration
Inhalation of dust

Impact
4
4
5
3
5
3
4
1
1

Likelihood
4
4
3
4
2
3
1
3
2

Risk rating
16
16
15
12
10
9
4
3
2
5

Risk assessment is the determination of quantitative or qualitative value of risk related to a concrete
situation and a recognized hazard. A risk assessment
involves identifying the hazards present in any undertaking
Risk rating = Impact x Likelihood of risk
and then evaluating the extent of the risks involved, taking into
account existing precautions
According to ICTAD Conditions of Contract major contracts clause 17.1 and clause 17.2 the contractor is
responsible for any injury or sickness of any person whatsoever arising out of or in the course of the
construction process. The possible hazards, the construction stage likely to occur in and their prevention
methods are listed below;
Hazards
Falling objects
from above
Collapse of
formwork and
falsework

Construction stage
During construction
of superstructure
Likely in all stages
of construction

Prevention methods
Prevented by wearing hard hats and steel toe boots

Excavation
collapse

During excavation
for base

Vehicles and heavy machinery shouldnt be kept near the

excavation. Fix retaining walls during deep excavation.

Trips and falls

Likely in all stages

of construction
Likely in all stages
of construction

Electric shocks
Injuries from
hand tools
Exposure to
hazardous
chemicals (e.g.
Cement and
admixtures)
Exposure to
high vibration
Inhalation of
dust

A competent engineer with adequate training and experience

in designing false work and form work should be appointed.

Can be prevented by labeling trenches, pits or any other

surface that can cause workers and to slip or trip
Avoid using electrical equipment in damp conditions unless
they are specially designed for those conditions. make sure
that the wires of equipment are not damaged
Likely in all stages
Prevented by making sure the worker has enough training to
of construction
use the tool and by making sure the tool is maintained properly
and is in mint condition.
Likely in all stages
If skin contact with these substances is inevitable, suitable
of construction
protective clothing and gloves should be worn. Washing of
hands after work and skin care are essential to prevent
dermatitis. However, solvents should never be used to clean
hands or other body parts
Most likely during
Where possible, low vibration tools should be used. They
excavation for base should also be properly maintained so that they are balanced
and have no loose parts. Wearing anti-vibration gloves can
also reduce the harmful effect of vibration.
By the use of dustproof masks.
Likely in all stages
of construction

It is the responsibility of the contractor to employ a health and safety representative who will look into the
hazards pertaining this construction and implement suitable prevention method. Also according to ICTAD
Conditions of contract major contracts clause 18.3, the contractor is responsible for insuring all
personnel against injury.
By following the ICTAD condition and by implementing suitable prevention methods for each health and
safety hazard it is possible to create a proper safe work system so that the risks can be reduced to a
appropriate level or eliminated altogether.

Reference
http://books.google.lk/books?id=eqbGoz7cAUcC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=input+conversion+process+
output+constraints+mechanisms&source=bl&ots=DvazW1eKxF&sig=ruWCsOU2yEasiRBuCmP247DMr4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GppnVICYHdG0uASh0YHYDA&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=input%20con
version%20process%20output%20constraints%20mechanisms&f=false

http://books.google.lk/books?id=cubDyC7zsPwC&pg=PA363&lpg=PA363&dq=input+conversion+proces
s+output+constraints+mechanisms&source=bl&ots=X3GVmIteDS&sig=B5lGNQE1zocf62nHT3SaKpymn
VI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GppnVICYHdG0uASh0YHYDA&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=input%20con
version%20process%20output%20constraints%20mechanisms&f=false