INDUCTANCE

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The generation of a voltage when an electric conductor cuts across magnetic lines of force is
called electromagnetic induction, and the resulting voltage is called an induced voltage.
EMF induced by a conductor cutting magnetic flux
If a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, or a magnetic flux cuts a conductor, an emf will be
induced in the conductor. The value of the emf induced depends on the rate of cutting the magnetic
flux. If there is a complete circuit the induced emf will cause a current to flow. For a conductor
moving at right angles to the magnetic filed the magnitude of the induced emf will be directly
proportional to the flux density, B teslas, the length of conductor, l meters, and the velocity of the
conductor, v meters/second.
E = Blv

volts

MUTUAL INDUCTION
The generation of a voltage in a secondary winding by a changing current in a primary
winding is called mutual induction.
FARADAYS LAW: The voltage induced in an electric circuit is proportional to the time rate of
change of the flux of magnetic induction linked with the circuit.
eT = N d/dt
where eT is the instantaneous value of the induced voltage between the terminals of the winding in
volts, and d/dt is the rate of change of magnetic flux in webers per second.
Also,

= Fm/Rm = NI/Rm

We may restate Faradays Law: The magnitude of the induced voltage is directly
proportional to the rate of change of current.
LENZS LAW: The polarity of the induced voltage must be such that any current resulting from it
will develop a flux which tends to oppose any change in the original flux.
INDUCTANCE is the property of an electric circuit that opposes any change in current in that
circuit.
The letter symbol for inductance is L.
The henry is the SI unit of inductance
The unit symbol for henry is H.
An electric circuit has an inductance of one henry when a change in current of one ampere produces
a change in total flux linkages of one weber.
L = N d/di
Where L is the inductance of a circuit in henrys, N is the number of turns linked by the magnetic
flux, and d/di is the change in flux for a given change in current in webers per ampere.
Rearranging the equation gives,
eT
N =
d/dt

from which
eL
L=
(di/dt)
where L is the inductance of a circuit in henrys, eL is the voltage induced into the circuit in
volts by current changing at the rate of (di/dt) amperes per second.
An electric circuit has an inductance of one henry when current changing at the rate of one
ampere per second induces a voltage of one volt into that circuit.
FACTORS GOVERNING INDUCTANCE
N2
L=
Rm
l
substituting the reluctance of the magnetic circuit of the inductor. ( Rm = _________ )
A
N2A
L=
l
Where L is the inductance of the inductor in henrys, N is the number of turns in the coil, is the
permeability of the magnetic circuit in henrys per meter, A is the cross-sectional area of the magnetic
circuit in square meters, and l is the length of the magnetic circuit in meters
( length of the coil for air-core coils).
Hence, the inductance of a coil of wire is dependent on the number of turns and the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit on which the coil is wound. A circuit component that is
constructed for the express purpose of displaying the property of inductance is called inductor.

INDUCTORS IN SERIES
If we connect two inductors in series, the same current flows through both, and, both will be
subject to the same rate of change of current.
The total induced voltage in the series circuit is eT = e1 + e2
When there is no mutual coupling between inductors in series, the total inductance is the sum of the
individual inductances.
LT = L1 + L2 +L3 + etc.

INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
If we connect two inductors in parallel, each must have the same potential difference its
terminals.
1

Leq = -------------------------------------------

1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 + etc.

L

a) Air-core
Inductors in series

b) Iron-core Inductors
in Parallel

CAPACITANCE
STATIC ELECTRICITY is the electric charges that are separated by friction between electric
insulating materials. The study of the behavior is called electrostatics.
THE NATURE OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD
Coulombs Law of electrostatic force: The force between two electrically charged bodies is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Q1Q2
F=k
S2
Where F is the force between the two electrically charged bodies in newtons, Q1 and Q2 are the
respective electric charges in coulombs, is the distance between the charged bodies, and k is constant
of proportionality equal to 8.99 x 109.
Electric Field is the space round a charged body where another charged body would have a force
exerted upon it. In similar manner to magnetic fields the shape and distribution of the electric field
can be represented by lines of electric flux, (). One unit of electric flux is produced between a
positive charge of 1 coulomb and a negative charge of 1 coulomb.
An electric lines of force represents the path along which a weightless electrically charged particle
will move from one electrically-charged plate to the other.
The direction of an electric line of force is the direction in which a positively-charged particle will
travel between the two plates.
The letter symbol for electric field intensity is the Greek letter E (capital epsilon)
An electric field intensity of one unit at a certain point if one newton is exerted on an electric charge
of one coulomb located at that point.
E = F/Q
Electric field intensity, E, is the potential drop per meter thickness of insulation If a potential
difference between two conductors d meters apart
E = V/s volts per meter (V/m) (for parallel plates)
Where E is the electric field intensity in Newtons per coulomb or volts per meter, V is the potential
difference between the plates in volts, and s is the spacing between the plates in meters.
The electric flux is the total number of lines of force in an electric field.
The letter symbol for electric flux is the Greek letter (psi).
Electric flux () = charge Q (in coulombs)
Electric flux density, D, is the flux per square meter measured at right angles to the direction of the
electric flux.
D = Q/A = /A coulombs/square meter (C/m2) (for parallel plates)

CAPACITANCE is the property of an electric circuit to oppose any change in voltage.

The letter symbol for capacitance is C.
The farad is the SI unit of capacitance.
The unit symbol for farad is F.
An electric circuit has a capacitance of one farad when a charge of one coulomb is required to
raise the potential difference by one volt.
Therefore, C = Q/V
Where C is the capacitance in farads, Q is the charge in coulombs, and V is the potential difference
in volts.
CAPACITOR is an electric circuit component constructed for the purpose of storing an electric
charge with a potential difference between its terminals. It consists basically of two metal plates,
separated by a layer of insulating material called dielectric. If electrons are taken away from one
plate and added to the other plate, the capacitor is said to possess an electric charge. This method of
producing this charge is to apply a potential difference between the plates.

FACTORS GOVERNING CAPACITANCE

The capacitance of parallel plates is directly proportional to their area.
The capacitance of parallel plates is inversely proportional to their spacing.
The capacitance of parallel plates is dependent on the type of dielectric between the plates.
The capacitance between opposite forces of a unit length and cross section of a dielectric material is
called the permittivity of the dielectric.
The letter symbol for permittivity is the Greek letter (epsilon).
It follows from the definition of permittivity that
C = A/s

(parallel plates)

Where C is the capacitance in farads, is the absolute permittivity in MKS units, A is the area of
each plate in square meters, and s is the spacing between plates in meters.
= r x o
r is the relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) and o is the permittivity of free space
o = 8.84 x 10 12, r is equal to 1 for vacuum or air

CAPACITORS CHARACTERISTICS

WORKING VOLTAGE. The maximum voltage that may be safely applied to a

capacitor is usually expressed in terms of it dc working voltage. A maximum rms ac
voltage may also be specified, and this is usually little more than half the maximum, dc
voltage. These limits should never be exceeded; otherwise, dielectric breakdown may
occur.
CAPACITOR TOLERANCE. This is simply the accuracy with which the capacitance
value is specified. Tolerances of 20% are normal for most small-value capacitors, but
more precise capacitors can be purchased at increased cost. Manufacturers tend to specify
the tolerance as 10% + 150%. This means, for example, that a 100-F capacitor could
have a value as low as 90 F or as high as 250 F.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS. Every capacitor type has an operating temperature range
specified by the manufacturer. Typical ranges are from 20 0C to +65 0C , and 55 0C to
125 0C. Obviously, no capacitors should be employed in an environment where the
temperatures may be beyond its range. The maximum change that can occur is specified
by the manufacturer either in parts per million degree celcius (ppm/0C), or as a
percentage change for the temperature extremes.
LEAKAGE CURRENT. Despite the fact that the dielectric is an insulator, small
leakage current flows between the plates of a capacitor. The actual level of leakage
current depends upon the insulation resistance of the dielectric.
POLARIZATION. Electrolytic capacitors normally have one terminal identified as the
most positive connection. Thus, they are said to be polarized. This usually limits their
application to situations where the polarity of the applied voltage will not change.
CAPACITOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT. An ideal capacitor has a dielectric that has
an infinite resistance, and plates that have zero resistance. However, an ideal capacitor
does not exist, since all dielectrics have some leakage current and all capacitor plates
have some resistance. The complete equivalent circuit for a capacitor shown in figure 1(a)
consist of an ideal capacitor C in series with resistance Rd representing the resistance of
the plates, and in parallel with resistance RL representing the leakage resistance of the
dielectric. Usually, the plate resistance can be completely neglected, and the equivalent
circuit becomes that shown in figure 1(b). With capacitors that have a very high leakage
resistance (e.g., mica and plastic film capacitors), the parallel resistor is frequently
omitted in the equivalent circuit, and the capacitor is then treated as an ideal capacitor.
This can normally not be done with electrolytic capacitors, for example, which have
relatively low leakage resistances. The circuit of figure 1(b) can have a series circuit as
Rd

Rs

(a) Complete equivalent circuit

shown in figure 1(c).

Figure 1. Capacitor equivalent circuits

R
(b) Parallel equivalent circuit

(c) series equivalent circuit

TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Because a capacitors dielectric is largely responsible for determining its most important
characteristics, capacitors are usually identified by the type of dielectric used:
1. AIR CAPACITORS. The capacitance is variable, as in the case with virtually all air
capacitors. There are two sets of metal plates, one sets fixed and one movable. The movable
plates can be adjusted into or out of the spaces between the fixed plates by means of the
rotatable shaft. Thus the area of the plates opposite each other is increased or decreased, and
the capacitive value is altered.
2. PAPER CAPACITORS. In its simplest form, a paper capacitor consist of a layer of paper
between two layers of metal foil. The metal foil and paper is rolled up, external connections
are brought out from the foil layers; and the complete assembly is dipped in wax or plastic. A
variation of this is the metalized paper construction, in which the foils are replaced by thin
films of metal deposited on the surface of the paper. One end of the capacitor sometimes had
a band around it. This does not mean that the device is polarized, but simply identifies the
terminals which connects to the outside metal film, so that when required it can be grounded
to avoid pickup unwanted signals. Paper capacitors are available in values ranging from 500
pF to 50 F, and in dc working voltages up to 600 volts.
3. PLASTIC FILM CAPACITORS. The construction of plastic film capacitors is similar to
that of that of the paper capacitors, except that the paper is replaced by a thin film which is
typically polystyrene or Mylar. This type of the dielectrics gives insulation resistance greater
than 100,000 M. Working voltages are as high as 600 volts. Capacitance tolerances of
+2.5% are typical, as are temperature coefficients of 60-150 ppm / 0C. Plastic film capacitors
are physically smaller but more expensive than paper capacitors. They are typically available
in values ranging from 5 pF to 0.47 F.
4. MICA CAPACITORS. Mica capacitor is consist of layers of mica alternated with layers of
metal foils. Connection are made to the metal foil for capacitor leads, and the entire assembly
in plastic or encapsulated in a molded plastic jacket. Typical capacitance values range from 1
pF to 0.1 F. And voltage ratings as high as 35,000 V are possible.
5. CERAMIC CAPACITORS. Films of metal are deposited on each side of a thin ceramic
disc, and copper wire terminals are connected to the metal. The entire unit is then
encapsulated in a protective coating of plastic. Two different types of ceramic are used, one
of which has extremely high relative permittivity. This gives capacitors which are much
smaller than paper or mica capacitors having the same capacitance value. One disadvantage
of this particular ceramic dielectric is that its leakage resistance is not high as with the other
type. Another type of ceramic is also used, and this gives leakage resistance on the order of
7500 M . Because it has lower permittivity, this type of ceramic produces capacitors that are
relatively large for a given value of capacitance.
6. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS. The most important feature of electrolytic capacitors is
their very large capacitance value in a physically small container. For example, a capacitance
of 5000 F can be obtained in a cylindrical package approximately 5 cm long by 2 cm in
diameter. In this case, the working voltage is only 10 V. The construction of an electrolytic
capacitor is basically the same as that of the paper capacitor. It is very important that
electrolytic capacitors can be connected with the correct polarity. When incorrectly
connected, gas forms within the electrolyte and the capacitor may explode. Non-polarized
electrolytic capacitors can be obtained. They consist essentially of two capacitors in one
package connected back to back, so one of the oxide films is always correctly biased.
7. TANTALUM CAPACITORS. This is essentially another type of electrolytic capacitor.
Powered tantalum is sintered (or baked), typically into a cylindrical shape. The resulting solid
is quite porous, so that when immersed in a container of electrolyte, the electrolyte is
absorbed into it, and then the tantalum than has a large surface area in contact with the
electrolyte. When dc forming voltage is applied, a thin oxide film is formed throughout the
electrolyte-tantalum contact area. The result, again, is a large capacitance value in small
volume.

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
QT = Q1 + Q2
E = V1 = V2
QT
Q1
Q2
____ = ______ + ____
E
V1
V2
and

CT = C 1 + C 2

Therefore,
When we connect capacitors in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of all individual
capacitances.
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + etc.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
E = V1 + V2
Since the currents is the same in all parts of a simple circuit,
QT = Q1 = Q2
E
V1
V2
________ = ____ + ____
QT
Q1
Q2
1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2
Therefore,
The equivalent capacitance of series capacitors is
1
Ceq = _________________________
1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + etc.

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

ENERGY STORED IN CHARGED CAPACITORS

From the equation:
C = Q/E
Therefore,

It
C = -------E

and

Q = It
CE
I = ------t

or

When a capacitor is charged from a constant current source for a time t seconds, the
voltage across it grows linearly from zero to E volts. The constant level of input current
I = CE/t, the average input voltage is E, and the electrical energy is W= Eit.
Therefore, the energy supplied to the capacitive circuit is
W = E x I x t = E x (CE/t) x t
Or energy stored is:
W = CE2

When C is in farads and E is in volts, W is given in joules.

Safety precautions
When a capacitor has been disconnected from the supply it may still be charged, and it may
retain this charge for some considerable time. Precautions must be taken to ensure that the
capacitor is automatically discharged after the supply is switched off. This is done by connecting
a high value resistor across the capacitor terminals. This resistor is usually mounted within the
metal casing of the capacitor.