Topic 5: On the wild side

Describe the structure of chloroplasts in relation to their role in photosynthesis.

Membranes within a chloroplast are arranged in stacks called grana. A granum is made up of stacks of discs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll is
found in the thylakoid. The stacks are in liquid called the stroma. This is where the enzymes of photosynthesis (for the production of glucose are
found.
Chloroplasts have several adaptations which increase the rate of photosynthesis:
- The internal structure of a chloroplast has a large surface area.
- Chloroplasts can move within palisade cells.
- Chlorophyll is arranged within the membranes of the thylakoid for maximum light trapping in photosystems.
- More chloroplasts found in cells nearest to the light..
- Chlorophyll is made up of 5 different pigments enabling maximum absorption of light across the spectrum : Chlorophyll a (blue-green),
chlorophyll b (yellow-green), carotene (orange), xanthophyll (yellow) and phaeophytin (grey)

Describe the overall reaction of photosynthesis

Describe the light-dependent reactions of

Carbon dioxide + Water (light energy + chlorophyll) > Glucose + Oxygen

photosynthesis
6CO2
+ 6H2O (light energy + chlorophyll) > C6H12O6 + O2
Light energy is trapped by exciting electrons in chlorophyll .
The reaction requires energy from light to split apart the strong bonds in
These excited electrons pass through the electron transfer chain,
water molecules, storing the hydrogen in a fuel (glucose) by combining it
releasing energy to generate ATP from ADP and P (via
with carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.
photophosphorylation)
Describe how phosphorylation of ADP requires ener- Electrons are picked up by NADP.
Light energy splits water and the electrons are used to replace
gy and how hydrolysis of ATP provides energy.
missing electrons in chlorophyll and the hydrogen ions to reduce
NADP.
This all happens on the thylakoid membranes.

Topic 6: Infection, Immunity and Forensics

Explain the nature of genetic code

Explain the process of protein synthesis

Triplet code
Each amino acid is coded for by a sequence of 3
bases. For example AAT is leucine.
Non- overlapping
Each triplet is discrete and each base is only used
once in a triplet e.g. TACGTC is read as TAC GTC not
TAC ACG CGT
Degenerate
More than one code can be used for a particular
amino acid. AAC also codes for leucine.

Transcription
DNA strands unzip | One DNA strand is used as a template to form mRNA | from free
nucleotides | there is complementary base pairing | and hydrogen bonding between the
bases of the two strands| the mRNA is built up by RNA-polymerase and the DNA is unzipped
by DNA helicase | DNA has the bases ATGC and mRNA has the bases AUGC.
Translation
A specific amino acid attaches to tRNA | The anticodon on tRNA binds to the codon on
mRNA | two tRNA held in ribosome at any one time | formation of peptide bonds between
adjacent amino acids ! peptidyl transferase is the enzyme which makes these peptide
bonds.

Explain how one gene can give rise

Describe how DNA profiling is used for identification and

to more than one protein

determining genetic relationships between organisms

Genes contain sections that code for amino acids exons - and sections that dont code for amino
acids - introns. These introns are removed through
a process called splicing. The exons join together to
form an mRNA strand in the nucleus. Exons can be
joined in different orders to form different mRNA
strands. This means more that one amino acid sequence and thus more than one protein can be
produced from one gene. After splicing, mRNA
leaves the nucleus.
The end of the 5 prime mRNA are vulnerable to
digestion by enzymes. A guanine nucleotide is added to the end to protect itthis is called capping.
The end of the 3 prime mRNA are vulnerable to
digestion by enzymes. An adenosine nucleotide is
added which can give variations of the RNA

A sample of DNA is taken from the organism and is used to make multiple copies of the
DNA. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to amplify the DNA.

Describe how DNA can be amplified using PCR

A reaction mixture is created - DNA sample, free nucleotides, primers & DNA polymerase.
DNA polymerase is an enzyme that creates a new DNA strand. Primers are short pieces of
DNA that are complimentary to the bases at the start of the fragment you want .
-The DNA mixture is heated to 95OC to break the hydrogen bonds between the strands
- The mixture is cooled to 50OC - 65OC so allow the primers to bind (anneal) to the strands.
- DNA polymerase uses the primers as a starting point to synthesise the complementary
strand of DNA
- The reaction mixture is heated to 72OC so the DNA polymerase can work to synthesise a
new strand.
- 2 new copies are formed in 1 cycle of PCR

Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA fragments of different length.
Separates DNA based on their length. DNA is placed into a slab of gel and covered in a buffer solution that conducts electricity. An electrical current is passed through the gel. DNA fragments are negatively charged so they move towards the positive end. Short DNA move faster and travel
further so the DNA separates according to length.
- The gel is viewed under UV light
- DNA fragments appear as bands under the UV light - this is the DNA profile. Two DNA profiles can be compared - a match can help identify a
person or determine the genetic relationship
Source of DNA sampleblood, saliva, semen.
Small samples of DNA can be amplified by PCR.
Restriction enzymes are used to break DNA.
An electro potential difference is used.
The sample is stained.
The samples shows up as bands and the number of bands that match indicated the similarity of DNA.

Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA fragments of different length.
Comparing the total number of bands.
Comparing the position of bands.
Comparing the size/width of bands.

Topic 6: Infection, Immunity and Forensics

Describe how to determine the time of death of a mammal
By examining...
...the extent of decomposition.
Autolysis: Digestive enzymes breakdown carbohydrates and proteins - affected by
temperature and humidity.
Putrefaction: gas formation, bloating, discolouration of skin, loss of hair & nails.
1. Aerobic bacteria break down soft tissues
2. Anaerobic bacteria in the gut break down cut contents to produce methane and acids
3. Methane is released through ruptures in the skin.
4. Carbon and oxygen intake ceases
5. Decomposed material returned to environment
6. Insect Larvae speed up decomposition
. the stage of succession
Insect Infestation
Body lice leave after 3-6 days | Flies deposit eggs within a day | Maggots hatch within a
day | Pupae form after up to a week | Beetle larvae are found after general
decomposition
1. Colonisers: anaerobic bacteria decompose soft tissue
2. Blowflies: attracted to the smell of the dead body. They lay eggs, maggots hatch,
maggots pupate and turn into flies.
3. Beetles: Lay eggs, larvae eat the maggots.
4. Parasitic wasps lay eggs in the beetle larvae
5. Cheese flies and coffin flies move in when the body dries out
6. Mites and moth larvae move in to feed on hair until only bones are left
Factors affecting decay: Temperature and level of exposure
forensic entomology
The life cycle of a blow fly can indicate time of death
1. Eggs hatch within 1 day
2. 1st instar - moults after 1 day
3. 2nd instar - moults after 1 day
4. 3rd instar - moults after 2 days
5. Pupa - present for up to 14 days
6. Adult fly - lays eggs after 2 days
...body temperature
Core body temperature falls after death. If it is discovered within 24 hours (before
reaching environmental temperatures) Glaisters equation can determine the time of
death.
Hours after death = 37(measured rectal temperature) x 1.2
Factors that affect cooling rate: body fat, clothing, body size and environment.
...degree of muscle contraction
Rigor mortis: stiffening of the musclesmuscles are relaxed for 3 hours after death, 3-36
hours the muscles become rigid, >36 hours they relax again due to enzyme release.
Factors affecting rigor mortis: amount of ATP stored, genetics/fitness, level of activity prior
to death, temperature.
...other factors
Livor Mortis: Bodily fluids settle on the downward facing part of the bodythis leaves
bruising patterns. This starts immediately and is noticeable after 2-4 hours.
Ocular changes: corneal film around 4 hours after death, cloudiness between 12-24 hours.
Stomach contents: The degree to which stomach contents are digested can help
determine the time of death or reveal drugs / poison. Light meal = 1-2 hours until empty |
Medium meal = 3-4 hours until empty | Large meal = 4-6 hours until empty

Describe the role of microorganisms in the decomposition of

organic matter and the recycling of
carbon.
.