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ANTICIPATION: A CONTROVERSIAL INTERPRETING STRATEGY

Magdalena Bartomiejczyk
Institute of English, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland
Abstract: This paper examines a well-known phenomenon which has always aroused not
only extensive scholarly interest, but also numerous controversies. Firstly, we discuss how
anticipation has been understood and defined by various researchers. Secondly, we present
diverse research methods used to investigate anticipation and examples of studies employing these methods. Finally, we focus on our own research project aimed at identifying
strategies used by simultaneous interpreters working from English into Polish and from
Polish into English. The project involved both product-oriented and process-oriented
methods in order to gain insight into two types of anticipation. The questions raised in this
part of the paper include the frequency of anticipation in the language combinations under
investigation, its effectiveness as well as the influence that may be exerted by directionality.
1. Introduction
Strategic processing is a crucial aspect of simultaneous interpreting. Its prominent role is reflected in
the fact that for many years interpreting strategies have been among the most important topics for
conference interpreting research. Between 1990 and 2001, at least 56 articles, theses and books dealing with interpreting explicitly referred to interpreting strategies in their titles (Gile, 2003: 15).
Among numerous strategies of simultaneous interpreting known to us, anticipation is the one which
has, until now, attracted the most attention and by far overshadowed all the other strategies (such as
approximation, compression or transcodage) as a subject of scientific interest. This interest goes back
at least to the 1970s (e.g. Kirchhoff, 1976; Wills, 1978), it continued during the last two decades of
the 20th century (e.g. Adamowicz, 1989; Chernov, 1994; Jrg, 1997; Van Besien, 1999) and has not
diminished until today. On the contrary, new articles and books exploring anticipation have been
published very recently (e.g. Kurz and Frber, 2003; Chernov 2004).
Anticipation has proven to be a very controversial phenomenon. In spite of the widespread and undying scholarly interest it has enjoyed, there is no general agreement among researchers on its definition and on the best methods of investigating it empirically. It is even not clear whether anticipation
should actually be treated as an interpreting strategy. These controversies will be discussed in the
first part of this article.
The second part of the article presents the authors own research project dealing with interpreting
strategies used when interpreting from English into Polish and from Polish into English (described in
more detail in Bartomiejczyk, 2004), and in particular the results referring to the strategy discussed
here. As regards anticipation, the main questions underlying the project were: 1) How frequent is
anticipation in the particular interpreting directions under investigation? 2) Does its frequency vary
according to the interpreting direction? 3) How successful is anticipation?
2. Theoretical basis
Anticipation was defined in considerably different ways by various researchers. Basically, there are
three main approaches. In the narrowest sense, anticipation is understood to occur when the target
language counterpart of a source language segment is produced before the source language segment
is uttered (e.g. Kirchhoff, 1976; Wills, 1978; Jrg, 1997; Kalina, 1998). Sometimes, however, this
reversed temporal sequence of the equivalent source language and target language segments is not
seen as a necessary condition to state that anticipation has occurred. It is enough that in a given case

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the interpreter foresaw what would come next and made use of this prediction in planning the target
language sentence. This is the view represented by Lederer:
Anticipation can take different forms: either the interpreter actually says a word (the verb
for instance) before the speaker has uttered the corresponding word, or, more commonly, he
puts in a word at the correct place in his French sentence which, if compared in time, is uttered after the original, but so soon afterwards and at so correct a place in his own language
that there is no doubt the interpreter summoned it before hearing the original. (1978/2002:
138-139)

In the broadest sense, anticipation is seen as a general ability to predict a plausible continuation of
the source language speech (e.g. Gile, 1995; Chernov, 1994 and 2004), which is a crucial mechanism
of simultaneous interpreting functioning on the basis of omnipresent redundancy in human discourse
as well as on the basis of the interpreters preparation for a specific event by means of studying conference documentation, gaining more knowledge about the subject area etc. It is disputable whether
anticipation described in this way can be treated as strategic behaviour, as this depends on how we
define an interpreting strategy (i.e. as always problem-oriented or not necessarily so).
It is also important to add that no matter how they defined anticipation, researchers generally distinguished between anticipation based on the interpreters linguistic knowledge and on his or her
situational and world knowledge (e.g. Lederer, 1978/2002; Wills, 1978).
As we see it, all the three definitions discussed above can be accepted as correct if they are seen as
describing different types of anticipation. Therefore, the first and the second definition (which bear
close similarity to each other) refer to what we call problem-oriented anticipation, whose use is directed at a specific problem the interpreter faces at some point in his or her work: there is too much
material to store in the short-term memory while waiting for a crucial element of the incoming
source text sentence, e.g. a verb which must be placed directly after the subject in the target language
while in the source language it drags at the very end of a long sentence. The main problem connected
with the last part of the second definition is merely a practical one, concerning the question of how to
determine the maximum ear-voice span we can accept as still indicating anticipation. The third definition, in turn, refers to what we call general anticipation, i.e. a phenomenon which also occurs in
monolingual text comprehension (e.g. Scovel, 1998) and consists in building up expectations about
the source language text, which facilitates understanding. It seems that both problem-oriented anticipation and general anticipation can result from the interpreters world knowledge or linguistic
knowledge or a mixture of the two.
3. Background research
Certainly, the concept of anticipation that a researcher favours plays a crucial role in shaping his or
her research project. It is above all anticipation in the narrowest sense of the word (i.e. understood in
accordance with the first definition) that has served as a promising object of experimental or observational research carried out by means of product-oriented methods. A two-track recording of the
original speech and the interpretation suffices to determine if certain target language segments precede their source language counterparts.
The most popular source language for experiments and observations connected with this clear-cut
type of anticipation is undoubtedly German. The reasons for this, obvious to any interpreter working
from German into an SVO language, were outlined in detail by Wills (1978). This group of research
projects includes Jrg (1997) and Kurz and Frber (2003).
Jrg (1997) aimed at discovering how often verb anticipation occurred in interpreting from German
into English. Furthermore, he hoped to determine the differences in this aspect between student and
professional interpreters as well as interpreters whose mother tongue was German and whose mother

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119

tongue was English. The subjects were six advanced interpreting students, half of them with English
as A and German as B and the other half with English as B and German as A, and six professional
interpreters with language combinations corresponding to these of the students. The source text contained a number of sentences and clauses with the verb preceded by a large portion of complex linguistic material, where anticipation was likely to occur. On the whole, the subjects attempted anticipation in 52% of the analysed cases. Only 2% of the cases accounted for unsuccessful anticipations,
whereas exactly 50% were successful anticipations (20% more general and 30% exact). As could be
expected, the anticipation performance was better among professionals. Moreover, the results indicated that interpreters who had German as their mother tongue were better at anticipating than their
English-dominant colleagues. There was only one instance of incorrect anticipation in this group,
and, among the cases of successful anticipation, there was a considerably better score in exact anticipations. This study reveals that verb anticipation is indeed a fairly common phenomenon in interpreting from German into English and that it works well (a low number of misfires).
Kurz and Frber (2003) also compare the performance of interpreters working from B into A with
those working from A into B. Fourteen interpreting students, half of them being native speakers of
English and the other half native speakers of German, were confronted with an authentic speech in
German containing several long sentences that should trigger anticipation. The results of this study
suggest that students do better when working from their native language. Native speakers of German
not only used anticipation slightly more frequently, but, what is more important, achieved better anticipation scores than native speakers of English. They achieved exact anticipations more often and
there was not a single instance of an incorrect anticipation in this group, while several incorrect anticipations were found in interpretations of students having German as their B language. Anticipation
scores had a negative correlation with the number of communicative inaccuracies and a positive correlation with completeness scores, which suggests that the use of this strategy has a positive influence on interpreting quality. Both the correlations were higher for native speakers of German than
for native speakers of English. Apart from issues connected with directionality, another interesting
finding of this study is that the only anticipated sentence constituents were verbs.
Anticipation has also been investigated in other language combinations. For example, Al-Salman and
Al-Khanji (2002) compare the quality of interpretations from English into Arabic and from Arabic
into English by investigating which strategies were used to produce the interpretations. The observational data from ten professional interpreters were collected during authentic interpreting sessions
which involved work in both directions. For each subject, one hour of material (half an hour of interpreting from Arabic into English and another half an hour for interpreting in the opposite direction)
was chosen for analysis. Anticipation, which the authors describe as an achievement strategy (i.e.
tending to produce good results), is considered to be the second most effective strategy after skipping
(omission of redundant elements). The frequency of anticipation proved high for interpreting from
English and low for interpreting from Arabic (a given strategy was treated as having high frequency
when more than ten instances of it were found in the interpretation by each subject, and low frequency when there were less than five instances in each interpretation). When interpreting from
English into Arabic, the subjects were able to successfully anticipate first of all culture-specific expressions, but also expressions that frequently occur together in speech (2002: 618).
Research projects based on the second definition of anticipation are definitely not as abundant as
those based on the first definition, probably for practical reasons (difficulty in determining what still
counts as anticipation and what does not). Van Besien (1999), however, agrees to a large extent with
this understanding of anticipation. He distinguishes between pure anticipation, identical with the
concept of the first definition, and freewheeling anticipation, with which we deal when at the
moment that the interpreter has decided on the meaning of the speakers utterance, s/he listens to the
speaker merely as a control, and the translation occurs within a very short delay (1999: 251). Moreover, he introduces another category of anticipation: structural anticipation, which consists in prod-

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ucing a structure that enables the interpreter to postpone the moment of producing the semantically
relevant element whose meaning is not clear yet. This is done either by organising the segments in
the interpretation in a different way than in the source text (for instance by rendering the direct object
instead of the subject at the beginning of the sentence) or by adding a phrase which has no counterpart in the source text.
Van Besien analyses a corpus consisting of French interpretations of an authentic spontaneous discussion in German by an international finance group. Two professional interpreters worked in turns
during the meeting (55 minutes long), and afterwards each of them was asked to interpret the recording of these parts which had previously been interpreted by the other interpreter. Van Besien
found 78 anticipations of all the types in the whole corpus, which makes for one anticipation every
85 seconds on average. The difference in the number of anticipations produced by each interpreter is
not statistically significant, which leads Van Besien to the conclusion that
anticipation should be considered as a general strategy used by interpreters, and not as a
characteristic of individual interpreting style (1999: 253).

The anticipated elements were first of all verbs (60 cases). The analysis of the anticipations according to their type shows that 61 were pure anticipations. Additionally, the author found 8 cases of
freewheeling anticipation and 6 cases of structural anticipation. As far as the exactness of the anticipations is taken into consideration, Van Besien divides them into correct translations (49) and approximations (29). The class of approximations, however, seems rather fuzzy, as some of the approximations quoted as examples are far enough from the original version to be considered misfires.
Accepting the third definition of anticipation gives the researcher a lot of possibilities as to choosing
a product-oriented method, such as measuring ear-voice span or examining interpretations of source
language sentences with misleading prompts, or a process-oriented method, such as retrospection.
Adamowicz (1989) assumes that the ear-voice span (time lag) can be taken as the best reflection of
anticipation; the more the interpreter relies on anticipation, the shorter the ear-voice span. She measures the ear-voice span in terms of grammatical structure rather than time, therefore, it can be classified as equal to a single noun or verb phrase, exceeding a single phrase, or equal to at least a single
clause. Adamowiczs experiment was designed to investigate how the type of the source text influences the anticipatory processes. Ten interpreting students with Polish as their A language and English as their B language were asked to interpret simultaneously four authentic texts, two from Polish
into English and two from English into Polish. In each interpreting direction, one speech belonged to
the category of prepared and structured texts (an opening address) and the other speech belonged the
category of spontaneous texts (a text delivered at a press conference). The time lag was determined
for each clause of the source text. The analysis shows that the average time lag when the subjects
interpreted the prepared text was considerably shorter than when they interpreted the spontaneous
utterance. In the former case, the prevalent lag was one phrase, whereas in the latter case a clause
or more than a clause. The author concludes that text type clearly affects the processing of texts in
simultaneous interpreting, as the interpreter is able to anticipate the meaning expressed by the
speaker more easily when he or she identifies the source text as belonging to a highly structured
category.
An experimental study using the second of the above mentioned methods is reported by Chernov
(2004). Eleven professional interpreters were faced with the task of interpreting from English into
Russian and the other way round source texts in which some of the sentences were heading, as it
would seem, towards an obvious end (at the verbal level of word combinations). In most cases, interpreters followed these false clues instead of rendering the sentence which developed in an unex-

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pected way correctly. This tendency was especially pronounced for interpreters working from their
mother tongue. Consequently, the results confirmed the hypothesis that
in the process of listening to the original speech, the interpreter makes assumptions about
how the speakers intention is likely to develop or be completed semantically and verbally
(Chernov, 2004: 185).

A small-scale study employing retrospective verbal protocols is reported by Kohn and Kalina (1996)
and Kalina (1998). During an authentic conference, in a longer break between two turns, an interpreter prompted by listening to the recording of the original speech (English) and her interpretation (into
German) provided information on her thoughts while doing the interpretation. In both the publications, the transcript of a short speech fragment (eight sentences) and its target language version is
followed by comments explaining the interpreters strategies prepared on the basis of the interpreters verbalisations. There are altogether nineteen comments, and the identified strategies include anticipation. Therefore, this pilot study shows that it is possible to investigate interpreting strategies,
including anticipation, by means of retrospection, as after the interpreting task the interpreter still
remembers a lot of his or her thought processes that occurred during interpreting.
4. Interpreter training
Anticipation has also often been regarded from the point of view of interpreter training, i.e. as a strategy prospective interpreters have to acquire. Consequently, researchers and interpreter trainers have
been trying to invent special exercises meant to teach the students how to make use of anticipation.
Among others, Van Dam (1989) developed a number of anticipation exercises. The first of these
exercises, anticipating the speaker, involves confronting students with a speech which is not introduced to them in the usual way (i.e. by giving information about the speaker, time and venue of the
conference as well as the subject matter, to which the interpreter has access in normal conditions).
The cassette is stopped during interpreting and students are asked to guess what may be said next.
The possibilities are discussed before the source text is played on. A similar exercise, described in
great detail on the basis of a specific speech used as the source text, is advocated by Viaggio (1996).
Van Dams structural anticipation exercises, which consist of several stages, are aimed at making
students aware of language-specific patterns of the source language so that they are able to anticipate
potential structural traps and use possibly many open-ended sentences in the target language (i.e.
sentences which can be finished in many different ways). The detailed description reveals that, in
fact, these exercises teach students not only anticipation, but also chunking/segmentation and storing
material in short-term memory.
Kalina (1992) proposes a number of unilingual anticipation tasks whose aim is to make students
aware of the interaction of bottom-up and top-down processes in discourse processing (1992:
255). Bottom-up processing, for example, can be activated by means of cloze exercises, where
students have to complete missing elements in typical collocations while they shadow a text. Topdown processing, in turn, comes into play when students are asked to read aloud or shadow a text
and fill in semantic gaps present in this text. It might be argued, however, that these exercises teach
inference rather than anticipation (as some of the context after the gap is also available to the student).
5. Own research project
5.1 Method and material
36 Advanced interpreting students having Polish as their A language and English as their B language
were confronted with the task of interpreting two parallel texts: one in Polish to be interpreted into
English and one in English to be interpreted into Polish. To avoid random findings resulting from
idiosyncrasies of one text or one speaker, we used three sets of source texts, each of the sets devoted

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to a different topic: a political speech celebrating the independence day, a conference opening and a
polemical speech on legal aspects of drug use. Especially the first set contained source texts with a
very large anticipatory potential, as an independence day speech delivered by the president of the
country normally includes references to the historic events whose anniversary is being celebrated, to
the current political situation etc. and is, therefore, quite predictable. Also the conference openings in
the second set (the topic of both the conferences were minority rights) possessed a considerable anticipatory potential as they contained all the typical elements like explaining the aim and the importance of the event as well as wishing the delegates fruitful discussions.
Each session began with a short briefing, during which the subjects were informed about the experiment and the texts which they were to interpret. The information on each source text included the
identity of the original speaker, time, venue and, whenever applicable, title of the original event
and/or the general topic of the speech.
The source text and the interpretation by each subject were recorded on two tracks of the same cassette. Directly after the subjects had finished interpreting the first text, they were asked to listen to
the recording and try to recall their thought processes that led to particular decisions. Whenever they
remembered something, they were to stop the cassette and record a retrospective comment on another cassette. After they had finished it, the whole procedure was repeated for the other interpreting
direction.
5.2 Results
The experimental procedure as described above rendered a corpus of 72 interpretations (each of them
having the length ranging from approximately 5 min 30 s for the texts belonging to the third set to
approximately 9 min 20 s for the texts belonging to the first set) accompanied by 1071 retrospective
remarks, which were later encoded into 1475 segments referring to single processes. 46.31% of the
segments referred to strategic processing and this group enabled us to detect 21 types of interpreting
strategies the subjects had reported. As other interpreting strategies lie outside the scope of this article, we will now focus on anticipation.
Our aim was to investigate both the types of anticipation described in section 2, i.e. problem-oriented
as well as general anticipation, the former by identifying target text fragments temporally preceding
their source text counterparts and the latter by analysing the retrospective protocols we have obtained
in order to find segments referring to the interpreters predictions about the source text.
We started by listening carefully to each two-track recording with the intention of finding points at
which some information had been expressed earlier in the target text than in the original and transcribing these fragments in parallel lines so as to reflect the temporal relation between both the tracks.
However, we have not been able to detect in this way even a single case of clear-cut problemoriented anticipation in any of 72 interpretations. At some points the ear-voice span was unusually
short, which suggests occasional occurrences of what Van Besien (1999) calls freewheeling anticipation, but we decided not to treat these as definite indicators of anticipation for the reason explained earlier, i.e. the difficulty in determining the maximal time lag for anticipation.
Analysis of retrospective protocols, on the other hand, revealed 37 cases of general anticipation. As
to its frequency, anticipation took the seventh position among 21 detected interpreting strategies (after approximation, compression, transfer, inferencing, visualisation and repair). It accounted for
5.42% of all the detected strategies and was reported by 16 subjects.
Results for each interpreting direction vary considerably. For interpreting from Polish into English,
the subjects reported 16 cases of anticipation, which accounted for 4.16% of all the detected strategies in this interpreting direction. For interpreting from English into Polish, the subjects reported 21

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cases of anticipation, which accounted for 7.05% of all the detected strategies in this interpreting
direction. We also determined, for every subject in each direction separately, the proportion of the
occurrences of anticipation to the total number of occurrences of strategies. We assumed the proportion in one direction to be markedly higher when anticipation was used at least 50% more often in
this direction than in the other. In this way, we found out that for interpreting from Polish into English anticipation dominates over the other interpreting direction for 6 subjects, while for interpreting
from English into Polish it dominates over the other interpreting direction for 10 subjects.

Unclear

show their true colours, the first

association was 9/11, which Bush said
after a moment.
When I heard 50% chance, I thought
and I even was about to say that they
have a 50% chance to overcome the
addiction. And later it turned out, of
course, that it was a 50% chance to
survive till their 30th birthday.
I was trying to predict, guess what
would come next in this sentence.

Proportion to the
total number of
occurrences of
anticipation

Incorrect

When Bush started saying that by

killing innocent Americans terrorists let

Detected
occurrences

Correct

Example

Classification

In order to measure the success rate of anticipation, the relevant fragments of retrospective protocols
were divided into three groups: the first group referring to predictions which were correct, the second
group referring to predictions which were incorrect, and the third group referring to such predictions
that were impossible to classify as either correct or incorrect. The results as well as examples of protocol fragments belonging to each category (translated from Polish into English; quotations from the
source text are italicised) are shown in Table 1.

19

51.4%

21.6%

10

27%

Table 1: Success rate of anticipation in both interpreting directions jointly

The first example in Table 1 obviously comes from a retrospective protocol related to an interpretation of George W. Bushs independence day speech. The student correctly anticipated the reference
to the terrorist attack of 11th September 2001, which indeed was quite predictable. The second example refers to the Polish speech on decriminalisation of drug use, and in the fragment in question the
speaker claimed that only 50% children who get addicted to drugs before they are eighteen survive to
be thirty. The interpreter made an incorrect prediction, which, however, did not manifest itself in the
target text otherwise than with a slight hesitation, as the interpreter did not rush to produce a target
text fragment on the basis of what he had predicted, but monitored the source text to see how the
sentence would develop. The third example is a typical one. The interpreter reports that she was endeavouring to anticipate the incoming message, but does not inform us whether the prediction was
correct or not.
Finally, we made a comparison of the success rate correlated with the interpreting direction. The results are presented in Table 2.

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MAGDALENA BARTOMIEJCZYK
Interpreting Number/percentage of Number/percentage of
direction
correct anticipations
incorrect anticipations
11
3
Polish
English
68.75%
18.75%
English
Polish

Number/percentage of
unclear anticipations
2
12.5%
8

38.1%
23.8%
38.1%
Table 2: Success rate of anticipation in each interpreting direction separately

Table 2 shows that although anticipation was reported more often for interpreting from English, the
success rate was much higher for interpreting from the interpreters mother tongue, Polish. On the
other hand, the proportion of incorrect predictions for both the interpreting directions does not differ
drastically. The interpreters simply reported many more unclear cases for interpreting from English
into Polish.
6. Conclusions
Some of the results we have obtained are quite surprising in the light of earlier research on anticipation discussed in section 3. However, it must be remembered that a great majority of this research
was carried out on different language combinations and also using different methods than in our project.
Firstly, although we did not expect to find as many instances of problem-oriented anticipation as had
been detected for interpreting between languages that differ syntactically so that the most important
elements in the sentence come in a different order, we envisaged finding at least a few cases, especially in interpretations of the first set of source texts containing highly conventional independence
day speeches. The fact that not a single case was found in over 8 h 30 min of recorded material indicates that guessing the meaning before it has been expressed by the original speaker is too risky to be
undertaken lightly and trainee interpreters prefer not to do it unless they are forced to anticipate by
structural differences between the source language and the target language (the same conclusion, in
fact, might be inferred from Kurz and Frber (2003), who did not detect a single case of anticipation
of elements other than verbs). Our results, however, do not necessarily indicate that clear-cut problem-oriented anticipation never occurs in interpreting between Polish and English. After finishing her
research project, the author has paid special attention to this aspect of interpreting performance and
she has managed to observe some cases of such anticipation in her own as well as her boothmates
output, which, however, have typically occurred in the middle or at the end of the conference rather
than at the beginning.
As for our analysis of retrospective verbal protocols, it suggests that in the language pair we investtigated general anticipation is much more frequent than problem-oriented one. It does not belong to
the most frequently reported strategies, but nevertheless it proved to be popular.
The success rate evaluation of the relevant protocol fragments suggests that anticipation is an
achievement strategy, as the cases when its use led to positive results (a correct prediction) were
much more numerous than the cases when it led to negative results (an incorrect prediction). We
must also remember that an incorrect prediction does not have to result in a sense error, because, if
the interpreter devotes enough attention to the incoming message, the prediction can be verified.
Consequently, in many cases the interpreter manages to produce a correct interpretation in spite of
having made an incorrect prediction.
The results concerning directionality are to some extent unexpected, too. Earlier research (Chernov,
2004; Kurz and Frber, 2003) suggested that anticipation would be more frequent for interpreting
from ones mother tongue into a foreign language. Our research, on the other hand, indicates an op-

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posite tendency. It is therefore possible that general anticipation, which, on the basis of the relevant
protocol fragments, seems to depend to a greater extent on the interpreters extralinguistic than linguistic knowledge, is employed preventively as a means of making up for comprehension deficits.
Predicting that they may have trouble understanding the incoming message (expressed in a foreign
language), interretrs are trying to foresee it. They do not resort to this strategy as frequently when
working from their mother tongue, as they feel much more confident in the comprehension part of
the task. This role of anticipation has not been described before, but, in the light of our results, it
seems probable. However, as retrospective verbal protocols fail to detect the use of highly automated
strategies, the disproportion between both the interpreting directions could also be explained by
claiming that for interpreting from ones native tongue anticipation is simply more automated.
Unlike our expectations concerning the frequency of anticipation in each interpreting direction, the
results of the studies suggesting that interpreters working from their mother tongue are more successful in anticipating (Jrg,1997;Kurz and Frber,2003) were confirmed by our analysis of the success
rate correlated with the interpreting direction.
On the whole, it is our hope that this article does justice to the complexity of the issue of anticipation
in simultaneous interpreting. It is clear to us that the discussion about this phenomenon in the interpreting research community will most probably continue. More empirical contributions are needed,
especially considering the fact that general anticipation definitely has not been researched thoroughly
yet, and even problem-oriented anticipation, which has become the topic of relatively many studies
and which seems to be highly dependent on the working languages in question, still lacks research
related to many popular language combinations.
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