Bridge Over Electrified Waters:

How Electricity Changes pH

Abstract
You have probably heard the saying that "water and electricity don't mix." Well, in this
chemistry science fair project you will mix them, to create two solutions, one basic and
one acidic. The apparatus is very simple, but the chemistry is complex and offers many
avenues for exploration.

Objective
The objective of this chemistry science fair project is to measure the change in pH of
two salt solutions, connected by a salt bridge, as a current is passed through them.

Introduction
The processes involved in the making of a breaking of chemical bonds all come down to
the movement of electrons. When the electrons move from one molecule to another, the
processes involved are called oxidation/reduction (redox) reactions. In this science
fair project, the chemical reactions are driven by an external applied voltage: a battery is
connected to a salt solution, and the voltage from the battery causes chemical reactions
in the salt water. Reactions that are caused by the flow of electrons from a battery are
called electrochemical reactions. Electrochemistry deals with situations where
oxidation and reduction reactions are separated, so that the electrons flow between the
redox reactions as a current. In the process, water molecules are split, creating
hydrogen and oxygen gas. One of the goals of the clean energy movement is to find
ways split water molecules more efficiently, so that the hydrogen gas produced can be
used as a fuel.

Water molecules are made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, H2O.
The hydrogen atoms are covalently bound to the oxygen atom. But the hydrogen
atoms are not so tightly attached that they can't occasionally drift apart from the oxyen
atom. When this happens, it creates two ions, or charged particles, which can cause a
change in the pH of the solution. You will measure the change in pH of two salt
solutions, connected by a salt bridge, as a current is passed through them.
The following equation represents a water molecule dissociating, into a hydrogen ion
and a hydroxide ion.
Equation 1:
H2O H+ + OH-

H2O = water

H+ = hydrogen ion

OH- = hydroxide ion

Note that the number of atoms is conservedthere are two hydrogens and one oxygen
on both sides of the equation. Also note that the net charge is also conservedthe
neutral water molecule gives rise to one positive and one negative charge, which add
up to zero charge. In pure water at room temperature, the rate of dissociation is low.
One water molecule in 10 million is split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions. One in 10
million is represented in scientific notation as 1.0 X10 -7. As you will see later, this
corresponds to a pH of 7.0.
Acids are solutions that have a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than hydroxide
ions. For example, when hydrochloric acid is added to water, it gives rise to hydrogen
ions:
Equation 2:
HCl H+ + Cl-

HCl = hydrochloric acid

H+ = hydrogen ion

Cl- = chloride ion

The hydrochloric acid molecule dissociates into a hydrogen ion and a chloride ion.
There are more hydrogen ions in the hydrochloric acid solution than there are hydroxide
ions, so the solution is acidic.
Bases are solutions that have a higher concentration of hydroxide ions than hydrogen
ions. For example, when sodium hydroxide is added to water, it gives rise to hydroxide
ions:
Equation 3:
NaOH Na+ + OH-

NaOH = sodium hydroxide

Na+ = sodium ion

OH- = hydroxide ion

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from
0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.

Figure 1. The pH scale. (Wikipedia, 2009.)

The pH scale is logarithmic. Each whole number value of pH below 7 is 10 times more
acidic than the next higher value. For example, a solution with a pH of 4.0 is 10 times
more acidic than a solution with a pH of 5.0. A solution with a pH of 3.0 is 1,000 times
more acidic than a solution with a pH of 6.0. The same holds true for pH values above
7, each of which is 10 times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next
lower whole value. For example, pH 9.0 is 10 times more alkaline than pH 8.0 and 100
times (10 times 10) more alkaline than pH 7.0.
In addition to adding an acid or a base to water, the pH can be changed by
electrolysis. In this chemistry science fair project, you will use a 9-volt (V) battery to
cause the electrolysis of water. You will track the changes in the pH values over time.
Water can be decomposed by passing an electric current through it. At the negative
electrode, electrons from a battery are added to the water molecules. The negative
terminal of the battery is also called the cathode (cathodes attract cations). Adding an
electron results in a reduction reaction. The reduction reaction that takes place at the
cathode produces hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions.

This is the equation for the reduction of water at the cathode (negative):
Equation 4:
2H2O + 2 e- H2 (gas) + 2OHThis says that the two water molecules react with two electrons supplied by the negative
pole of the battery (the cathode) to produce hydrogen gas and 2 hydroxide ions. This
solution will be basic because of the hydroxide ions.
At the other electrode, attached to the positive terminal of the battery, electrons are
removed from the solution by the electrode. This completes the circuit so current can
flow. At this electrode, called the anode (anodes attract anions), water is oxidized to
produce oxygen gas and hydrogen ions.
The equation for the oxidation of water at the anode (positive) is:
Equation 5:
H2O 1/2 O2 (gas) + 2H+ + 2eThis equation indicates that water reacts at the anode to form oxygen gas, hydrogen
ions, and electrons.
To summarize, at the cathode (negative terminal), electrons pass into the solution and
cause a reduction reaction. At the anode (positive terminal), electrons leave the
solution, completing the circuit and causing an oxidation reaction.
The oxidation reaction cannot occur without the reduction reaction, so these two
reactions are coupled and occur at the same time. If the equations are added together,
similar terms cancel out and the sum yields the net overall reaction:
Equation 6:
3 H2O + 2 e- H2 (gas) + 2OH- + 1/2 O2 (gas) + 2H+ + 2e-

Equation 6 is formed by adding Equations 4 and 5.

First, cancel out the electrons:
Equation 7:
3 H2O H2 (gas) + 2OH- + 1/2 O2 (gas) + 2H+
Then combine the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to form water:
Equation 8:
3 H2O H2 (gas) + 2H2O- + 1/2 O2 (gas)
Then arrange the water molecules on either side of the equation:
Equation 9:
H2O H2 (gas) + 1/2 O2
Which is equivalent to Equation 10, if the 1/2 O2 (gas) term looks untidy:
Equation 10:
2 H2O 2 H2 (gas) + O2
In order to carry out electrolysis, a current has to flow from the anode to the cathode. In
other words, the solution has to conduct electricity. Since pure water is a poor
conductor, the reaction can be facilitated by adding a salt that readily forms ions in
solution. The salt functions as an electrolyte, allowing current to flow through the
solution. Table salt (sodium chloride) will work, but it has the drawback that the chloride
ions react with the electrode. Magnesium sulfate, is a good choice for the electrolyte
because it dissolves readily in water and the ions it forms (positive magnesium ions and
negative sulfate ions) do not react with the electrodes.

In order to close the circuit but keep the hydrogen ions and the hydroxide ions
separated, the electrodes will be immersed in two solutions that are in separate
containers and connected with a salt bridge. The salt bridge allows ions to flow (current
to pass), but keeps the solutions from mixing. In this case, the salt bridge is a piece of
paper towel immersed in both of the solutions.
The current flowing through the circuit made by the salt bridge can be measured using a
multimeter. See the Science Buddies page, Electronics Primer: Using a Multimeter for
more information. The value of the current measures the amount of charge passing
through a point in the circuit over a given time period. To approximate the total charge
that has passed through the circuit, you can multiply the average current by the amount
of time elapsed. That is, the charge, Q, that has passed through the solutions over a
given time period, T, equals the time multiplied by the average current, I.
Equation 11:
Q = IT

Q = charge

I = current

T = time

In order to track the changes in pH as the reaction proceeds, you will use an
inexpensive pH pen meter. As an option, you can use pH paper, and also add pHsensitive dyes to the solutions to watch the pH changes visually.

Terms and Concepts

Oxidation/reduction reactions

Electrochemical reaction

Electrochemistry

Current

Hydrogen atom

Oxygen atom

Ion

Dissociation

Acid

Hydrogen ion

Hydroxide ion

Hydrochloric acid

Base

Sodium hydroxide

pH scale

Logarithm

Electrolysis

Decomposition

Cathode

Reduction rate

Anode

Oxidation

Conductor

Electrolyte

Magnesium sulfate

Salt bridge

Questions

What gas will form if you use sodium chloride instead of magnesium sulfate as an
electrolyte?

What is the ratio of the volume of hydrogen gas to the volume of oxygen gas formed in
the electrolysis of water? Hint: See Equation 9 or 10 in the Introduction.

How does the pH of the solution near the positive terminal (anode) of the battery change
as electrolysis proceeds?

What happens to a chemical when it is oxidized?

Bibliography

American Chemical Society. (1999). Electrolysis of Water. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from
http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCEsoft/CCA/CCA3/MAIN/ELECH20/PAGE1.HTM

Wikipedia Contributors. (2009). Electrolysis of Water. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.

Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Electrolysis_of_water&oldid=283791829

CR Scientific. (n.d.). Electrolysis experiments. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from

http://www.crscientific.com/electrolysis.html

The Department of Chemistry at the University of Illinois. (n.d.). Electrolysis of water

using an electrical current. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from
http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/clcwebsite/elec.html

Arizona Energy. (2008). Electrolysis: Obtaining hydrogen from water: The Basis for a
Solar-Hydrogen Economy. Retrieved April 15, 2009, from
http://www.arizonaenergy.org/AltEnergyClub/Electrolysis%20Obtaining%20hydrogen
%20from%20water.htm

Materials and Equipment

Measuring cup

Graduated cylinder, 100-mL;

Scale, accurate to 1 gram (g),

Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate, 7H2O), 1 pint; available at grocery and drug stores

Paper towel

Plastic spoons (2)

Scissors

Small glass, ceramic, or plastic bowls (2)

Pen-type pH meter;

Universal Indicator Solution; available. Alternatively, you could use cabbage extract as a
liquid pH indicator

Lab notebook

Battery, 9-V

Snap battery connector, 9-V;

Two small pencils, sharpened on both ends. The graphite will be used as an electrode.
o

Cut or break off the end with the eraser before sharpening.

Alternatively, you can use pencil lead from a mechanical pencil.

Insulated test/jumper leads, 14-inch;

Insulated wire, 22-gauge

Wire strippers

Glue gun or clear plastic tape

Masking tape

Permanent marker

Electrical tape

Stopwatch

Graph paper

Experimental Procedure
Preparing the Solutions
1. Add 200 mL of water to the measuring cup.
2. Place a paper towel on the scale and measure out 45 g of magnesium sulfate-7H2O.
3. Dissolve the 45 g of magnesium sulfate-7H2O in the water with one of the plastic
spoons.
4. Pour 75 mL of the magnesium sulfate solution into each of the two small bowls. Use your
graduated cylinder for precise measurements.
5. Cut a square of paper towel about 7 cm on a side.
6. Place a single paper towel in both solutions, so that it forms a "salt bridge" between
them.
a. The salt bridge should be soaked with the solution. If there is a dry spot, add
some magnesium sulfate solution to wet it.
b. It is not critical how the paper towel is placed in the solutions, as long as it makes
good contact with both solutions.
7. Add a few drops of the universal pH indicator to each bowl. This will give you visual cues
about the pH of the solution.
8. Use the pH meter to check the starting pH of the magnesium sulfate solutions.
a. Use the instructions that came with the instrument.

b. It is a good idea to calibrate the pH meter. If standard solutions came with your
pH meter, use them as explained in the instrument's instructions.
9. Record the time and the pH in your lab notebook.
Setting up the Battery and Electrodes
1. Attach the 9-V snap connector to the battery.
2. Cut two pieces of wire, about 30 cm long.
3. Strip about 4 cm of the insulation from the ends of the wire.
4. Wrap the bare wire from one of the wires around the graphite on one of the pencils.
Repeat with the other pencil.
5. Affix the wire onto the graphite with a glue gun or with clear plastic tape.
6. Attach the other end of the wires from the pencil lead to the battery terminals.
a. Use masking tape and a permanent marker to label the pencils with the polarity
of the battery terminals to which they are attached.
b. Use electrical tape to secure the connections between wires.
c. You could also use the wires with alligator clips to make connections, if you
choose.
Tracking the pH Changes
1. Place one of the pencils in one of the solutions, and the other pencil in the other solution.
Immerse the lead that is not attached to the wire.
2. Start the stopwatch or timer when the second electrode is immersed.
3. Note if there are any bubbles forming near the pencil lead.
4. Measure the pH of each solution every 10 minutes.

5. Note the color of the solutions in your lab notebook (along with the time).
6. Keep recording the pH of both solutions every 10 minutes for 90 minutes.
a. Feel free to take measurements at other time points, if you choose.
7. Graph the pH vs. time for each solution.
8. Make a graph showing the difference in pH between the two solutions vs time. How does
this "translate" into the actual concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in each
solution?
9. Make a note on the graph of the color of the solution that corresponds to the recorded
pH, if you added an indicator.
10. Repeat the entire procedure at least two more times so that you have data for a total of
three or more trials.