Edward Snowden

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unknown parameter box_width (this message is shown
only in preview).
Edward Joseph Snowden was born on 21 June 1983,[7]
in Elizabeth City, North Carolina.[8] His maternal grand[9][10]
was a rear admiral in the
Edward Joseph Snowden (born June 21, 1983) is father, Edward J. Barrett,
United
States
Coast
Guard
who
became a senior ocial
a computer professional, former Central Intelligence
FBI
and
was
at
the
Pentagon
on 11 September
with
the
Agency (CIA) employee, and former contractor for the
2001
when
it
was
struck
by
an
airliner
hijacked by alUS Government who presumably copied classied infor[11]
Qaeda
terrorists.
Snowdens
father,
Lonnie
Snowden,
mation from the United States National Security Agency
[12]
was
also
an
ocer
in
the
Coast
Guard,
and
his
mother,
(NSA) and United Kingdom Government CommuniElizabeth
B.
Snowden,
is
chief
deputy
at
the
United
States
cations Headquarters (GCHQ) for public disclosure in
[13][14][15]
District
Court
for
the
District
of
Maryland.
His
2013 without prior authorization. The information reolder
sister,
Jessica,
was
a
lawyer
at
the
Federal
Judivealed numerous global surveillance programs, many
run by the NSA and Five Eyes with the cooperation cial Center in Washington. Snowden said that in one
of telecommunication companies and European govern- way or another, his entire family has been employed by
the Federal Government, and that he expected to purments.
sue the same path.[16] It would have been quite normal
Snowden was hired by Booz Allen Hamilton, an NSA for young Snowden to believe that the family tradition of
contractor, in 2013 after previous employment with Dell service to the Country was honorable. His parents diand the CIA.[4] On May 20, 2013, Snowden ew to Hong vorced in 2001,[17] and his father remarried.[18] Friends
Kong after leaving his job at an NSA facility in Hawaii and neighbors described Snowden as quiet and nice, genand in early June he revealed thousands of classied NSA erally congenial. One longtime friend said that he was
documents to journalists Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras always articulate, even as a child.[14] His father said he
and Ewen MacAskill. Snowden came to international at- was not surprised when his son scored above 145 on two
tention after stories based on the material appeared in The separate IQ tests, but Snowdens father was more after
Guardian and The Washington Post. Further disclosures Edwards well-being than anything else.[16] Snowdens fawere made by other newspapers including Der Spiegel and ther described Edward as the smartest one in the family,
The New York Times.
a deep thinker and a sensitive, caring young man.[19]
On June 21, 2013, the U.S. Department of Justice un- In the early 1990s, while still in grade school, Snowden
sealed charges against Snowden of two counts of violating moved with his family to Maryland.[20] Mononucleosis
the Espionage Act of 1917 and theft of US Government caused him to miss high school for almost nine
or foreign government property.[5] On June 23, he ew to months.[16] It appears Edward Snowden did not suer
Moscow, Russia, where he reportedly remained for over cold temperatures well and his immune system was botha month. Later that summer, Russian authorities granted ered by it. Nevertheless, rather than returning to school,
him one-year asylum, which was later extended to three he passed the GED test[21] and enrolled in Anne Arundel
years. As of 2015, he was still living in an undisclosed Community College.[13] Although Snowden had no unlocation in Russia while seeking asylum elsewhere.[6]
dergraduate college degree,[22] he worked online toward
a masters degree at the University of Liverpool, England,
in 2011.[23] In 2010, while visiting India on ocial business at the U.S. embassy,[24] Snowden attended a four-day
course on core Java programming and advanced ethical
hacking which gained him an ECSA certicate (ECCouncil Certied Security Analyst).[25] Snowden was reportedly interested in Japanese popular culture, had studied the Japanese language,[26] and worked for an anime
company that had a resident oce in the U.S.[27][28] He
also said he had a basic understanding of Mandarin Chinese and was deeply interested in martial arts. At age
20, he listed Buddhism as his religion on a military recruitment form, noting that the choice of Agnostic was

A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously

called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and
a traitor. His disclosures have fueled debates over mass
surveillance, government secrecy, and the balance between national security and information privacy.

Background

BACKGROUND

strangely absent.[29]

He was then employed for less than a year in 2005 as

a security specialist at the University of Marylands
Center for Advanced Study of Language, a non-classied
facility.[39] In June 2014, Snowden told Wired that this
1.2 Political views
was a top-secret facility where his job as a security
Snowden has said that in the 2008 presidential election, guard required a high-level security clearance, for which
he voted for a third-party candidate. He has stated that he he passed a polygraph exam and underwent a stringent
[16]
had been planning to comment on NSA surveillance pro- background check.
grams at the time, but he decided to wait because he be- Snowden was hired by Booz Allen Hamilton, an NSA
lieved in Obamas promises. He was later disappointed contractor, in 2013 after previous employment with Dell
with President Barack Obama, saying the latters poli- and the CIA.[4]
cies were a continuation of those espoused by George W.
Bush. Most likely, the sentiment Snowden expressed at
the time were omens of things to come for, by 2013, he 1.3.1 Employment at CIA
felt unneeded and unsafe on the land of his birth. The creation of the United States Department of Homeland Se- In 2006, after attending a job fair focused on intelligence
curity, to some, was anything but, and President Barack agencies, Snowden was oered a position at the Central
Obama had done practically nothing to quell the debate Intelligence Agency (CIA),[16] which he joined.[40] He
as to who qualied as American enough to feel safe any- was assigned to the global communications division at
where or belonging to any spit of dirt quite like home.[30] CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia.[16]
A week after publication of his leaks began, Ars Technica, a technology news provider, conrmed that Snowden, under the pseudonym TheTrueHOOHA, had been
an active participant at the sites online forum from 2001
through May 2012, discussing a variety of topics.[31] In
a January 2009 entry, TheTrueHOOHA exhibited strong
support for the United States security state apparatus and
said he believed leakers of classied information should
be shot in the balls.[32] However, in February 2010,
TheTrueHOOHA wrote, Did we get to where we are
today via a slippery slope that was entirely within our
control to stop? Or was it a relatively instantaneous sea
change that sneaked in undetected because of pervasive
government secrecy?"[33]
In accounts published in June 2013, interviewers noted
that Snowdens laptop displayed stickers supporting internet freedom organizations including the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) and the Tor Project.[21] Snowden stated that he was neither traitor nor hero. I'm an
American.[34]
In 2014 Snowden stated that women have the right to
make their own choices and supported providing a basic
income for people who have no work, or no meaningful
work.[35]

1.3

Career

On May 7, 2004, Snowden enlisted in the United States

Army Reserve as a Special Forces candidate through
its 18X enlistment option, but he did not complete the
training.[7][36] He said he wanted to ght in the Iraq War
because he felt like [he] had an obligation as a human
being to help free people from oppression.[21] Snowden said he was discharged after breaking both legs in
a training accident.[37] He was discharged on September
28, 2004.[38]

In May 2006, Snowden wrote in Ars Technica that he

had no trouble getting work because he was a computer
wizard.[29] After distinguishing himself as a junior employee on the top computer team, Snowden was sent to
the CIAs secret school for technology specialists, where
he lived in a hotel for six months while studying and training full-time.[16]
In March 2007,[16] the CIA stationed Snowden with
diplomatic cover in Geneva, Switzerland, where he
was responsible for maintaining computer network
security.[41] Assigned to the U.S. mission to the United
Nations, Snowden was given a diplomatic passport and a
four-bedroom apartment near Lake Geneva.[16] According to Greenwald, while there Snowden was considered
the top technical and cybersecurity expert in that country and was hand-picked by the CIA to support the president at the 2008 NATO summit in Romania.[42] Snowden described his CIA experience in Geneva as formative, stating that the CIA deliberately got a Swiss banker
drunk and encouraged him to drive home. Snowden said
that when the latter was arrested, a CIA operative offered to help in exchange for the banker to become an
informant.[43] Ueli Maurer, President of the Swiss Confederation for the year 2013, in June of that year publicly
disputed Snowdens claims. This would mean that the
CIA successfully bribed the Geneva police and judiciary.
With all due respect, I just can't imagine it, said Maurer.
The revelations were said to have come at a sensitive time
as the U.S. was pressing the Swiss government to increase
banking transparency.[44] In February 2009, Snowden resigned from the CIA.[33]
1.3.2 NSA sub-contractee as an employee for Dell
In 2009, Snowden began work as a contractee for Dell,[21]
which manages computer systems for multiple government agencies. Assigned to an NSA facility at Yokota Air

1.3

Career

Base near Tokyo, Snowden instructed top ocials and

military ocers on how to defend their networks from
Chinese hackers.[16] During his four years with Dell, he
rose from supervising NSA computer system upgrades
to working as what his rsum termed a cyberstrategist and an expert in cyber counterintelligence at several U.S. locations.[45] In 2011, he returned to Maryland,
where he spent a year as lead technologist on Dells CIA
account. In that capacity, he was consulted by the chiefs
of the CIAs technical branches, including the agencys
chief information ocer and its chief technology ofcer.[16] U.S. ocials and other sources familiar with
the investigation said Snowden began downloading documents describing the governments electronic spying programs while working for Dell in April 2012.[46] Investigators estimated that of the 50,000 to 200,000 documents Snowden gave to Greenwald and Poitras, most
were copied by Snowden while working at Dell.[4]
In March 2012, Dell reassigned Snowden to Hawaii
as lead technologist for the NSAs information-sharing
oce.[16] At the time of his departure from the United
States in May 2013, he had been employed for 15
months inside the NSAs Hawaii regional operations center, which focuses on the electronic monitoring of China
and North Korea,[4][47] the last three of which were with
consulting rm Booz Allen Hamilton.[48][49] While intelligence ocials have described his position there as a
"system administrator, Snowden has said he was an infrastructure analyst, which meant that his job was to look
for new ways to break into Internet and telephone trafc around the world.[50] On March 15, 2013three days
after what he later called his breaking point of seeing the Director of National Intelligence, James Clapper,
directly lie under oath to Congress[51] Snowden quit
his job at Dell.[52] Although he has stated that his career
high annual salary was $200,000,[53] Snowden said he
took a pay cut to work at Booz Allen,[54] where he sought
employment in order to gather data and then release details of the NSAs worldwide surveillance activity.[55] According to a Reuters story by Mark Hosenball, while in
Hawaii, Snowden may have persuaded between 20 and
25 fellow workers to give him their logins and passwords by telling them they were needed for him to do
his job as a computer systems administrator.[56] NBC
News reported that the NSA sent a memo to Congress and
"[w]hile the memos account is sketchy, it suggests that,
contrary to Snowdens statements, he used an element of
trickery to retrieve his trove of tens of thousands of classied documents.[57][58][59] This report was disputed,[60]
with Snowden himself saying in January 2014, With all
due respect to Mark Hosenball, the Reuters report that
put this out there was simply wrong. I never stole any
passwords, nor did I trick an army of co-workers.[61][62]
The day after Snowden publicly took responsibility for
the NSA surveillance revelations, Booz Allen terminated
his employment for violations of the rms code of ethics
and rm policy.[63]

3
A former NSA co-worker told Forbes that although the
NSA was full of smart people, Snowden was a genius
among geniuses, who created a backup system for the
NSA that was widely implemented and often pointed out
security bugs to the agency. The former colleague said
Snowden was given full administrator privileges, with
virtually unlimited access to NSA data. Snowden was
oered a position on the NSAs elite team of hackers,
Tailored Access Operations, but turned it down to join
Booz Allen.[64]
A source with detailed knowledge on the matter told
Reuters that hiring screeners for Booz Allen had found
some details of Snowdens education that did not check
out precisely, but decided to hire him anyway; Reuters
stated that the element which triggered these concerns,
or the manner in which Snowden satised the concerns,
were not known.[22] The rsum stated that Snowden attended computer-related classes at Johns Hopkins University. A spokeswoman for Johns Hopkins said that the
university did not nd records to show that Snowden attended the university, and suggested that he may instead
have attended Advanced Career Technologies, a private
for-prot organization which operated as Computer Career Institute at Johns Hopkins.[22] The University College of the University of Maryland acknowledged that
Snowden had attended a summer session at a UM campus in Asia. Snowdens rsum stated that he estimated
that he would receive a University of Liverpool computer
security masters degree in 2013. The university said that
Snowden registered for an online masters degree program in computer security in 2011 but that he is not active in his studies and has not completed the program.[22]
Snowden said that, using internal channels of dissent,
he had told multiple employees and two supervisors about
his concerns that the NSA programs were unconstitutional. An NSA spokeswoman responded, saying they
had not found any evidence to support Mr. Snowdens contention that he brought these matters to anyones attention.[65] Snowden elaborated in January 2014,
saying "[I] made tremendous eorts to report these programs to co-workers, supervisors, and anyone with the
proper clearance who would listen. The reactions of
those I told about the scale of the constitutional violations
ranged from deeply concerned to appalled, but no one
was willing to risk their jobs, families, and possibly even
freedom to go through what [Thomas Andrews] Drake
did.[62][66] In March 2014, during testimony to the European Parliament, Snowden wrote that before revealing
classied information he had reported clearly problematic programs to ten ocials, who he said did nothing
in response.[67] In a May 2014 interview, Snowden told
NBC News that after bringing his concerns about the legality of the NSA spying programs to ocials, he was
told to stay silent on the matter. Snowden said:
The NSA has recordsthey have copies
of emails right now to their Oce of General

2
Counsel, to their oversight and compliance
folks from me raising concerns about the
NSAs interpretations of its legal authorities. I
had raised these complaints not just ocially
in writing through email, but to my supervisors, to my colleagues, in more than one oce.
I did it in Fort Meade. I did it in Hawaii. And
many, many of these individuals were shocked
by these programs. They had never seen them
themselves. And the ones who had, went, You
know, you're right. ... But if you say something
about this, they're going to destroy you.[11]

In May 2014, U.S. ocials released a single email that

Snowden had written in April 2013 inquiring about legal
authorities but said that they had found no other evidence
that Snowden had expressed his concerns to someone in
an oversight position.[68] In June 2014, the NSA said it
had not been able to nd any records of Snowden raising internal complaints about the agencys operations.[69]
That same month, Snowden explained that he himself has
not produced the communiqus in question because of
the ongoing nature of the dispute, disclosing for the rst
time that I am working with the NSA in regard to these
records and we're going back and forth, so I don't want to
reveal everything that will come out.[70]
In his May 2014 interview with NBC News, Snowden
accused the U.S. government of trying to use one position here or there in his career to distract from the totality of his experience, downplaying him as a low level
analyst. In his words, he was trained as a spy in the
traditional sense of the word in that I lived and worked
undercover overseaspretending to work in a job that
I'm notand even being assigned a name that was not
mine. He said he'd worked for the NSA undercover overseas, and for the DIA had developed sources and methods to keep information and people secure in the most
hostile and dangerous environments around the world.
So when they say I'm a low-level systems administrator, that I don't know what I'm talking about, I'd say its
somewhat misleading.[11] In a June interview with Globo
TV, Snowden reiterated that he was actually functioning
at a very senior level.[71] In a July interview with The
Guardian, Snowden explained that, during his NSA career, I began to move from merely overseeing these systems to actively directing their use. Many people dont
understand that I was actually an analyst and I designated
individuals and groups for targeting.[72] Snowden subsequently told Wired that while at Dell in 2011, I would sit
down with the CIO of the CIA, the CTO of the CIA, the
chiefs of all the technical branches. They would tell me
their hardest technology problems, and it was my job to
come up with a way to x them.[16]

GLOBAL SURVEILLANCE DISCLOSURES

a position of extraordinary responsibility, where they now

have access to all your private records. In the course of
their daily work, they stumble across something that is
completely unrelated in any sort of necessary sensefor
example, an intimate nude photo of someone in a sexually
compromising situation. But they're extremely attractive.
So what do they do? They turn around in their chair and
they show a co-worker ... and sooner or later this persons whole life has been seen by all of these other people. As Snowden observed it, this behavior was routine,
happening probably every two months, but was never
reported, being considered among the fringe benets of
surveillance positions.[24]

2 Global surveillance disclosures

Main article: Global surveillance disclosures (2013
present)
The exact size of Snowdens disclosure is unknown,[73]
but Australian ocials have estimated 15,000 or more
Australian intelligence les[74] and British ocials estimate at least 58,000 British intelligence les.[75] NSA
Director Keith Alexander initially estimated that Snowden had copied anywhere from 50,000 to 200,000 NSA
documents.[76] Later estimates provided by U.S. ocials were on the order of 1.7 million,[77] a number
that originally came from Department of Defense talking
points.[78] In July 2014, The Washington Post reported
on a cache previously provided by Snowden from domestic NSA operations consisting of roughly 160,000 intercepted e-mail and instant-message conversations, some
of them hundreds of pages long, and 7,900 documents
taken from more than 11,000 online accounts.[79] A U.S.
Defense Intelligence Agency report declassied in June
2015 said that Snowden took 900,000 Department of Defense les, more than he downloaded from the NSA.[78]

In March 2014, Army General Martin Dempsey,

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta, told the House
Armed Services Committee, The vast majority of the
documents that Snowden ... exltrated from our highest levels of security ... had nothing to do with exposing government oversight of domestic activities. The vast
majority of those were related to our military capabilities, operations, tactics, techniques and procedures.[80]
When retired NSA director Keith Alexander was asked
in a May 2014 interview to quantify the number of documents Snowden stole, Alexander answered, I don't think
anybody really knows what he actually took with him, because the way he did it, we don't have an accurate way of
counting. What we do have an accurate way of counting
and
Of his time as an NSA analyst, directing the work of oth- is what he touched, what he may have downloaded,
[81]
that
was
more
than
a
million
documents.
ers, Snowden recalled a moment when he and his colleagues began to have severe ethical doubts. Snowden According to Snowden, he did not indiscriminately turn
said 18 to 22-year-old analysts were suddenly thrust into over documents to journalists, stating that I carefully

2.2

Publication

evaluated every single document I disclosed to ensure that

each was legitimately in the public interest. There are
all sorts of documents that would have made a big impact that I didn't turn over[82] and that I have to screen
everything before releasing it to journalists ... If I have
time to go through this information, I would like to make
it available to journalists in each country.[55] Despite
these measures, a document improperly redacted by the
New York Times resulted in exposing intelligence activity
against al-Qaeda.[83]

man, Snowden approached Greenwald after the Post declined to guarantee publication within 72 hours of all 41
PowerPoint slides that Snowden had leaked exposing the
PRISM electronic data mining program, and to publish
online an encrypted code allowing Snowden to later prove
that he was the source.[97]

In June 2014, the NSAs recently installed director,

U.S. Navy Admiral Michael S. Rogers, stated that while
some terrorist groups had altered their communications
to avoid surveillance techniques revealed by Snowden, the
damage done was not signicant enough to conclude that
the sky is falling.[84] Nevertheless, in February 2015,
Rogers said that Snowdens disclosures has a material
impact on the NSAs ability to generate insights as to
what counterterrorism, what terrorist groups around the
world are doing.[85]

According to Gellman, prior to their rst meeting in person, Snowden wrote, I understand that I will be made
to suer for my actions, and that the return of this information to the public marks my end.[97] Snowden also
told Gellman that until the articles were published, the
journalists working with him would also be at mortal
risk from the United States Intelligence Community if
they think you are the single point of failure that could
stop this disclosure and make them the sole owner of this
information.[97]

In April 2015 the Henry Jackson Society, a British

neoconservative think tank, published a report claiming that Snowdens intelligence leaks negatively impacted Britains ability to ght terrorism and organized
crime.[86][87] Gus Hosein, executive director of Privacy
International, criticized the report and said it presumes
that the public are idiots and that we only became concerned about privacy after Snowden.[88]

In May 2013, Snowden was permitted temporary leave

from his position at the NSA in Hawaii, on the pretext of receiving treatment for his epilepsy.[21] In midMay, Snowden gave an electronic interview to Poitras and
Jacob Appelbaum which was published weeks later by
Der Spiegel.[98]

2.1

Release of NSA documents

The New York Times James Risen reported that Snowdens decision to leak NSA documents developed gradually, dating back at least to his time working as a technician in the Geneva station of the CIA.[89] Snowden
rst made contact with Glenn Greenwald, a journalist
working at The Guardian, in late 2012.[90] He contacted
Greenwald anonymously as Cincinnatus[91] and said he
had sensitive documents that he would like to share.[92]
Greenwald found the measures that the source asked him
to take to secure their communications, such as encrypting email, too annoying to employ. Snowden then contacted documentary lmmaker Laura Poitras in January
2013.[93] According to Poitras, Snowden chose to contact her after seeing her New York Times documentary[94]
about NSA whistleblower William Binney. What originally attracted Snowden to both Greenwald and Poitras
was a Salon article written by Greenwald detailing how
Poitras controversial lms had made her a target of the
government.[92][95]
Greenwald began working with Snowden in either
February[96] or April 2013, after Poitras asked Greenwald to meet her in New York City, at which point Snowden began providing documents to them.[90] Barton Gellman, writing for The Washington Post, says his rst direct contact was on May 16, 2013.[97] According to Gell-

Snowden communicated using encrypted email,[93] and

going by the codename "Verax".
He asked not
to be quoted at length for fear of identication by
stylometry.[97]

After disclosing the copied documents, Snowden

promised that nothing would stop subsequent disclosures. In June 2013, he said, All I can say right now is
the US government is not going to be able to cover this
up by jailing or murdering me. Truth is coming, and it
cannot be stopped.[99]

2.2 Publication
On May 20, 2013, Snowden ew to Hong Kong,[82]
where he was staying when the initial articles based on
the leaked documents were published,[100] beginning with
The Guardian on June 5.[101] Greenwald later said Snowden disclosed 9,000 to 10,000 documents.[102]
Within months, documents had been obtained and published by media outlets worldwide, most notably The
Guardian (Britain), Der Spiegel (Germany), The Washington Post and The New York Times (U.S.), O Globo
(Brazil), Le Monde (France), and similar outlets in Sweden, Canada, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and
Australia.[103] In 2014, NBC broke its rst story based on
the leaked documents.[104] In February 2014, for reporting based on Snowdens leaks, journalists Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras, Barton Gellman and The Guardian s
Ewen MacAskill were honored as co-recipients of the
2013 George Polk Award, which they dedicated to
Snowden.[105] The NSA reporting by these journalists
also earned The Guardian and The Washington Post the
2014 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service[106] for exposing

GLOBAL SURVEILLANCE DISCLOSURES

the widespread surveillance and for helping to spark

a huge public debate about the extent of the governments spying. The Guardian 's chief editor, Alan Rusbridger, credited Snowden, saying The public service in
this award is signicant because Snowden performed a
public service.[107]

which allows for court-approved direct access to Americans Google and Yahoo accounts, reported from both
The Washington Post and The Guardian published one
hour apart. PRISM .[108][117][118] The Post 's Barton
Gellman was the rst journalist to report on Snowdens documents. He said the U.S. government urged
him not to specify by name which companies were involved, but Gellman decided that to name them would
2.3 Revelations
make it real to Americans.[119] Reports also revealed
details of Tempora, a British black-ops surveillance proMain article: Global surveillance disclosures (2013 gram run by the NSAs British partner, GCHQ.[117][120]
present)
The initial reports included details about NSA call
See also: PRISM Responses to disclosures
database, Boundless Informant, and of a secret court
The ongoing publication of leaked documents has re- order requiring Verizon to hand the NSA millions of
Americans phone records daily,[121] the surveillance of
French citizens phone and internet records, and those of
high-prole individuals from the world of business or
politics.[122][123][124] XKeyscore, an analytical tool that
allows for collection of almost anything done on the internet, was described by The Guardian as a program that
shed light on one of Snowdens most controversial statements: I, sitting at my desk [could] wiretap anyone, from
you or your accountant, to a federal judge or even the
president, if I had a personal email.[125]

Slide from an NSA presentation on Google Cloud Exploitation

from its MUSCULAR program;[108] the sketch shows where the
Public Internet meets the internal Google Cloud where user
data resides[109]

Data visualization of U.S. intelligence black budget (2013)

vealed previously unknown details of a global surveillance apparatus run by the United States NSA[110] in
close cooperation with three of its Five Eyes partners:
Australia (ASD),[111] the United Kingdom (GCHQ),[112]
and Canada (CSEC).[113]
The Guardian 's editor-in-chief Alan Rusbridger said in
November 2013 that only one percent of the documents
had been published.[114] Ocials warned that the worst
is yet to come.[115][116]

It was revealed that the NSA was harvesting millions of

email and instant messaging contact lists,[126] searching
email content,[127] tracking and mapping the location of
cell phones,[128] undermining attempts at encryption via
Bullrun[129][130] and that the agency was using cookies to
piggyback on the same tools used by internet advertisers to pinpoint targets for government hacking and to
bolster surveillance.[131] The NSA was shown to be secretly tapping into Yahoo and Google data centers to collect information from hundreds of millions of account
holders worldwide by tapping undersea cables using the
MUSCULAR surveillance program.[108][109]
The NSA, the CIA and GCHQ spied on users of Second
Life, Xbox Live and World of Warcraft, and attempted
to recruit would-be informants from the sites, according to documents revealed in December 2013.[132][133]
Leaked documents showed NSA agents also spied on
their own love interests, a practice NSA employees
termed LOVEINT.[134][135] The NSA was shown to be
tracking the online sexual activity of people they termed
radicalizers in order to discredit them.[136] Following the revelation of Black Pearl, a program targeting private networks, the NSA was accused of extending beyond its primary mission of national security. The agencys intelligence-gathering operations had
targeted, among others, oil giant Petrobras, Brazils
largest company.[137] The NSA and the GCHQ were also
shown to be surveilling charities including UNICEF and
Mdecins du Monde, as well as allies such as the EU chief
and the Israeli Prime Minister.[138]

On June 5, 2013, media reports documenting the exis2013, Snowdens disclosures had cretence and functions of classied surveillance programs By October [139][140]
between the U.S. and some of
ated
tensions
and their scope began and continued throughout the enits
close
allies
after
they revealed that the U.S.
tire year. The rst program to be revealed was PRISM,

2.4

Motivations

had spied on Brazil, France, Mexico,[141] Britain,[142]

China,[143] Germany,[144] and Spain,[145] as well as 35
world leaders,[146] most notably German Chancellor
Angela Merkel, who said spying among friends was
unacceptable[147] and compared the NSA with the
Stasi.[148] Leaked documents published by Der Spiegel in
2014 appeared to show that the NSA had targeted 122
high ranking leaders.[149]
The NSAs top-secret black budget, obtained from
Snowden by The Washington Post, exposed the successes
and failures of the 16 spy agencies comprising the U.S.
intelligence community,[150] and revealed that the NSA
was paying U.S. private tech companies for clandestine
access to their communications networks.[151] The agencies were allotted $52 billion for the 2013 scal year.[152]

7
newspaper said it had examined documents including
emails, message texts, and online accounts, that support
the claim.[159]
In an August 2014 interview, Snowden for the rst time
disclosed a cyberwarfare program in the works, codenamed MonsterMind. The program would automate the
process of hunting for the beginnings of a foreign cyberattack. The software would constantly look for trac
patterns indicating known or suspected attacks. What
sets MonsterMind apart was that it would add a unique
new capability: instead of simply detecting and killing the
malware at the point of entry, MonsterMind would automatically re back, with no human involvement. Snowden expressed concern that often initial attacks are routed
through computers in innocent third countries. These attacks can be spoofed. You could have someone sitting in
China, for example, making it appear that one of these attacks is originating in Russia. And then we end up shooting back at a Russian hospital. What happens next?"[16]

An NSA mission statement titled SIGINT Strategy

2012-2016 armed that the NSA plans for continued
expansion of surveillance activities. Their stated goal
was to dramatically increase mastery of the global network and acquire the capabilities to gather intelligence
on anyone, anytime, anywhere.[153] Leaked slides re2.4
vealed in Greenwalds book No Place to Hide, released in
May 2014, showed that the NSAs stated objective was to
Collect it All, Process it All, Exploit it All, Partner
it All, Sni it All and Know it All.[154]
Snowden stated in a January 2014 interview with German
television that the NSA does not limit its data collection to
national security issues, accusing the agency of conducting industrial espionage. Using the example of German
company Siemens, he stated, If theres information at
Siemens thats benecial to US national interestseven
if it doesn't have anything to do with national security
then they'll take that information nevertheless.[155] In the
wake of Snowdens revelations and in response to an inquiry from the Left Party, Germanys domestic security
agency Bundesamt fr Verfassungsschutz (BfV) investigated and found no concrete evidence that the U.S. conducted economic or industrial espionage in Germany.[156]
In February 2014, during testimony to the European
Union, Snowden said of the remaining undisclosed programs": I will leave the public interest determinations
as to which of these may be safely disclosed to responsible journalists in coordination with government
stakeholders.[157]
In March 2014, documents disclosed by Glenn Greenwald writing for The Intercept showed the NSA, in
cooperation with the GCHQ, has plans to infect millions of computers with malware using a program
called Turbine.[158] Revelations included information
about QUANTUMHAND, a program through which
the NSA set up a fake Facebook server to intercept
connections.[158]
According to a report in The Washington Post in July
2014, relying on information furnished by Snowden, 90%
of those placed under surveillance in the U.S. are ordinary Americans, and are not the intended targets. The

Motivations

Snowden speaks about the NSA leaks, in Hong Kong, lmed by

Laura Poitras.

Snowdens identity was made public by The Guardian at

his request on June 9, 2013.[96] He explained: I have
no intention of hiding who I am because I know I have
done nothing wrong.[21] He added that by revealing his
identity he hoped to protect his colleagues from being
subjected to a hunt to determine who had been responsible for the leaks.[160] According to Poitras, who lmed
the interview with Snowden in Hong Kong, he had initially not wanted to be seen on camera, because he didn't
want the story to be about him.[161] Poitras says she convinced him it was necessary to have him give an account
of the leaked documents signicance on lm: Not just
because I knew that the mainstream media interpretation
would be predictable and narrow, but because to have
somebody who understands how this technology works,
who is willing to risk their life to expose it to the public,
and that we could hear that articulated, would reach people in ways that the documents themselves wouldn't.[161]
Snowden explained his actions saying: I don't want to
live in a society that does these sort of things [surveillance on its citizens] ... I do not want to live in a world

3 FLIGHT FROM THE UNITED STATES

where everything I do and say is recorded ... My sole motive is to inform the public as to that which is done in their
name and that which is done against them.[162] In a later
interview Snowden declared:
For me, in terms of personal satisfaction,
the missions already accomplished. I already
won. As soon as the journalists were able to
work, everything that I had been trying to do
was validated. Because, remember, I didn't
want to change society. I wanted to give society a chance to determine if it should change
itself. All I wanted was for the public to be able
to have a say in how they are governed.[65]
Snowden said that in the past, whistleblowers had been
destroyed by the experience, and that he wanted to
embolden others to step forward by demonstrating that
they can win.[163] In October, Snowden spoke out again
on his motivations for the leaks in an interview with The
New York Times, saying that the system for reporting
problems does not work. You have to report wrongdoing to those most responsible for it, Snowden explained,
and pointed out the lack of whistleblower protection for
government contractors, the use of the 1917 Espionage
Act to prosecute leakers, and his belief that had he used
internal mechanisms to sound the alarm, his revelations
would have been buried forever.[89][164]

but that Snowden held back, in part because he believed

Barack Obama, elected that November, might introduce
reforms.[4] Snowden stated that he had reported policy
or legal issues related to spying programs to more than
10 ocials, but as a contractor had no legal avenue to
pursue further whistleblowing.[168]

3 Flight from the United States

3.1 Hong Kong
In May 2013 Snowden took a leave of absence, telling his
supervisors he was returning to the mainland for epilepsy
treatment, but instead left Hawaii for Hong Kong[169]
where he arrived on May 20. Snowden told Guardian
reporters in June that he had been in his room at the Mira
Hotel since his arrival in the city, rarely going out.[52] On
June 10, correspondent Ewen MacAskill said Hes stuck
in his hotel every day; he never goes out. I think hes only
been out about three times since May 20th and that was
only briey.[170] Mira sta told Wall Street Journal reporters, however, that Snowden did not check in to the
hotel until June 1.[52][171]

In December 2013, upon learning that a U.S. federal

judge had ruled the collection of U.S. phone metadata
conducted by the NSA as likely unconstitutional, Snowden stated: I acted on my belief that the NSAs mass
surveillance programs would not withstand a constitutional challenge, and that the American public deserved
a chance to see these issues determined by open courts
... today, a secret program authorized by a secret court
was, when exposed to the light of day, found to violate
Hong Kong rally to support Snowden, June 15, 2013
Americans rights. It is the rst of many.[165]
In January 2014, Snowden said his breaking point
was seeing the Director of National Intelligence, James
Clapper, directly lie under oath to Congress.[51] This referred to testimony on March 12, 2013three months
after Snowden rst sought to share thousands of NSA
documents with Greenwald,[90] and nine months after
the NSA says Snowden made his rst illegal downloads
during the summer of 2012[4] in which Clapper denied to the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence that the NSA wittingly collects data on millions of
Americans.[166] Snowden said, Theres no saving an intelligence community that believes it can lie to the public
and the legislators who need to be able to trust it and regulate its actions. Seeing that really meant for me there
was no going back. Beyond that, it was the creeping realization that no one else was going to do this. The public
had a right to know about these programs.[167] In May
2014, Vanity Fair reported that Snowden said he rst contemplated leaking condential documents around 2008,

Snowden vowed to challenge any extradition attempt by

the U.S. government, and engaged a Canadian, Hong
Kong-based human rights lawyer Robert Tibbo, as his
legal adviser.[172][173][174] Snowden told the South China
Morning Post that he planned to remain in Hong Kong
until asked to leave,[175] adding that his intention was
to let the courts and people of Hong Kong decide his
fate.[176] While in Hong Kong Snowden told the Post that
the United States government has committed a tremendous number of crimes against Hong Kong. The PRC
as well,[177] going on to identify Chinese Internet Protocol addresses that the NSA monitored and stating that
the NSA collected text-message data for Hong Kong residents. Glenn Greenwald explained the leak as reecting
a need to ingratiate himself to the people of Hong Kong
and China.[178]
In late August, the Russian newspaper Kommersant reported that Snowden was living at the Russian con-

3.2

Russia

sulate shortly before his departure from Hong Kong to

Moscow.[179] Ben Wizner, a lawyer with the American
Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and legal adviser to Snowden, said in January 2014, Every news organization in
the world has been trying to conrm that story. They
haven't been able to, because its false.[180] Likewise rejecting the Kommersant story was Anatoly Kucherena,
who became Snowdens lawyer in July 2013, when Snowden asked him for help with seeking temporary asylum in
Russia.[181] Kucherena stated that Snowden did not enter
into any communication with our diplomats when he was
in Hong Kong.[182][183] In early September 2013, however, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that, a few
days before boarding a plane to Moscow, Mr. Snowden
rst appeared in Hong Kong and met with our diplomatic
representatives.[184] In June 2014, investigative journalist Edward Jay Epstein wrote that a U.S. ocial had
told him that on three occasions in June 2013, Snowden
had been observed on CCTV cameras entering the Hong
Kong tower where the Russian consulate is located.[52]
On June 22 (18 days after publication of Snowdens
NSA documents began), U.S. ocials revoked his
passport.[185] On June 23, Snowden boarded the commercial Aeroot ight SU213 to Moscow, accompanied
by Sarah Harrison of WikiLeaks.[186][187] Hong Kong authorities said that Snowden had not been detained as requested by the United States, because the United States
extradition request had not fully complied with Hong
Kong law,[188][189] and there was no legal basis to prevent Snowden from leaving.[190][191][Notes 1] On June 24,
U.S. State Department spokesman Patrick Ventrell said
we're just not buying that this was a technical decision
by a Hong Kong immigration ocial. This was a deliberate choice by the government to release a fugitive despite
a valid arrest warrant ... though the Privacy Act prohibits
me from talking about Mr. Snowdens passport specically, I can say that the Hong Kong authorities were well
aware of our interest in Mr. Snowden and had plenty of
time to prohibit his travel.[194] That same day, Julian Assange said that WikiLeaks had paid for Snowdens lodging in Hong Kong and his ight out.[195]
In October 2013, Snowden said that before ying to
Moscow, he gave all the classied documents he had obtained to journalists he met in Hong Kong, and did not
keep any copies for himself.[89] In January 2014, he told a
German TV interviewer that he gave all of his information
to American journalists who are reporting on American
issues.[51] During his rst American TV interview, in
May 2014, Snowden said he had protected himself from
Russian leverage by destroying the material that I was
holding before I transited through Russia.[11]

3.2

Russia

Arrival at Sheremetyevo Airport in Moscow on June 23, 2013

via a safe route for the purposes of asylum.[197] Snowden

had a seat reserved to continue to Cuba[198] but did not
board that onward ight, saying in a January 2014 interview that he was stopped en route despite an intention
to be only transiting through Russia. He stated, I was
ticketed for onward travel via Havanaa planeload of
reporters documented the seat I was supposed to be
inbut the State Department decided they wanted me
in Moscow, and cancelled my passport.[180] He said
the U.S. wanted him there so they could say, 'Hes a
Russian spy.'"[199] Greenwalds account diers on the
point of Snowden being already ticketed. According
to Greenwald, Snowdens passport was valid when he
departed Hong Kong but was revoked during the hours
he was in transit to Moscow, meaning he could no
longer get a ticket and leave Russia. Snowden was thus,
Greenwald says, forced to stay in Moscow and seek
asylum.[200]
According to one Russian report, Snowden planned to y
from Moscow through Havana to Latin America; however, Cuba told Moscow it would not allow the Aeroot
plane carrying Snowden to land.[201] Anonymous Russian sources claimed that Cuba had a change of heart after receiving pressure from U.S. ocials,[202] leaving him
stuck in the transit zone because at the last minute Havana told ocials in Moscow not to allow him on the
ight.[203] Fidel Castro called claims that Cuba would
have blocked Snowdens entry to his country a lie
and a libel.[198] The Washington Post said "[t]hat version stands in contrast to widespread speculation that
the Russians never intended to let the former CIA employee travel onward.[204] Russian president Putin said
that Snowdens arrival in Moscow was a surprise and
like an unwanted Christmas gift.[205] Putin said that
Snowden remained in the transit area of Sheremetyevo
Airport, noted that he had not committed any crime in
Russia, and declared that Snowden was free to leave and
should do so.[206] He denied that Russias intelligence
agencies had worked or were working with Snowden.[205]

On June 23, 2013, Snowden landed at Moscows Following Snowdens arrival in Moscow, the White
Sheremetyevo International Airport.[196] WikiLeaks House expressed disappointment in Hong Kongs decistated that he was bound for the Republic of Ecuador sion to allow him to leave,[207] with press secretary Jay

10
Carney stating, We very clearly believe that Mr. Snowden ought to be returned to the United States to face the
charges that have been set against him,[208] and the director of the State Departments press oce concurred: We
are deeply disappointed by the decision of the authorities
in Hong Kong to permit Mr. Snowden to ee despite a
legally valid U.S. request to arrest him for purposes of his
extradition under the U.S.-Hong Kong Surrender Agreement. We hope that the Russian Government will look
at all available options to return Mr. Snowden back to
the U.S. to face justice for the crimes with which hes
charged.[194] An anonymous U.S. ocial not authorized
to discuss the passport matter told AP Snowdens passport
had been revoked before he left Hong Kong, and that although it could make onward travel more dicult, if a
senior ocial in a country or airline ordered it, a country
could overlook the withdrawn passport.[209] In a July 1
statement, Snowden said, Although I am convicted of
nothing, [the US government] has unilaterally revoked
my passport, leaving me a stateless person. Without any
judicial order, the administration now seeks to stop me
exercising a basic right. A right that belongs to everybody. The right to seek asylum.[210]
After Snowden received asylum in Russia, international
criminal defense lawyer Douglas McNabb commented
that absent of Mr. Snowden attempting to travel to
Latin America, as long as he stays in Russia, hes apparently safe.[211] Julian Assange agreed with this assessment, saying in a December 2013 Rolling Stone interview,
While Venezuela and Ecuador could protect him in the
short term, over the long term there could be a change in
government. In Russia, hes safe, hes well-regarded, and
that is not likely to change. That was my advice to Snowden, that he would be physically safest in Russia.[169] According to Snowden, the CIA has a very powerful presence [in Latin America] and the governments and the
security services there are relatively much less capable
than, say, Russia.... they could have basically snatched
me....[212]
Four countries oered Snowden permanent asylum:
Ecuador, Nicaragua, Bolivia, and Venezuela.[211] ABC
News reported that no direct ights between Moscow
and Venezuela, Bolivia or Nicaragua exist, and that the
United States has pressured countries along his route to
hand him over. Snowden explained in July 2013 that he
decided to bid for asylum in Russia because he did not
feel there was any safe travel route to Latin America.[213]
Snowden said he remained in Russia because when we
were talking about possibilities for asylum in Latin America, the United States forced down the Bolivian Presidents plane, citing the Morales plane incident. On the
issue, he said some governments in Western European
and North American states have demonstrated a willingness to act outside the law, and this behavior persists today. This unlawful threat makes it impossible for me
to travel to Latin America and enjoy the asylum granted
there in accordance with our shared rights.[214] He said

3 FLIGHT FROM THE UNITED STATES

that he would travel from Russia if there was no interference from the U.S. government.[180]
In an October 2014 interview with The Nation magazine, Snowden reiterated that he had originally intended
to travel to Latin America: A lot of people are still unaware that I never intended to end up in Russia. According to Snowden, the U.S. government waited until I departed Hong Kong to cancel my passport in order to trap me in Russia. Snowden added, If they really
wanted to capture me, they would've allowed me to travel
to Latin America, because the CIA can operate with impunity down there. They did not want that; they chose to
keep me in Russia.[215]
3.2.1 Morales plane incident
Main article: Evo Morales grounding incident
On July 1, 2013, president Evo Morales of Bolivia, who
had been attending a conference of gas-exporting countries in Russia, suggested during an interview with Russia
Today that he would be willing to consider a request
by Snowden for asylum.[216] The following day, Morales
plane, en route to Bolivia, was rerouted to Austria, and
was reportedly searched there, after France, Spain and
Italy denied access to their airspace.[217] U.S. ocials
had raised suspicions that Snowden may have been on
board.[218] Morales blamed the U.S. for putting pressure
on European countries, and said that the grounding of his
plane was a violation of international law.[219]
In April 2015, Bolivias ambassador to Russia, Mara
Luisa Ramos Urzagaste, accused WikiLeaks' Julian Assange of putting Moraless life at risk by intentionally providing to the United States false rumors that Snowden was
on Moraless plane. Assange responded that the plan was
not completely honest, but we did consider that the nal
result would have justied our actions. We can only regret what happened.[220]
3.2.2 Asylum applications
Snowden applied for political asylum to 21 countries.[221]
A statement attributed to him contended that the U.S. administration, and specically Vice President Joe Biden,
had pressured the governments to refuse his asylum petitions. Biden had telephoned President Rafael Correa days
prior to Snowdens remarks, asking the Ecuadorian leader
not to grant Snowden asylum.[222] Ecuador had initially
oered Snowden a temporary travel document but later
withdrew it;[223] on July 1, President Rafael Correa said
the decision to issue the oer had been a mistake.[224]
In a July 1 statement published by WikiLeaks, Snowden accused the U.S. government of using citizenship
as a weapon and using what he described as old, bad
tools of political aggression. Citing Obamas promise to

11
not allow wheeling and dealing over the case, Snowden commented, This kind of deception from a world
leader is not justice, and neither is the extralegal penalty
of exile.[225] Several days later, WikiLeaks announced
that Snowden had applied for asylum in six additional
countries, which WikiLeaks declined to name due to attempted U.S. interference.[226]
The French interior ministry rejected Snowdens request
for asylum, saying, Given the legal analysis and the situation of the interested party, France will not agree.[227]
Poland refused to process his application because it did
not conform to legal procedure.[228] Brazils Foreign Ministry said the government does not plan to respond to
Snowdens asylum request. Germany, Finland and India
rejected Snowdens application outright, while Austria,
Ecuador, Norway and Spain said he must be on their territory to apply.[229] Italy cited the same reason in rejecting
his request,[230] as did the Netherlands.[231] In November 2014, Germany announced that Snowden had not renewed his previously denied request and was not being
considered for asylum.[232]
Putin said on July 1, 2013, that if Snowden wanted to be
granted asylum in Russia, he would be required to stop
his work aimed at harming our American partners.[233]
A spokesman for Putin subsequently said that Snowden
had withdrawn his asylum application upon learning of
the conditions.[234]
In a July 12 meeting at Sheremetyevo Airport with representatives of human rights organizations and lawyers,
organized in part by the Russian government,[235] Snowden said he was accepting all oers of asylum that he had
already received or would receive in the future, noting
that his Venezuelas asylee status was now formal.[236]
He also said he would request asylum in Russia until he
resolved his travel problems.[237] Russian Federal Migration Service ocials conrmed on July 16 that Snowden
had submitted an application for temporary asylum.[238]
On July 24, Kucherena said his client wants to nd work
in Russia, travel and somehow create a life for himself.
He said Snowden had already begun learning Russian.[239]
Amid media reports in early July 2013 attributed to U.S.
administration sources that Obamas one-on-one meeting with Putin, ahead of a G20 meeting in St Petersburg scheduled for September, was in doubt due to Snowdens protracted sojourn in Russia,[240] top U.S. ocials repeatedly made it clear to Moscow that Snowden should immediately be returned to the United
States to, in the words of White House press secretary
Jay Carney, face the charges that have been brought
against him for the unauthorized leaking of classied
information.[241][242][243] Snowden needed asylum, according to his Russian lawyer, because he faces persecution by the U.S. government and he fears for his life
and safety, fears that he could be subjected to torture and
capital punishment.[244]

valov dated July 23,[245] U.S. Attorney General Eric

Holder sought to eliminate the asserted grounds for Mr.
Snowdens claim that he should be treated as a refugee
or granted asylum, temporary or otherwise. Holder asserted that the theft and espionage charges against Snowden do not carry the possibility of a death penalty and
that the United States would not seek the death penalty
even if Mr. Snowden were charged with additional death
penalty-eligible crimes. Holder said Snowden is free to
travel from Moscow despite the June 22 revocation of his
U.S. passport. He is, Holder explained, immediately eligible for a limited validity passport good for direct return to the United States. Holder also assured Konovalov
that Snowden would not be tortured. Torture is unlawful in the United States, Holder wrote. If he returns
to the United States, Mr. Snowden would promptly be
brought before a civilian court convened under Article
III of the United States Constitution and supervised by
a United States District Judge. ... Mr. Snowden would
be appointed (or if so chose, could retain) counsel.[246]
The same day, the Russian presidents spokesman reiterated the Kremlins position that it would not hand anyone over"; he also noted that Putin was not personally
involved in the matter as Snowden has not made any request that would require examination by the head of state
and that the issue was being handled through talks between the FSB and the FBI.[247]
In March 2015, Glenn Greenwald reported at The Intercept that Sigmar Gabriel, Vice-Chancellor of Germany,
told him the U.S. government had threatened to stop sharing intelligence if Germany oered Snowden asylum or
arranged for his travel there.[248]

4 Criminal charges
On June 14, 2013, United States federal prosecutors led
a criminal complaint against Snowden, charging him with
theft of government property, and two counts of violating
the Espionage Act through unauthorized communication
of national defense information and willful communication of classied communications intelligence information to an unauthorized person.[5][245] Each of the three
charges carries a maximum possible prison term of ten
years. The charge was initially secret and was unsealed a
week later.

Snowden was asked in a January 2014 interview about returning to the U.S. to face the charges in court, as Obama
had suggested a few days prior. Snowden explained why
he rejected the request: What he doesn't say are that the
crimes that hes charged me with are crimes that don't
allow me to make my case. They don't allow me to defend myself in an open court to the public and convince
a jury that what I did was to their benet. ... So its, I
would say, illustrative that the President would choose to
say someone should face the music when he knows the
In a letter to Russian Minister of Justice Alexander Konomusic is a show trial.[51][249] Snowdens legal represen-

12

5 TEMPORARY ASYLUM IN RUSSIA

tative, Jesselyn Radack, wrote that the Espionage Act effectively hinders a person from defending himself before
a jury in an open court, as past examples show, referring to Thomas Drake, John Kiriakou and Chelsea Manning. Radack said that the arcane World War I law was
never meant to prosecute whistleblowers, but rather spies
who sold secrets to enemies for prot. Under this law,
she states, no prosecution of a non-spy can be fair or
just.[250]
On October 29, 2015, the European Parliament voted
285 to 281 for a non-binding resolution for EU states to
drop criminal charges against Snowden and prevent his
extradition by third parties, in recognition of his status
as [a] whistle-blower and international human rights defender, reecting fears of mass surveillance from European nations.[251] Snowden responded in Twitter by calling it a game-changer and not a blow against the US
government, but rather a chance to move forward.[252]

5
5.1

Temporary asylum in Russia

2013

Snowden left the Moscow airport on August 1 after 39

days in the transit section. He had been granted temporary asylum in Russia for one year;[253] the asylum grant
can be extended indenitely on an annual basis.[254] According to his Russian lawyer, Snowden went to an undisclosed location kept secret for security reasons.[255] In
response to the asylum grant, the White House stated
that it was extremely disappointed, and cancelled a
previously scheduled meeting with Russian President
Vladimir Putin.[256][257] Additionally, Republican U.S.
Senator Lindsey Graham urged President Obama to boycott the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, but House
Speaker John Boehner, also a Republican, rejected that
idea as dead wrong.[258]
In late July 2013, Lonnie Snowden said he believed his
son would be better o staying in Russia, and didn't believe he would receive a fair trial in the U.S.[259] In midOctober, he visited his son in Moscow, later telling the
press that he was pleased with Edwards situation, and
still believed Russia was the best choice for his asylum,
saying he wouldn't have to worry about people rushing across the border to render him. Snowden commented that his son found living in Russia comfortable,
and Moscow modern and sophisticated.[260] Snowdens
Russian lawyer, Anatoly Kucherena, announced on October 31 that his client had found a website maintenance job
at one of Russias largest websites, but refused to identify
the site for security reasons. Jesselyn Radack, one of
Snowdens American lawyers, said she was not aware
of any new job.[261] Asked about this by The Moscow
Times in June 2014, The Guardian correspondent Luke
Harding replied, Kucherena is completely unreliable as
a source. We [The Guardian] did the rounds of Rus-

sian IT companies when he made that claim last year and

none of themnone of the big ones, at leastconrmed
this.[262]
Former CIA analyst Ray McGovern, who had traveled to
Russia to give Snowden a whistleblower award, said that
Snowden did not give any storage devices such as hard
drives or USB ash drives to Russia or China, and that the
four laptops he carried with him were a 'diversion' and
contained no secrets. U.S. ocials said they assumed
that any classied materials downloaded by Snowden had
fallen into the hands of China and Russia, though they
acknowledged they had no proof of this.[263] In an October 2013 interview, Snowden maintained that he did
not bring any classied material into Russia because it
wouldn't serve the public interest. He added, Theres
a zero percent chance the Russians or Chinese have received any documents.[89] In June 2015, however, The
Sunday Times reported that British government ocials
anonymously claimed to the paper that Russia and China
had cracked an encrypted cache of les taken by Snowden, forcing the withdrawal of British spies from live
operations.[264] Several prominent media outlets and persons have disputed the validity of The Sunday Times's
story. The Intercept's Greenwald said the report had
retraction-worthy fabrications, and does [...] nothing
other than quote anonymous British ocials, and notes
that parts of the Times 's report were removed from the
original post without the Times saying it did so;[265] The
Washington Post's Erik Wemple stated that CNN reporter
George Howell may have unknowingly damaged the reports credibility in an on-air interview with the storys
lead author Tom Harper by asking obvious questions
about the story.[266]

Edward Snowden speaks about various topics at the Sam Adams

Award presentation in Moscow

WikiLeaks released video of Snowden on October

11 taken during the Sam Adams Award reception in
Moscow, his rst public appearance in three months. Former U.S. government ocials attending the ceremony
said they saw no evidence Snowden was under the control
of Russian security services. The whistleblower group
said he was in good spirits, looked well, and still believes
he was right to release the NSA documents.[267] In the
video, Snowden said people all over the world are coming to realize that the NSAs surveillance programs put

5.2

2014

people in danger, hurt the U.S. and its economy, and

limit our ability to speak and think and live and be creative, to have relationships and associate freely as well
as putting people at risk of coming into conict with our
own government.[268]

13
do was validated.[65] He commented I am not trying to
bring down the NSA, I am working to improve the NSA
... I am still working for the NSA right now. They are the
only ones who don't realize it. On the accusation from
former CIA and NSA director Michael Hayden that he
had defected, Snowden stated, If I defected at all, I defected from the government to the public.[65] In 2014,
Snowden said that he lives a surprisingly open life in
Russia and that he is recognized when he goes to computer stores.[199]

On October 31, German lawmaker Hans-Christian Strbele traveled to Moscow to meet with Snowden, whom he
invited to testify before the German parliament to assist
investigations into NSA surveillance of German Chancellor Angela Merkels phone since 2002.[269][270][271] After the visit, Snowden indicated a willingness to testify,
though not from Moscow as Germany requested. Snowden said he would rather give testimony before the U.S. 5.2 2014
Congress, his second choice being Berlin.[272]
According to BuzzFeed, in January 2014 an anonymous
Also in October, Glenn Greenwald commented on SnowPentagon ocial said that he wanted to kill Snowden,
dens Russian asylum: "[Snowden] didn't choose to be
claiming that By [Snowden] showing who our collecthere. He was trying to get transit to Latin America, and
tions partners were, the terrorists have dropped those
then the U.S. revoked his passport and threatened other
carriers and email addresses.[281] Other intelligence an[273]
countries out of oering Snowden safe passage.
alysts expressed their anger to BuzzFeed as well, with
WikiLeaks representative Sarah Harrison, who accompaan Army intelligence ocer complaining that Snowdens
nied Snowden from Hong Kong to Moscow, left Russia
leaks had increased his blindness and expressing his
in early November after waiting until she felt condent
hope that Snowden would be killed in a covert way.
he had established himself and was free from the interWhen asked about the BuzzFeed story, State Department
[274]
ference of any government.
spokeswoman Marie Harf said death threats were toOn December 17, 2013, Snowden wrote an open letter tally inappropriate and had no place in our discussion
to the people of Brazil oering to assist the Brazilian of these issues.[282]
government in investigating allegations of U.S. spying,
On Meet the Press in late January 2014, speculation
and added that he continued to seek, and would require,
arose from top U.S. ocials in the House and Senasylum.[275] Snowden wrote, Until a country grants perate Intelligence Committees that Snowden might have
manent political asylum, the U.S. government will conbeen assisted by Russian intelligence,[283] prompting a
tinue to interfere with my ability to speak ... going so far
rare interview during which Snowden spoke in his deas to force down the Presidential Plane of Evo Morales to
fense. He told The New Yorker this 'Russian spy' push
[276]
prevent me from traveling to Latin America!"
Brazil
is absurd, adding that he clearly and unambiguously
had been in an uproar since Snowden revealed that the
acted alone, with no assistance from anyone, much less a
U.S. was spying on Brazilian President Dilma Roussgovernment.[180] Investigations by the NSA and the FBI
e, her senior advisors, and Brazils national oil comfound no evidence that Snowden received any aid.[284]
pany, Petrobras.[277] Rousse and ocials of the BrazilDays later, Feinstein stated that she had seen no evidence
ian foreign ministry said in response that they could not
that Snowden is a Russian spy.[285] Germanys Der Spiegel
consider asylum for Snowden because they had not resuggested the accusations were part of a smear camceived any formal request.[278] A representative of the
paign by U.S. ocials. For Snowden, the smears did not
foreign ministry said that a fax requesting asylum had
mystify him; he said that outlets report statements that
been sent to the Brazilian embassy in Moscow in July but
the speakers themselves admit are sheer speculation.[286]
[279]
it had not been signed and could not be authenticated.
David Miranda, the Brazilian partner of Glenn Green- In late January 2014, US attorney general, Eric Holder in
wald, launched an internet petition urging the Brazilian an interview with MSNBC indicated that the U.S. could
allow Snowden to return from Russia under negotiated
president to consider oering Snowden asylum.[280]
terms, saying he was prepared to engage in conversaSnowden met with Barton Gellman of The Washington
tion with him, but that full clemency would be going too
Post six months after the disclosure for an exclusive interfar.[287]
view spanning 14 hours, his rst since being granted tem[288]
aired January 26,
porary asylum. Snowden talked about his life in Russia Snowdens rst television interview
as an indoor cat, reected on his time as an NSA con- 2014 on Germanys NDR. In April 2014, he appeared
tractor, and discussed at length the revelations of global on video from an undisclosed location during Presisurveillance and their reverberations. Snowden said, In dent Putins live annual Q&A exchange with the pubterms of personal satisfaction, the missions already ac- lic. Snowden asked, Does Russia intercept, store, or
complished ... I already won. As soon as the journalists analyzein any waythe communications of individuwere able to work, everything that I had been trying to als?" Putin replied, Russia uses surveillance techniques
for spying on individuals only with the sanction of a

14
court order. This is our law, and therefore there is no
mass surveillance in our country.[289] Reactions were
split. Critics said it looked like a highly-scripted propaganda stunt for Vladimir Putin[290] and that Snowden
is bought and paid for entirely by the Russians.[290][291]
Snowden insisted his question was designed to hold the
Russian president accountable.[292] In an op-ed for The
Guardian, Snowden said his question was intended to
mirror the now infamous exchange in US Senate intelligence committee hearings between senator Ron Wyden
and the director of national intelligence, James Clapper, about whether the NSA collected records on millions
of Americans, and to invite either an important concession or a clear evasion. Snowden called Putins response
evasive.[293] A few days later, The Daily Beast reported
that Snowden himself instantly regretted asking Putin
the softball question, which was crafted with several of
his key advisers, and that he was mortied by the reaction. Ben Wizner, one of Snowdens legal advisers, told
the Beast that Snowden hadn't realized how much his appearance with Putin would be seen as a Kremlin propaganda victory. I know this is hard to believe, Wizner
acknowledged. I know if I was just watching from afar,
I'd think, 'Wow, they forced him to do this.' But its not
true. He just fucking did it.[294] Asked six months later
about the incident, Snowden conceded, Yeah, that was
terrible! Oh, Jesus, that blew up in my face. ... And in
the United States, what I did appearing at that Putin press
conference was not worth the price.[215]

5 TEMPORARY ASYLUM IN RUSSIA

On July 13, 2014, The Guardian published its rst story
based on an exclusive, seven-hour interview newly conducted with Snowden in a Moscow city centre hotel.
Snowden condemned the Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Bill announced to the UKs House of Commons on July 10[302] bolstering the states right to keep
personal data held by Internet and phone companies.
Snowden said it was very unusual for a public body to
pass such emergency legislation except during total war.
I mean we don't have bombs falling. We don't have Uboats in the harbor. It dees belief.[303] The Daily Mail
reported that Snowden had caused fury by attacking
Britain. His critics said the new surveillance Bill was being pushed through Parliament today largely because of
his treachery in leaking Britains spy secrets.[304] On July
13 and 17, The Guardian posted video clips, of about 2
minutes[303] and 14 minutes[305] in length, excerpted from
the full interview. On July 18, The Guardian published a
nearly 10,000-word edited transcript of their Snowden
interview.[72] A year after arriving in Moscow, Snowden
said he is still learning Russian. He keeps late and solitary
hours, eectively living on U.S. time. He does not drink,
cooks for himself but doesn't eat much. I don't live in
absolute secrecy, he says. I live a pretty open lifebut
at the same time I don't want to be a celebrity. He does
not work for a Russian organization, yet is nancially secure thanks to substantial savings from his years as a wellpaid contractor and more recently numerous awards and
speaking fees from around the world.[24]

In March 2014, the international advocacy group

European Digital Rights (EDRi) said that the European Parliament, in adopting a Data Protection Reform
Package, rejected amendments that would have dropped
charges against Snowden and granted him asylum or
refugee status.[295]

On August 7, 2014, six days after Snowdens one-year

temporary asylum expired, his Russian lawyer announced
that Snowden had received a three-year residency permit.
He will be able to travel freely within the country and
go abroad, said Anatoly Kucherena. He'll be able to
stay abroad for not longer than three months. Kucherena
explained that Snowden had not been granted permanent
In May 2014, NBCs Brian Williams presented the
[306]
[296]
rst interview for American television.
In June, The political asylum, which requires a separate process.
Washington Post reported that during his rst year of Rus- In the future, he added, Edward will have to decide
and become a citizen
sian asylum, Snowden had received tens of thousands of whether to continue to live in Russia
[307]
or
to
return
to
the
United
States.
dollars in cash awards and appearance fees from privacy
organizations and other groups, elded inquiries about
book and movie projects, and was considering taking a
position with a South African foundation that would support work on security and privacy issues. Any moment
that he decides that he wants to be a wealthy person, said
Snowdens attorney Ben Wizner, that route is available
to him, although the U.S. government could attempt to
5.3 2015
seize such proceeds.[297]
Also in May, the German Parliamentary Committee investigating the NSA spying scandal unanimously decided to invite Snowden to testify as a witness.[298] In
September, opposition parties in the German parliament led constitutional complaints to force the government to let Snowden testify in Berlin. Snowden had refused a proposed video conference from Moscow, saying he wants to testify only in Berlin and asking for safe
conduct.[299][300][301]

In May 2015, Snowdens lawyer Ben Wizner said that

Snowdens main source of income was speaking fees,
which sometimes exceeded $10,000 per appearance.[308]
In November 2015, Snowden said that he does not intend
to play any role in Russian politics and wants to devote
his focus to U.S. issues. During a panel event, he said,
people say I live in Russia, but thats actually a little bit
of a misunderstanding. I live on the Internet.[309]

6.1

United States

Reaction

15

Main article: Reactions to global surveillance disclosures

See also: Commentary on Edward Snowdens disclosure

6.1

United States

A
subject
of
controversy,
Snowden
has
been variously called a hero,[310][311][312] a
whistleblower,[313][314][315][316] a dissident,[317] a
patriot,[318][319][320] and a traitor.[321][322][323][324] His
release of NSA material was called the most signicant
leak in U.S. history by Pentagon Papers leaker Daniel
Ellsberg,[325][326] who said, Snowdens disclosures are a
true constitutional moment enabling the press to hold
the Executive branch of the U.S. federal government
accountable, while the legislative and judiciary branch
refused to do so.[327] On January 14, 2014, Ellsberg
posted to his Twitter page: Edward Snowden has done
more for our Constitution in terms of the Fourth and
First Amendment than anyone else I know.[328]
On June 9, 2013, Director of National Intelligence
James Clapper condemned Snowdens actions as having done huge, grave damage to U.S. intelligence
capabilities.[329] The United States Army barred its personnel from access to parts of the website of The
Guardian after that sites revelations of Snowdens
information about global surveillance.[330] The entire
Guardian website was blocked for personnel stationed
throughout Afghanistan, the Middle East, and South
Asia.[331]
Journalist Naomi Wolf in June 2013 questioned the authenticity of Snowdens story. She elucidated her creeping concern that the NSA leaker is not who he purports
to be, and that the motivations involved in the story may
be more complex than they appear to be, and in what
was called a conspiracy theory, presented a series of
questions concerning the ocial narrative. From the
standpoint of the police state and its interests, she asks,
why have a giant Big Brother apparatus spying on us at
all times unless we know about it?"[332][333][334]
A We the People petition was launched on June 9 via
the whitehouse.gov website seeking a full, free and absolute pardon for any crimes [Snowden] has committed
or may have committed related to blowing the whistle on
secret NSA surveillance programs.[335] The petition attained 100,000 signatures within two weeks, thus meeting the threshold and requiring an ocial response from
the White House.[336] In March 2014, the Administration
still had not responded to the petition, but gave no reason
for the nine-month delay.[337] The White House nally
answered on July 28, 2015. In a response written by Lisa
Monaco, Obamas homeland security and terrorism advisor, the White House declined to pardon Snowden. It said
his disclosures had serious consequences for national

We The People petition to pardon Snowden at the White House

website

security and that he should accept the consequences of

his actions.[338]
Ex-CIA director James Woolsey said in December 2013
that if Snowden was convicted of treason, he should be
hanged.[339] One of Snowdens legal advisers, Jesselyn
Radack, said that Snowden has concerns for his safety
based on this and joking remarks between Hayden and
House Intelligence Committee chairman Mike Rogers
about putting Snowden on a kill list.[340][341]
According to Mike Rogers and ranking member Dutch
Ruppersberger, a classied Pentagon report written
by military intelligence ocials contends that Edward Snowdens leaks had put U.S. troops at risk and
prompted terrorists to change their tactics, and that
most les copied were related to current U.S. military operations.[342] Glenn Greenwald and Ben Wizner,
an ACLU lawyer representing Snowden, disputed these
claims, stating that Snowdens leaks overwhelmingly relate to NSA activities and noting that similar claims were
made about the Pentagon Papers.[343]
On January 1, 2014, the editorial board of The New York
Times praised Snowden as a whistleblower and wrote in
favor of granting him clemency or at least a substantially
reduced punishment, arguing that while Snowden may
have broken the law, he had done his country a great service by bringing the abuses of the NSA to light. When
someone reveals that government ocials have routinely
and deliberately broken the law, they wrote, that person should not face life in prison at the hands of the same
government. The Times further criticized James Clapper
for lying to Congress about the NSAs surveillance activities and cast doubt on the claim made by Snowdens critics that he had damaged national security. The editorial
concluded with a request to President Obama to discontinue the vilication of Snowden and to oer Snowden
an incentive to return home.[313][344] The article garnered an unusual amount of heat for an editorial, with
responses from multiple media outlets.[345] The editorial
board of The Guardian called for a pardon in an arti-

16
cle coincidentally published on the same day. The board
asked President Obama to use his executive powers to
treat [Snowden] humanely and in a manner that would be
a shining example about the value of whistleblowers and
of free speech itself.[346][347]
In his article dated January 4, 2014, Moves to Curb
Spying Help Drive the Clemency Argument for Snowden, Peter Baker of The New York Times laid out the
polarization of opinions throughout the U.S. and the impetus toward clemency gained by the public reaction to
the revelations of the surveillance. He noted that ocials
in the intelligence establishment warn that letting Mr.
Snowden o the hook would set a dangerous precedent
and contrasted that with the statement of attorney Bruce
Fein about the protections aorded by the First Amendment, It prohibits government from punishing communications that expose government lawlessness whether or
not the illegality is classied. Calling government to account for breaking the law is a compelling civic duty of
all citizens.[348] The author also noted that similar polarization has arisen in judicial review, citing one federal judges ruling that the surveillance program in question was probably unconstitutional, implying that laws
passed to enable such programs could be struck down.
In January 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama mentioned Snowden in a speech covering proposed reforms
to the NSAs surveillance program and said that our nations defense depends in part on the delity of those entrusted with our nations secrets. If any individual who
objects to government policy can take it into their own
hands to publicly disclose classied information, then we
will not be able to keep our people safe, or conduct foreign policy. Obama also objected to the sensational
way the leaks had been reported, saying the reporting often shed more heat than light. He went on to assert that
the disclosures had revealed methods to our adversaries
that could impact our operations.[349]
The Republican Party in January 2014 voted unanimously to pass a Resolution To Renounce The National
Security Agencys Surveillance Program which called
for a special committee to investigate, report, and reveal
to the public the extent of this domestic spying. They
said that Snowdens revelations had uncovered an invasion into the personal lives of American citizens that violates the right of free speech and association aorded
by the First Amendment of the United States Constitution and that the mass collection and retention of
personal data is in itself contrary to the right of privacy protected by the Fourth Amendment of the United
States Constitution.[350] The resolution endorses legislation proposed by Congressman Justin Amash.[351]

6 REACTION
of the NSAs worldwide spying program. Thanks to
one mans courageous actions, Americans know about
the truly egregious ways their government is spying on
them.[353]
Speaking at The Wall Street Journals CIO Network
on February 4, 2014, Mike McConnellformer NSA
Director and current Vice Chairman at Booz Allen
Hamiltonsaid that Snowden was motivated by revenge
when the NSA did not oer Snowden the job he wanted.
At this point, said McConnell, he being narcissistic
and having failed at most everything he did, he decides
now I'm going to turn on them.[354]
In March 2014, former U.S. president Jimmy Carter said
that if he were still president today he would certainly
consider giving Snowden a pardon were he to be found
guilty and imprisoned for his leaks.[355]
In April 2014, former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary
Clinton insinuated that she found Snowdens motives
suspicious, saying "[W]e have all these protections for
whistle-blowers. If he were concerned and wanted to
be part of the American debate, he could have been...it
struck me as...sort of odd that he would ee to China,
because Hong Kong is controlled by China, and that
he would then go to Russiatwo countries with which
we have very dicult cyberrelationships...turning over a
lot of that materialintentionally or unintentionally
drained, gave all kinds of information, not only to big
countries, but to networks and terrorist groups and the
like. So I have a hard time thinking that somebody who is
a champion of privacy and liberty has taken refuge in Russia, under Putins authority.[356] Supporters and advisers of Snowden called Clintons remarks unrealistic and
pointed out several misunderstandings, telling Politico
that Snowden could not have availed himself of whistleblower protections because he was a contractor, not a
government employee, and because his claims would
not have been seen as exposing impropriety, since the
NSA telephone program was legal.[357] As PEN America wrote, in January 2013, shortly before Snowden made
his disclosures, Congress signicantly weakened existing whistleblower protections for national security contractors by passing a law that removed most of their preexisting rights. President Obama did issue a directive
in 2012 that provided intelligence community contractors who pursue internal channels to raise concerns about
misconduct with protection from security clearance retaliation, but the directive didnt go into eect until after
Snowdens disclosures and would not have protected him
from other forms of retaliation. These confusing procedural developments aside, Snowdens case underscores a
far more fundamental issue for intelligence community
workers: trying to blow the whistle through internal channels is nearly impossible when it concerns an institutionally accepted program that has been judged lawful by political leaders or Congress.[358]

In February 2014, former congressman Ron Paul began a

petition urging the Obama Administration to grant Snowden clemency.[352] Paul released a video on his website
saying, Edward Snowden sacriced his livelihood, citizenship, and freedom by exposing the disturbing scope On July 4, 2014, Hillary Clinton said that if Snowden

6.1

United States

wished to return to the U.S., knowing he would be held

accountable, he would have the right to launch both a
legal defense and a public defense, which can of course
aect the legal defense.[359]

17
public debate, lawsuits, presidential task forces, and attempts at legislative remedy had not brought about any
meaningful policy change. They printed: "... the status quo continues, if with forced disclosures and administration arguments that the public just doesn't understand how dicult it is to prevent the next 9/11even
though theres been no evidence publicly revealed so far
that these measures have prevented the next 9/11.[134]

In May 2014, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry said

Snowden had damaged his country very signicantly
and hurt operational security by telling terrorists how
to evade detection. The bottom line, Kerry added, is
this man has betrayed his country, sitting in Russia where In February 2014, Intelligence Squared held an Oxford
he has taken refuge. You know, he should man up and style debate in New York City titled Snowden Was
come back to the United States.[360]
Justied[372] addressing the opposing, widely held views
In June 2014, interviewed at the Southland technology that Snowden was a whistleblower, and alternately, a
conference in Nashville, Tennessee, former U.S. Vice traitor. Ex-CIA director R. James Woolsey and former
President Al Gore said Snowden clearly violated the law federal prosecutor Andrew C. McCarthy argued against
so you can't say OK, what he did is all right. Its not. But the motion, while ACLU lawyer representing Snowden,
Pentagon Papers leaker Daniel Ellsberg
what he revealed in the course of violating important laws Ben Wizner, and
[372]
argued
in
favor.
Prior to arguments, the audience was
included violations of the U.S. constitution that were way
split
on
the
matter
at
29 percent. After the debate, 54
more serious than the crimes he committed. In the course
percent
found
that
Snowden
was justied and 35 percent
of violating important law, he also provided an important
[373]
were
against.
service. ... Because we did need to know how far this has
gone.[361]
In December 2014, President Obama nominated former
Deputy Defense Secretary Ashton Carter to succeed outgoing Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel. During a May
2014 panel discussion at Harvard University, Carter had
called cybersecurity an obvious national security challenge, and said, We had a cyber Pearl Harbor. His name
was Edward Snowden. Carter charged that U.S. security
ocials screwed up spectacularly in the case of Snowden. And this knucklehead had access to destructive
power that was much more than any individual person
should have access to.[362]

6.1.1

Debate

In the U.S., Snowdens actions precipitated an intense debate on privacy and warrantless domestic
surveillance.[363][364] President Obama was initially dismissive of Snowden, saying I'm not going to be scrambling jets to get a 29-year-old hacker.[365][366][367] In August, Obama rejected the suggestion that Snowden was a
patriot,[368] and in November said that the benet of the
debate he generated was not worth the damage done, because there was another way of doing it.[369]

6.1.2 Presidential panel

In August 2013, President Obama said that he had called
for a review of U.S. surveillance activities even before Snowden had begun revealing details of the NSAs
operations.[368] Obama announced that he was directing DNI James Clapper to establish a review group
on intelligence and communications technologies that
would brief and later report to Obama.[374][375] In December, the task force issued 46 recommendations that, if
adopted, would subject the NSA to additional scrutiny by
the courts, Congress, and the president, and would strip
the NSA of the authority to inltrate American computer
systems using "backdoors" in hardware or software.[376]
Panel member Georey R. Stone said there was no evidence that the bulk collection of phone data had stopped
any terror attacks.[377] In July 2014, The Washington
Post reported that, according to a large cache of NSAintercepted conversations provided by Edward Snowden, months of tracking by the NSA of communications across more than 50 alias Internet accounts led directly to the 2011 capture in Abbottabad of Muhammad
Tahir Shahzad, a Pakistan-based bomb builder, and Umar
Patek, a suspect in a 2002 terrorist bombing on the Indonesian island of Bali. The Post said that, at the request
of CIA ocials, it was withholding other examples that
ocials said would compromise ongoing operations.[79]

In June 2013, U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont

wrote on his blog, Love him or hate him, we all owe
Snowden our thanks for forcing upon the nation an important debate. But the debate shouldn't be about him. It
should be about the gnawing questions his actions raised
6.1.3 Court rulings
from the shadows.[370]
Snowden said in December 2013 that he was inspired
by the global debate ignited by the leaks, and stated that
NSAs culture of indiscriminate global espionage ... is
collapsing.[371]

On June 6, 2013, in the wake of Snowdens leaks,

conservative public interest lawyer and Judicial Watch
founder Larry Klayman led a lawsuit claiming that
the federal government had unlawfully collected metaAt the end of 2013, The Washington Post noted that the data for his telephone calls and was harassing him.

18

6 REACTION

In Klayman v. Obama, Judge Richard J. Leon referred to the NSAs almost-Orwellian technology and
ruled the bulk telephony metadata program to be probably unconstitutional.[378] Snowden later described Judge
Leons decision as vindication.[379]
On June 11, the ACLU led a lawsuit against James
Clapper, Director of National Intelligence, alleging that
the NSAs phone records program was unconstitutional.
In December 2013, ten days after Judge Leons ruling,
Judge William H. Pauley III came to the opposite conclusion. In ACLU v. Clapper, although acknowledging
that privacy concerns are not trivial, Pauley found that
the potential benets of surveillance outweigh these con- Demonstration at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin during Barack
siderations and ruled that the NSAs collection of phone Obamas visit, June 18, 2013
data is legal.[380]
Gary Schmitt, former sta director of the Senate Select
Committee on Intelligence, wrote that The two decisions
have generated public confusion over the constitutionality
of the NSAs data collection programa kind of judicial
'he-said, she-said' stando.[381]
On May 7, 2015, in the case of ACLU v. Clapper, the
United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
said that Section 215 of the Patriot Act did not authorize
the NSA to collect Americans calling records in bulk, as
exposed by Snowden in 2013. The decision voided U.S.
District Judge William Pauleys December 2013 nding
that the NSA program was lawful, and remanded the case
to him for further review. The appeals court did not rule
on the constitutionality of the bulk surveillance, and declined to enjoin the program, noting the pending expiration of relevant parts of the Patriot Act. Circuit Judge
Gerard E. Lynch wrote that, given the national security
interests at stake, it was prudent to give Congress an
opportunity to debate and decide the matter.[382]
6.1.4

USA Freedom Act

On June 2, 2015 the U.S. Senate passed, and President

Obama signed, the USA Freedom Act which restored in
modied form several provisions of the Patriot Act that
had expired the day before, while for the rst time imposing some limits on the bulk collection of telecommunication data on U.S. citizens by American intelligence
agencies. The new restrictions were widely seen as stemming from Snowdens revelations.[383][384]

6.2

International community

Crediting the Snowden leaks, the United Nations General

Assembly unanimously adopted Resolution 68/167,[385]
a symbolic anti-spying resolution to protect the right
to privacy against unlawful surveillance in the wake of
reports that 35 foreign leaders were subjects of U.S.
eavesdropping.[386][387] The non-binding resolution unequivocally states that the same rights that people have
o-line must also be protected online.[388][389]

In an ocial report published in October 2015, the UNs

Special Rapporteur for the promotion and protection of
the right to freedom of speech, Professor David Kaye,
criticised the U.S. governments harsh treatment of, and
bringing criminal charges against, whistleblowers, including Edward Snowden. The report found that Snowdens revelations of surveillance practices were important for the people of the United States and the world
and made a deep and lasting impact on law, policy and
politics.[390][391] Snowden has been charged with three
felonies. The European Parliament invited Snowden to
make a pre-recorded video appearance to aid their NSA
investigation.[392][393] Snowden gave written testimony in
which he said that he was seeking asylum in the EU,
but that he was told by European Parliamentarians that
the U.S. would not allow EU partners to make such an
oer.[394] He told the Parliament that the NSA was working with the security agencies of EU states to get access to as much data of EU citizens as possible.[395] The
NSAs Foreign Aairs Division, he claimed, lobbies the
EU and other countries to change their laws, allowing for
everyone in the country to be spied on legally.[396]
In July 2014, Navi Pillay, UN High Commissioner for
Human Rights, told a news conference in Geneva that
the U.S. should abandon its eorts to prosecute Snowden, since his leaks were in the public interest.[397]
In October 2015, the European Parliament adopted a resolution advising member states to drop criminal charges
against Snowden and create an EU shared strategy for
greater IT independence and online privacy, based upon
a March 2014 resolution drawn up in the aftermath of
Snowdens leaks.[251]

6.3 Public opinion polls

Surveys conducted by news and professional polling organizations originally found public opinion more supportive
of Snowden outside the United States than within. In a
June 2013 Emnid survey, 50 percent of Germans polled
considered Snowden a hero, and 35 percent would hide

6.4

Recognition

him in their homes.[398] In October 2013, 67 percent of

Canadians polled considered Snowden a hero, as did 60
percent of UK respondents.[399] In an April 2014 UK
YouGov poll, 46 percent of British people thought that
newspapers reporting on the materials given to them by
Snowden was good for society, while 22 percent thought
it was bad for society and 31 percent didn't know.[400]
Rasmussen Reports held a poll in June 2013 where Americans were asked to describe Snowden in a single word.
Twelve percent said he was a hero, 21 percent called
him a traitor, 34 percent said he falls somewhere in between, and 29 percent said it was too early to tell.[401]
Six months later, 8 percent said hero and 23 percent
traitor.[402] When Americans were asked for their general impression in June 2013, 40 percent felt favorably
and 39 percent unfavorably towards Snowden.[403] Six
months later, 43 percent responded favorably and 41 percent unfavorably.[404] Asked specically whether his disclosures were benecial or detrimental, in June 2013,
49 percent said Snowden had served the public interest,
and 44 percent thought he'd harmed national security.[405]
Six months later, 40 percent believed the leaks had been
helpful, and 46 percent said they'd been bad for the
country.[402] In June 2013, Americans were split when
asked if Snowden was right or wrong to leak the NSA
documents to the press, with 44 percent saying he was
right and 42 percent that he was wrong.[406] Americans
saying Snowden was wrong to leak reached a high of
55 percent in November 2013.[407] Asked whether or
not the U.S. government ought to pursue a criminal case
against Snowden, in June 2013, 54 percent said he should
be prosecuted and 38 percent disagreed.[405] By March
2014, those favoring prosecution had declined to 45 percent, with 34 percent opposed.[408]
A 2014 Pew/USA Today poll revealed that 18- to 29year-old Americans were signicantly more supportive
than those over 65, and were the only age group where
a majority did not favor prosecution, being evenly split
42 percent to 42 percent on whether Snowden should be
tried. Fifty-seven percent of 18- to 29-year-olds thought
he had served rather than harmed public interest.[409] A
YouGov survey at the end of May 2014 found that 55
percent of Americans thought Snowden was right to leak
details of the PRISM program. Twenty percent of Americans aged 1634 thought Snowdens actions were wrong,
while 41 percent of those 55 and over held this view.[410]
On May 20, NBC News asked viewers to weigh in via
Twitter on whether they thought Snowden was a patriot
or traitor.[411] Prior to airing its Snowden interview,
viewers were closely split on the matter; after the program
aired, 60 percent said they considered him a patriot.[412]
A subsequent NBC News poll of registered voters, published on June 1, found that 34 percent opposed Snowdens leaks, 24 percent backed him and another 40 percent had no opinion. Among those who closely followed
the story, 49 percent opposed his actions and 33 percent supported them. These overall numbers, said NBC

19
News, are essentially unchanged from a January 2014
NBC News/Wall Street Journal [poll], when 23 percent of
registered voters said they supported Snowdens actions,
versus 38 percent who opposed them.[413]
In July 2014, the Pew Research Center released the results of its Spring 2014 Global Attitudes Survey, which
found widespread worldwide opposition to U.S. eavesdropping and a decline in the view that the U.S. respects
the personal freedoms of its own people, but little evidence this opposition has severely harmed Americas
overall image. While the majority of Americans and others around the world condoned spying on suspected terrorists, they agreed it is unacceptable to spy on American
citizens.[414]
In August 2014, Vanity Fair published the results of a
poll conducted in June on behalf of CBS News that asked
a random sample of 1,017 adult Americans nationwide,
Did Edward Snowden act ethically?" In response, 54%
said no, 27% said yes, and 19% didn't know.[415]

6.4 Recognition

In February 2014, Snowden joined the board of Freedom of the

Press Foundation.

Edward Snowden was voted as The Guardian 's person of

the year 2013, garnering four times the number of votes
than any other candidate.[416]
The 2013 list of leading Global Thinkers,[417] published
annually by Foreign Policy placed Snowden in rst place
due to the impact of his revelations. FPs Global Conversation visualization[418] showed that Snowden occupied a role in 2013s global news media coverage just
slightly less important than President Barack Obama

20

6 REACTION

himself.[419]
He headed the Ten Tech Heroes of 2013 at TechRepublic,
the site of an online newsletter circulated among IT professionals. Editor Jack Wallen placed Snowden in the
number one position of his list and wrote, Prior to this
leak, the public was unaware of the depth of surveillance
and the true nature of government secrecy. His disclosures have also had major implications for those in the
technology eld.[420]
Snowden was named Times Person of the Year runnerup in 2013, behind Pope Francis.[421] Time was criticized
for not placing him in the top spot.[422][423][424] In 2014,
Snowden was named among Time 's 100 Most Inuential
People in the world.[425]
In February 2014, Snowden joined the board of directors
of the Freedom of the Press Foundation,[426] co-founded
by Daniel Ellsberg. Journalists Glenn Greenwald and
Laura Poitras also sit on the board.[427]
In July 2014, Freie Universitt Berlin announced that
Snowden had accepted its oer of honorary membership
in recognition of what the university called his extraordinary achievements in defense of transparency, justice,
and freedom. Apart from the honor, there are no rights,
privileges or duties involved.[428]
6.4.1

cies where we used to work.[432]

6.4.3 Alternative Christmas Message

Snowden was chosen to give Britains 2013 "Alternative
Christmas Message, Channel 4s alternative to the
Royal Christmas Message by Queen Elizabeth II.[433]
The Message is normally given by non-establishment
gures.[434][435] In what was Snowdens rst television
appearance since arriving in Russia, the address focused on the importance of privacy and the need for an
end to government surveillance.[436] In the 1.5-minute
segment[437] he said that the recently revealed worldwide
mass surveillance, a system resulting from teamwork between governments, the danger of which George Orwell
warned in Nineteen Eighty-Four, a novel about a society
controlled by an ever-present Big Brother.[438] The difference is, Snowden noted, that todays surveillance capabilities far surpass those Orwell described, saying We
have sensors in our pockets that track us everywhere we
go ... A child born today [will] never know what it means
to have a private moment to themselves, an unrecorded,
un-analyzed thought. Thats a problem because privacy
matters; [it] allows us to determine who we are, and who
we want to be.[439][440] The piece was lmed, edited and
produced by Laura Poitras.[439]

German Whistleblower Prize

Edward Snowden was awarded the biennial German

whistleblower prize in August 2013, in absentia, with
an accompanying award equal to 3,000 euro. Established
in 1999, the award is sponsored by the German branch of
the International Association of Lawyers Against Nuclear
Arms and by the Association of German Scientists.[429]
Organizers in Berlin said the prize was to acknowledge
his bold eorts to expose the massive and unsuspecting
monitoring and storage of communication data, which
cannot be accepted in democratic societies.[430]

6.4.4 Rector of the University of Glasgow

On February 18, 2014, Snowden was elected as Rector

of the University of Glasgow,[441] a position widely described as symbolic.[442][443][444][445] Snowden became
the rst American Rector in the positions 366-year history. Snowden beat three competitors and received over
half of the 6,560 votes.[446][447][448] The nomination was
arranged by a group of Glasgow University students along
with the help of Snowdens lawyer.[449][450] Snowden
was ocially installed on April 23.[451] Like past rector
Winnie Mandela, Snowden will not visit the campus in
person[452] and will not be expected to full his duties as
6.4.2 Sam Adams Award
rector, a job which involves representing student issues to
[453]
He will serve for three years.[454]
In October 2013, the Sam Adams Award was presented senior management.
to Snowden in Moscow by a group of four visiting American former intelligence ocers and whistleblowers.[431]
After two months as an asylee, Snowden made his 6.4.5 German positive Big Brother Award
rst public appearance to accept the award, a candlestick holder meant to symbolize bringing light to At German Big Brother Awards gala on April 11, 2014,
dark corners.[267] One of the presenters, FBI whistle- Edward Snowden was honored with the rst-ever posblower Jesselyn Radack of the Government Accountabil- itive award, named the Julia and Winston Award afity Project, told The Nation, We believe that Snowden ter the two main rebellious characters in George Orwells
exemplies Sam Adamss courage, persistence and de- Nineteen Eighty-Four. The award was endowed with one
votion to truthno matter what the consequences. We million stickers calling on the German government to
wanted Snowden to know that, as opposed to the daily grant asylum to Edward Snowden. The awards organizvitriol from the U.S. government and mainstream media, ers, Digitalcourage, made the stickers available for free
60 percent of the United States supports him, including online orders to enable the public to distribute the stickthousands in the national security and intelligence agen- ers throughout Germany.[455]

6.5
6.4.6

Teleconference speaking engagements

21

Ridenhour Truth-Telling Prize

In April 2014 Snowden, together with Laura Poitras, was

awarded the Ridenhour Truth-Telling Prize, given by The
Nation Institute and The Fertel Foundation for transparency and whistleblowing.[456] Snowden and Poitras
each appeared on video[457] at the National Press Club
to accept the award.[458] Snowden gave a speech and took
questions from members of the audience, who according to The Nation greeted him with numerous standing ovations.[459] During his speech, he questioned why
James Clapper had not been reprimanded for his famous
lie, whereas charges were led against Snowden soon after going public as the source of the NSA leaks.[460] He Speaking via telepresence robot, Snowden addresses the TED
said, When I began this, I never expected to receive the conference from Russia
level of support that I did from the public. Having seen
what happened to the people that came before, specidangerous than that gathered by a government agency,
cally Thomas Drake, it was an intimidating thing.[461]
because governments have the power to deprive you
of your rights.[466] Representative Mike Pompeo of the
6.4.7 Right Livelihood Award
House Intelligence Committee had tried unsuccessfully
to get the SXSW management to cancel Snowdens apIn December 2014, Snowden shared a Joint Hon- pearance; instead, SXSW director Hugh Forrest said that
orary Award with Alan Rusbridger, editor of The the NSA was welcome to respond to Snowden at the 2015
Guardian, from the Swedish Right Livelihood Award conference.[466]
Foundation.[462]
Later that month, Snowden appeared by teleconference
at the TED conference in Vancouver, British Columbia.
Represented on stage by a robot with a video screen,
6.4.8 IQ Award
video camera, microphones and speakers, Snowden conIn 2014, Snowden was nominated for the IQ Award by versed with TED curator Chris Anderson, and told the
members of the non-prot organization Mensa Germany. attendees that online businesses should act quickly to enAlthough the ocial IQ Award commission conrmed crypt their websites. He described the NSAs PRISM
his nomination, the managing board of Mensa threatened program as the U.S. government using businesses to
the commission to subdue Snowdens nomination, and in collect data for them, and that the NSA intentiondoing so, they violated the Mensa bylaws.[463] The Ger- ally misleads corporate partners using, as an examBullrun decryption program to create backdoor
man Mensa board did this also in reaction to talks with ple, the[469]
access.
Snowden said he would gladly return to the
Mensa International. Consequently, it was not possible
U.S.
if
given
immunity from prosecution, but that he was
for Mensa members to vote for Snowden. This caused big
more
concerned
about alerting the public about abuses of
controversies among the Mensa members, leading to the
[469]
government
authority.
Anderson invited internet pieect that opposing Mensa members agreed to all vote
oneer
Tim
Berners-Lee
on
stage to converse with Snowin protest for Jonny Lee Miller as the most nonsensical
[464]
den,
who
said
that
he
would
support Berners-Lees connominee, who thus won the election.
cept of an internet Magna Carta to encode our values
in the structure of the internet.[469][470]

6.5

Teleconference speaking engagements

In March 2014, Snowden spoke at the South by Southwest

(SXSW) Interactive technology conference in Austin,
Texas, in front of 3,500 attendees. He participated
by teleconference carried over multiple routers running the Google Hangouts platform. On-stage moderators were Christopher Soghoian and Snowdens legal counsel Wizner, both from the ACLU.[465] Snowden said that the NSA was setting re to the future
of the internet, and that the SXSW audience was the
reghters.[466][467][468] Attendees could use Twitter to
send questions to Snowden, who answered one by saying
that information gathered by corporations was much less

On September 15, 2014, Snowden appeared via remote

video link, along with Julian Assange, on Kim Dotcoms
Moment of Truth town hall meeting held in Auckland.[471]
He made a similar video link appearance on February 2,
2015, along with Greenwald, as the keynote speaker at
the World Aairs Conference at Upper Canada College
in Toronto.[472]
In March 2015, while speaking at the FIFDH (international human rights lm festival) he made a public appeal
for Switzerland to grant him asylum, saying he would like
to return to live in Geneva, where he once worked undercover for the Central Intelligence Agency.[473]
On November 10, 2015, Snowden appeared at the

22

6 REACTION

Newseum, via remote video link, for PEN American terterrorism Center Matthew G. Olsen told CNN that
Centers Secret Sources: Whistleblowers, National Se- Snowdens disclosures had made it easier for terrorist
curity and Free Expression, event.[474]
groups to evade U.S. surveillance by changing their encryption methods. We've lost collection against some
individuals, people that we were concerned about, said
Olsen. We are no longer collecting their communica6.6 The Snowden Eect
tions. We lost insight into what they were doing.[481] By
In July 2013, media critic Jay Rosen dened The Snow- July 2015 ISIL had studied Snowdens disclosures and,
den Eect as Direct and indirect gains in public knowl- U.S. ocials said, its leaders were using couriers or encommunications that Western analysts could not
edge from the cascade of events and further reporting that crypted
[482]
crack.
followed Edward Snowdens leaks of classied information about the surveillance state in the U.S.[475] In December of the same year, The Nation wrote that "[Snowdens] actions have sparked a debate about the intersection of national security and individual privacy that we
weren't having six months ago, but should have been.[476]
The Economist speculated that the big consequence of
the Snowden Eect will be that countries and companies will erect borders of sorts in cyberspace.[477] In
Forbes, the eect was seen as evidenced by a rare bipartisan movement in the U.S. Congress: a divided, intransigent Congress seems nearly united over the idea that
the massive domestic intelligence gathering system that
grew after 9/11 has simply gone too far.[478] In its Spring
2014 Global Attitudes Survey, the Pew Research Center
attributed to the Snowden eect their nding that The
image of the United States has been tarnished by Snowdens revelations about National Security Agency monitoring of communications around the world, especially in
Europe and Latin America.[414]
In August 2014, Government Executive reported that
among the many actions the Obama administration took
in the 'post-Snowden' era was to appoint William Evanina, a former FBI special agent with a counter-terrorism
specialty, as the new government-wide National Counterintelligence Executive in May 2014. Instead of getting
carried away with the concept of leakers as heroes, said
Evanina, we need to get back to the basics of what it
means to be loyal. Undierentiated, unauthorized leaking is a criminal act. ... We need to ensure that both
the employees and the individuals doing the background
checks are solid. While dealing with insider threats had
been an intelligence community priority since WikiLeaks
published Chelsea Mannings disclosures in 2010, Evanina said that in the aftermath of Snowdens June 2013
revelations, the process sped up from a regional railway
to the Acela train. A year later, 100,000 fewer people
had security clearances. Thats a lot, said Evanina.[479]
In September 2014, Director of National Intelligence
James Clapper said Snowdens leaks created a perfect
storm, degrading the intelligence communitys capabilities. Snowdens leaks, said Clapper, damaged relationships with foreign and corporate stakeholders, restrained
budget resources, and caused the U.S. to discontinue collecting intelligence on certain targets, putting the United
States at greater risk.[480]
In October 2014, former Director of the National Coun-

In February 2015, National Counterterrorism Center director Nicholas J. Rasmussen told Congress that Snowdens leaks had damaged U.S. intelligence capabilities.
Rasmussen said the government had specic examples
of terrorists who have adopted greater security measures
such as using various new types of encryption, terrorists
who have dropped or changed email addresses, and terrorists who have simply stopped communicating in ways
they had before, in part because they understand how we
collected.[483]
Reecting on the eect of his leaks, Snowden stated
in February 2015 that the biggest change has been in
awareness. Before 2013, if you said the NSA was making records of everybodys phonecalls and the GCHQ was
monitoring lawyers and journalists, people raised eyebrows and called you a conspiracy theorist. Those days
are over.[484]
In March 2015, USA Today reported that the Snowden
eect had hit The Guardian. Journalist Michael Wol,
who wrote for The Guardian for many years, asserted that
the recent selection of Katharine Viner as editor-in-chief
can be read as, in part, a deeply equivocal response on
the part of the papers sta, with its unusual power in the
process of selecting a new editor, to the Snowden story.
According to Wol, there had developed a sense of journalistic queasiness around Snowden, dicult to express at
the party-line Guardian. Questioning Snowdens retreat
to Russia and his protection by Vladimir Putin was internally verboten.[485]

6.6.1 Technology industry

In the technology industry, the Snowden eect had a profound impact after it was revealed that the NSA was tapping into the information held by some U.S. cloud-based
services. Google, Cisco, and AT&T lost business internationally due to the outcry over their roles in NSA
spying. It has been estimated that the cloud-based computing industry could lose up to $35 billion in the next
three years.[486] The Wall Street Journal reported that the
Snowden eect was the top tech story of 2013, saying the Snowden leaks taught businesses that the convenience of the cloud cuts both ways. The Journal predicted the eect would top 2014 news as well, given the
number of documents yet to be revealed.[487] In China,

6.6

The Snowden Eect

23

the most protable country for U.S. tech companies, all

are under suspicion as either witting or unwitting collaborators in the NSA spying, and are on the defensive,
according to the director of the Research Center for Chinese Politics and Business at Indiana University.[488] The
eect was also seen in changes to investment in the industry, with security back on the map.[489]

for the Internet as we know it. When you have a situation where all of a sudden, everyone goes into 'tribal'
modea German cloud, a Swiss cloud, or any other separate Internetthey are signicant nationalistic attempts,
said Leighton. What happened with Snowden, its more
of an excuse than a policy, its more of an excuse to renationalize the Internet.[502]

On August 8, 2013, Lavabit, a secure email provider that

Snowden used, discontinued service after being asked for
encryption keys that would have exposed to U.S. government prosecutors the emails of all 410,000 Lavabit
users.[490] The next day, a similar provider called Silent
Circle announced that it too would shut down because the
company could see the writing on the wall and felt it was
not possible to suciently secure email.[491] In October
2013, the two companies joined forces and announced a
new email service, "Dark Mail Alliance",[492] designed to
withstand government surveillance.[493][494]

In March 2014, The New York Times reported that economic fallout from Snowdens leaks had been a boon for
foreign companies, to the detriment of U.S. rms. Its
clear to every single tech company that this is aecting
their bottom line, said Daniel Castro, a senior analyst
at the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, who predicted that the United States cloud computing industry could lose $35 billion by 2016. Matthias
Kunisch, a German software executive who spurned U.S.
cloud computing providers for Deutsche Telekom, said,
Because of Snowden, our customers have the perception that American companies have connections to the
NSA. Security analysts estimated that U.S. tech companies had since Snowden collectively spent millions and
possibly billions of dollars adding state-of-the-art encryption features to consumer services and to the cables that
link data centers.[503]

Following on the initial revelations in the summer of

2013, a discussion about pervasive surveillance of the
Internet started in the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). It was given a formal home starting in August
2013 under the label perpass (for pervasive passive
surveillance).[495] This discussion led to the publication,
in May 2014, of RFC 7258, Pervasive Monitoring Is an
Attack.[496] This document states that Pervasive monitoring is a technical attack that should be mitigated in the
design of IETF protocols, where possible. The consequence is that designers of future Internet protocols will
be required to show that they have considered countering
such attacks in their designs.
After revelations that German Chancellor Angela
Merkels mobile was being tapped, the tech industry
rushed to create a secure cell phone.[489] According
to TechRepublic, revelations from the NSA leaks have
rocked the IT world and have had a chilling eect.
The three biggest impacts were seen as increased interest
in encryption, business leaving U.S. companies, and a
reconsideration of the safety of cloud technology.[497]

In July 2014, the nonpartisan New America Foundation

summarized the impact of Snowdens revelations on U.S.
businesses.[504] The erosion of trust, said the report, has
had serious consequences for U.S. tech rms. IT executives in France, Hong Kong, Germany, the UK, and the
U.S. conrmed that Snowdens leaks directly impacted
how companies around the world think about information
and communication technologies, particularly cloud computing. A quarter of British and Canadian multinational
companies surveyed were moving their data outside the
U.S. Among U.S. companies attributing drops in revenue
to, in part, fallout from Snowdens leaks were Cisco Systems, Qualcomm, IBM, Microsoft, and Hewlett-Packard.
Proposed laws in more than a dozen foreign countries, including Germany, Brazil, and India, would make it harder
for U.S. rms to do business there. The European Union
is considering stricter domestic privacy legislation that
could result in nes and penalties costing U.S. rms billions of dollars.[505]

The Blackphone, which The New Yorker called a phone

for the age of Snowdendescribed as a smartphone
explicitly designed for security and privacy, created by
the makers of GeeksPhone, Silent Circle, and PGP, provided encryption for phone calls, emails, texts, and Inter- In August 2014, Massachusetts-based web intelligence
rm Recorded Future announced it had found a dinet browsing.[498][499]
rect connection between Snowdens leaks and dramatic
Since Snowdens disclosures, Americans used the Inter- changes in how Islamist terrorists interacted online.[506]
net less for things like email, online shopping and bank- (In 2010, the privately held Recorded Future received
ing, according to an April 2014 poll.[500][501] Also in an investment from In-Q-Tel,[507] a nonprot venture
April 2014, former NSA deputy director Col. Cedric capital rm whose primary partner is the CIA.[508] )
Leighton told the Bloomberg Enterprise Technology Just months after Snowdens 2013 leaks, said Recorded
Summit in New York City that Snowdens leaks had per- Future, operatives of al-Qaeda and associated groups
formed a signicant disservice to the worldwide health completely overhauled their 7-year-old encryption methof the Internet by leading Brazil and other countries to ods, which included homebrewed algorithms, adoptreconsider the Internets decentralized nature. Leighton ing instead more sophisticated open-source software and
suggested that nation states eorts to create their own newly available downloads that enabled encryption on
versions of the Internet were the beginning of the end cellphones, Android products, and Macs, to help disguise

24

6 REACTION

their communications.[506]

tracked by the CIA and Chinas Ministry of State Security,

was uploaded to YouTube in June 2013.[512][513]
In September 2014, Seattle-based Deep Web and Dark
web monitoring rm Flashpoint Global Partners pub- A dramatic thriller, Classied: The Edward Snowden
lished a report that found very little open source infor- Story, was released on September 19, 2014. This featuremation available via jihadi online social media" indicat- length lm, which was crowdfunded oered as a free
ing that Snowdens leaks impelled al-Qaeda to develop download, was directed by Jason Bourque and produced
more secure digital communications. The underlying by Travis Doering. Actor Kevin Zegers played Edward
public encryption methods employed by online jihadists, Snowden, Michael Shanks played Glenn Greenwald and
the report concluded, do not appear to have signicantly Carmen Aguirre played Laura Poitras.[514]
changed since the emergence of Edward Snowden. Ma- In the District of Columbia, the Partnership for Civil
jor recent technological advancements have focused pri- Justice Fund (PCJF), a free speech advocacy group,
marily on expanding the use of encryption to instant mes- crowdfunded an ad saying Thank You Edward Snowsenger and mobile communications mediums.[509]
den that was featured on the sides of a D.C. city bus for
In May 2015, The Nation reported, The fallout from
the Edward Snowden asco wasn't just politicalit was
largely economic. Soon after the extent of the NSAs data
collection became public, overseas customers (including
the Brazilian government) started abandoning U.S.-based
tech companies in droves over privacy concerns. The dust
hasn't settled yet, but tech-research rm Forrester estimated the losses may total 'as high as $180 billion,' or 25
percent of industry revenue.[510]

four weeks in late 2013.[515][516] The PCJF said they received enough support from around the world to sponsor
partial ads on ve more buses in 2014.[517]

Snowden has been featured in video games[518][519] and

has an action gure made in his image. Although not
endorsed by Snowden, proceeds from the $99 doll are
donated to Freedom of the Press Foundation, where
he serves on the board of directors.[520][521] In May
2014, Beyond: Edward Snowden, a graphic novel by
Marvel Comics writer Valerie D'Orazio, illustrated by
Dan Lauer, appeared in both print and digital editions
6.6.2 Consumer products
as part a new series from Bluewater Productions, which
said would reveal secret and suppressed
In September 2014, The New York Times credited Apple the publisher
[522][523]
stories.
Inc.'s update of iOS 8, which encrypts all data inside it,
as demonstrating how Snowdens impact had begun to In 2014, lm director Oliver Stone bought the rights to
work its way into consumer products. His revelations, Time of the Octopus, a forthcoming novel based on Snowsaid The Times, not only killed recent eorts to ex- dens life and written by his Russian lawyer, Anatoly
pand the law, but also made nations around the world Kucherena. Stone said he would use both Kucherenas
suspicious that every piece of American hardware and book and Luke Hardings nonction The Snowden Files
softwarefrom phones to servers made by Cisco Sys- for the screenplay of his movie, which began production
temshave 'back doors for American intelligence and later in 2014.[524] Snowden will be portrayed by Amerlaw enforcement. As its CEO Tim Cook explained, Ap- ican actor Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the biopic Snowden,
ple sell[s] devices to people, [which] distinguishes Ap- which is due for release in May 2016.
ple from companies that make a prot from collecting and
selling users personal data to advertisers. The Times situated this development within a Post Snowden Era in
which Apple would no longer comply with NSA and law
enforcement requests for user data, instead maintaining
that Apple doesn't possess the key to unlock data on the
iPhone. However, since the new security protects information stored on the device itself, but not data stored on
Apples iCloud service, Apple will still be able to obtain
some customer information stored on iCloud in response
to government requests. The Times added that Googles
Android would have encryption enabled by default in upA trailer for Citizenfour (2014).
coming versions.[511]

6.7

In popular culture

Snowdens passage through Hong Kong inspired a local

production team to produce a low-budget ve-minute lm
entitled Verax. The lm, depicting the time Snowden
spent hiding in the Mira Hotel while being unsuccessfully

On October 10, 2014, Citizenfour, a documentary about

Snowden, received its world premiere at the New York
Film Festival.[525] Earlier that year, director Laura Poitras
told Associated Press she was editing the lm in Berlin
because she feared her source material would be seized
by the government inside the U.S.[526] The two-hour lm
was shot in various countries, tracing Snowdens time in

25
Hong Kong and including Moscow, where he is currently
living with his girlfriend Lindsay Mills.[527] The lm was
released in the U.S. and Europe to wide acclaim from
critics,[528] and won the 2015 Academy Award for Best
Documentary Feature.[529] Snowden declared in a February 2015 Reddit AMA (Ask Me Anything) that he had
no commercial interest in the lm.[484]

Classied information in the United States

In October 2014, Killswitch, a lm that features Edward

Snowden as well as Aaron Swartz, Lawrence Lessig, and
Tim Wu received its world premiere at the Woodstock
Film Festival, where it won the award for Best Editing. It has since played alongside Citizenfour at the
International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam and
has continued an international lm festival run. The
lm probes the eorts of big business to control the
Internet, the eorts of government to regulate it, the efforts of hacktivists to free up information worldwide and
the consequences.[530][531][532]

List of people granted asylum

ECHELON
Operation Socialist (code name)
Information sensitivity

List of people who have lived at airports

List of United States extradition treaties
List of whistleblowers
Mass surveillance in the United States
NSA whistleblowers

In October 2014, Realscreen magazine revealed that a

second Edward Snowden documentary, entitled Snowdens Great Escape, was in the works. The lm is being
coproduced by Germanys Norddeutscher Rundfunk and
Denmarks DR TV, and incorporates two new interviews
with Snowden, lmed in Moscow. The lm is set to be
released in 2015.[533]

William Binney

On February 9, 2015, electronic pop producer Big Data

released a song called Snowed In that featured vocals
from Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo from his debut album, 2.0. The songs lyrics, inspired by Snowden, are told
from the perspective of the NSA, alternating between inner dialogue and statements made to the press.[534]

Russ Tice

On the April 5, 2015 episode of Last Week Tonight

with John Oliver, John Oliver interviewed Snowden in
Moscow.[535][536][537] The next day, a bust of Snowden
was briey attached to the Prison Ship Martyrs Monument in Fort Greene Park in Brooklyn, New York City,
before being taken down by city ocials. The guerrilla
artists responsible are currently unknown.[538][539] Hours
after the statue was removed, it was replaced by an
ephemeral hologram image of Snowden.[540][541][542]
Snowden opened a Twitter account on September 29,
2015, amassing over a million followers in the rst 24
hours; he followed only the NSA.[543] His rst tweet received 121,728 retweets and 117,750 favorites.[544]

See also
Criticism of the United States government
2013 global surveillance disclosures
Timeline of mass surveillance disclosures
Aftermath of the global surveillance disclosure
Global surveillance and journalism
NSA warrantless surveillance (200107)

Thomas Andrews Drake

Perry Fellwock
Mark Klein
Thomas Tamm
Diane Roark
Stellar Wind (code name)
Terrorist Surveillance Program
Russian inuence operations in the United States
Philip Agee
Killswitch (lm)

8 Notes
[1] Hong Kongs Secretary for Justice Rimsky Yuen argued
that government ocials did not issue a provisional arrest
warrant for Snowden due to discrepancies and missing
information in the paperwork sent by U.S. authorities.
Yuen explained that Snowdens full name was inconsistent, and his U.S. passport number was also missing.[192]
Hong Kong also wanted more details of the charges and
evidence against Snowden to make sure it was not a political case. Secretary for Justice Rimsky Yuen said he
spoke to U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder by phone to
reinforce the request for details absolutely necessary for
detention of Snowden. Yuen said As the US government
had failed to provide the information by the time Snowden left Hong Kong, it was impossible for the Department
of Justice to apply to a court for a temporary warrant of
arrest. In fact, even at this time, the US government has
still not provided the details we asked for.[193]

26

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[1] Former U.S. ocials give NSA whistleblower Snowden

award in Russia. Haaretz. 10 October 2013. Retrieved
11 April 2015.
[2] Snowden Honored With 'Alternative Nobel'".
News. 24 September 2014.

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[3] Edward Snowden Receives Stuttgart Peace Prize 2014.

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[4] Suzanna Andrews, Bryan Burrough & Sarah Ellison (May
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[5] Finn, Peter; Horwitz, Sari (June 21, 2013). U.S. charges
Snowden with espionage. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 11, 2015.
[6] Hunt, Gordon (June 5, 2015). Edward Snowden: Ive
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[7] Ackerman, Spencer (10 June 2013). Edward Snowden
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[8] Report: Snowden has document to enter Russia.
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[9] NSA leaker Edward Snowden has ties to North Carolina. The News & Observer. 1 August 2013. Archived
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[10] Retired U. S. Coast Guard Flag Ocers. United States
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[11] Cole, Matthew; Esposito, Richard; Dedman, Bill; Schone,
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[12] Itkowitz, Colby; Sheehan, Daniel Patrick (10 June 2013).
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[20] Dedman, Bill; Brunker, Mike; Cole, Matthew (26 May

2014). Who Is Edward Snowden, the Man Who Spilled
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[21] Greenwald, Glenn; MacAskill, Ewen; Poitras, Laura (9
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[22] "Booz Allen hired Snowden despite discrepancies in his
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(Editing by David Lindsey and Stacey Joyce).
[23] U.S. Fears Edward Snowden May Defect to China:
Sources. ABC News. 13 June 2013. p. 3.
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spy: Edward Snowden in exile. The Guardian.
[25] Phadnis, Shilpa (4 December 2013). Edward Snowden
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39

[479] Clark, Charles S. (August 15, 2014). Meet the Man [496] Farrell, Stephen (November 2014). RFC 7258. IETF.
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March 16, 2014. Retrieved March 16, 2014.

40

10 FURTHER READING

[515] Kopan, Tal. Edward Snowden pic coming to D.C. [535] LastWeekTonight (2015-04-05). Last Week Tonight with
buses. Politico. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
John Oliver: Government Surveillance (HBO). YouTube.
Event occurs at 15m53s. Retrieved 2015-11-20.
[516] Ly, Sherri. Metro bus ad thanks NSA leaker Edward
Snowden. Archived from the original on 2013-11-26. [536] Greenwald, Glenn (April 6, 2015). Why john oliver cant
Retrieved March 31, 2014.
nd americans who know Edward Snowdens name (its
not about Snowden)". Retrieved April 6, 2015.
[517] Hughes, Sarah Anne. More Snowden Bus Ads Coming
To D.C.. DCist. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
[537] Stelter, Brian (April 6, 2015). John Oliver lands Edward
Snowden interview from Russia. CNN. Retrieved April
[518] Yes, already: Two video games about Edward Snowden
6, 2015.
and stealthy data. NBC News. Archived from the original
on 2015-07-25. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
[538] Alan Yuhas (April 6, 2015). Busted: Edward Snowden statue prompts cover-up at Brooklyn park. The
[519] Sundby, Alex. Edward Snowden cast as hero in smartGuardian. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
phone game. CNET. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
[539] Sierlin, Alexandra (April 6, 2015). New York City
[520] No Secret: Edward Snowden Gets Own Action Figure.
Takes Down Edward Snowden Statue Erected By Guerilla
NBC News. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
Artists. Time. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
[521] Kooser, Amanda. Edward Snowden action gure makes [540] Ries, Brian (April 7, 2015). Hologram replaces Edward
for toy whistle-blower. CNET. Retrieved March 31,
Snowden statue in Brooklyn park. Mashable. Retrieved
2014.
April 7, 2015.
[522] Flood, Alison. Edward Snowden gets his own graphic [541] Fishbein, Rebecca; Depew, Kyle, Photographer (April 7,
biography. The Guardian. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
2015). Illicit Edward Snowden Statue Replaced By Illicit
Edward Snowden Hologram. Gothamist. Retrieved April
[523] Feeney, Nolan (May 19, 2014). Edward Snowden,
9, 2015.
Comic-Book Hero. TIME. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
[524] Walker, Shaun. Oliver Stone to make movie based on ctionalised life of Edward Snowden. The Guardian. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
[525] Citizenfour lm. lmlinc.com. September 10, 2014.
Retrieved December 2, 2014.
[526] Snowden Documentary to Premiere at NY Festival.
ABC News. Associated Press. July 1, 2013. Retrieved
April 11, 2015.
[527] Hong Kong in cinema spotlight in documentary on Edward Snowden. South China Morning Post. October 11,
2014.
[528] Citizenfour (2014): Reviews. Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved December 27, 2014.
[529] The 87th Academy Awards. oscars.org. Retrieved
February 22, 2015.
[530] von Busack, Richard. Breaking the Internet: Killswitch
Screens at Cinequest. Metro Silicon Valley. Retrieved
February 25, 2015.
[531] Battle for Internet Control Fuels O.C. -produced Movie.
Orange County Register. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
[532] Killswitch. International Documentary Film Festival
Amsterdam. Retrieved November 18, 2014.

[542] Sanders, Sam (April 7, 2015). An Edward Snowden

Statue Was Replaced By A Hovering Snowden Image Last
Night. National Public Radio. Retrieved April 8, 2015.
[543] Mullin, Joe. Ed Snowden joins Twitter, follows only the
NSA. Ars Technica. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
[544] Haq, Husna. Edward Snowden just joined Twitter. Hes
already creating a stir (+video)". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved October 2, 2015.

10 Further reading
Dilanian, Ken. Dilanian, Ken (December 22, 2013).
A spy world reshaped by Edward Snowden. Los
Angeles Times. Retrieved April 11, 2015. December 22, 2013.
Duns, Jeremy (November 25, 2014). News of Devils: The Media and Edward Snowden. Seattle,
Washington: Amazon Digital Services, Inc.
Greenwald, Glenn (May 13, 2014). No Place to
Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S.
Surveillance State. London: Hamish Hamilton.

[533] Benzine, Adam (October 10, 2014). Exclusive: NDR,

DR TV prep Snowdens Great Escape"". Realscreen
(Brunico Communications). Retrieved October 29, 2014.

Gurnow, Michael (April 1, 2014). The Edward

Snowden Aair: Exposing the Media and Politics
Behind the NSA Scandal. Indianapolis: Blue River
Press.

[534] Sharp, Tyler (February 9, 2015). Rivers Cuomo guests

on new Big Data track, Snowed In"". Alternative Press.
Retrieved March 26, 2015.

Harding, Luke (February 6, 2014). The Snowden

Files: The Inside Story of the Worlds Most Wanted
Man. London: Guardian Faber.

41
Lanchester, John. The Snowden les: why the
British public should be worried about GCHQ. The
Guardian. Retrieved April 11, 2015. October 3,
2013.
Lucas, Edward (January 23, 2014). The Snowden Operation: Inside the Wests Greatest Intelligence
Disaster. Amazon Kindle Single.
Margulies, Joseph. "The Promise of May, the Betrayal of June, and the Larger Lesson of Manning
and Snowden. Verdict. Justia. July 17, 2013.
Packer, George (October 20, 2014). The holder
of secrets : Laura Poitrass closeup view of Edward
Snowden. Proles. The New Yorker 90 (32): 50
59. Retrieved December 23, 2014.

11

External links

Ocial website
Edward Snowden on Twitter
NSA leaks: a timeline. Al Jazeera. Retrieved
April 11, 2015. November 1, 2013
The NSA Files. The Guardian (London). June 5,
2013. Retrieved April 11, 2015. (Index of articles)
Nakashima, Ellen (June 9, 2013). NSA Secrets.
The Washington Post (Washington, D.C.). Retrieved
April 11, 2015. (Index of articles)
"Global Surveillance An annotated and categorized
overview of the revelations following the leaks by
the whistleblower Edward Snowden. There are also
some links to comments and followups. By Oslo
University Library
"The NSA Archive American Civil Liberties Union
searchable database of NSA documents disclosed
by Edward Snowden, as published between June 5,
2013, and May 6, 2014
Book documents 107 additional pages from the
Snowden archive released on May 13, 2014, in conjunction with publication of Glenn Greenwalds No
Place to Hide
Snowden documents at Internet Archive
Edward Snowden at TED

42

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Khazar2, Eb7473, Esszet, Quant18, Atakuzier, Fan.of.devin, Tmzreporter, Koopatrev, P3Y229, Thomas.Lu, Ajinkyaj, Rezonansowy, Yamada Taro, Pama73, Webclient101, Mogism, Kbog, Kephir, Anotherpioneer, Luyu823, XXzoonamiXX, Taranis-iuppiter, JakobSteenberg,
Bulba2036, ZachLipp, Jc86035, MartinMichlmayr, Fifth Amendment, Jamesx12345, Lola Rennt, Redalert2fan, Factchecker25, Zziccardi,
Alcohkid, RotlinkBot, GabeIglesia, Malerooster, Carlatenorio, JaviP96, Hillbillyholiday, TheBlueCanoe, Iosue3, Costatitanica, Eagleash,
Urnze, Userbrendan, Puzzlename, StandaloneSA, Surge1223, WakemanCK, Epicgenius, P2Peter, Patroit22, Marxistfounder, Ruby Mur-

12.2

Images

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ray, LanthanumK, Nishitpatira, Danielaranki, Melonkelon, Surfer43, Michaelw352, HonorTheIsland, PadreZippo, LGA, Skinkworks,
Everymorning, Blythwood, Soredo, Wuerzele, Jorjito2001, Captain Conundrum, Rybec, Aclany, Plutonius1965, Caleesi, RaphaelQS,
LudicrousTripe, CCH1234, ElHef, New worl, ArmbrustBot, Commons sibi, Kulturdenkmal, Beerest355, Bloonstdfan360, Federales,
Calumjwilliamson, Akh81, Alurujaya, Ilovetopaint, CentrumZero, Ejl389, NorthBySouthBaranof, May122013, Prokaryotes, Gixce93,
Sue Gianstefani, PrivateMasterHD, 51coin, My name is not dave, Gpcv77, Quaker763, Ginsuloft, CutThruTheNoise, D Eaketts, Somchai Sun, Explanoit, AmericanDefender, Foxnews1, Moshmon, Professordad42, AKor4711, Kbabej, Leslynjd, Jackmt, StraightOuttaBrisbane, JoshDieter, KMaxMedia, Zymeng, UncappingCone64, Curdbeana, Gemma.georgia, Fitzcarmalan, Nyuszika7H, Stephanie Bowman, Jpsanders, Liz, Ise Helo, Lorim888, Sdverv, Kwal0203, Sytric, Paulmd199, 61-1099lm, Taylor Trescott, MagicatthemovieS, Degree7, Konveyor Belt, JamesHe96, Fixuture, Dodi 8238, Gauravpar, Motahani, Yourkidsareboring, 7Sidz, Hintozzie1, Shadowlord2000,
Hibij2953, ImBackHerobrine, Compprof9000, ExtremeHeat11, Derbel McDillet, Mikeybeyotch, Peterpacz1, Koenigindia, Bekroogle,
Beatlesfan248, Monkbot, JamKaftan, Khabboos, Filedelinkerbot, Doris Kami, Scarlettail, Gdeblois19, Madden789, Trackteur, Tiftonfootballguru, Rjoyce253, Zacwill, Phantomop, Bit ohms, D.sajjad khajeh, Beachez, Kriti vyas, Chocolate Charlie, Factual Historian, Rebeccaroanoke, Jonarnold1985, DannyH (WMF), Joseph Prasad, Rgyryhdrfgh, Richard Roques, SB642v, C1cada, Minerofthedead, Chang
Cheng Hwee, Stawlow561, St.Tesla, The Last Arietta, ChamithN, Galant Khan, Shibbolethink, Robertcaseydavis, SA 13 Bro, Matiia, Digital Water, LasPo rocks, JwBaST, Maldoror2, Isthereobjectiveethics, SuperChillin98, AHC300, FourViolas, IForgotMyPasswordOhNooo,
Jkljohnnyr2, EChastain, Adam1215, Campster85, NannyEric, Eteethan, Ewan007, BenATLS2000, Shadowlaxer, ThaYeezy, Mcswagalot,
Acyus, Guegreen, Ncoif, Demagur, Pen314159, 92slim, Ericramos502, Nothusnain, GeneralizationsAreBad, SnowdenFan, Horry Daley,
Nkkenbuer, BsquaredXD, Kent Krupa, Densnow, TewHawk, Anarchyte, Mitchellsmilk, SanClementeCA, Compassionate727, Calvinius,
CodePrincess, Airplane Maniac, UserNameUserNameUserName123456789, Captain Bedworthy, Tissat USA, Gazprompt, SSTyer, Borumuck4r4, Disclobby234, Bu77s7u, Cagepanes, Ivansitto95, Roccorowe33434, Bouyskitty, Manifest Density, Themikebest, Donkeelips,
NewsTodayCanada, XXxNoscopeGodxXX, Itsblunt, Heckdeck, Veritas28, Spqrsmp, Xtifah and Anonymous: 525

12.2

Images

File:2010-05-14-USCYBERCOM_Logo.jpg
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/
Public domain Contributors:
Department of Defense Original artist:
2010-05-14-USCYBERCOM_Logo.jpg License:
http://www.defense.gov/home/features/2010/0410_cybersec/images/cybercom_seal_large1.jpg Department of Defense
File:Boundless_Informant_data_collection.svg
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Informant_data_collection.svg License: CC0 Contributors: BlankMap-World6.svg
Original artist: Rezonansowy
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law.cornell.edu/uscode/50/403m.html Original artist: United States federal government
File:CITIZENFOUR_(2014)_trailer.webm Source:
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%282014%29_trailer.webm License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Vimeo: CITIZENFOUR Trailer Original artist: Laura Poitras / Praxis
Films
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artist: ?
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wikipedia/commons/8/89/DigiGes_PRISM_Yes_we_scan_-_Demo_am_Checkpoint_Charlie_June_2013.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
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Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Edward-Snowden-FOPF-2014.jpg
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wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Edward_Joseph_Snowden_-_Arrival_at_Sheremetyevo_International_Airport_02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dmitry Rozhkov
File:Edward_Snowden{}s_Surprise_Appearance_at_TED.jpg Source:
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Edward_Snowden%27s_Surprise_Appearance_at_TED.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Edward Snowdens Surprise
Appearance at TED Original artist: Steve Jurvetson
File:Edward_Snowden_speaks_about_everything.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Edward_
Snowden_speaks_about_everything.webm License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: File:Edward_Snowden_speaks_about_NSA_programmes_
at_Sam_Adams_award_presentation_in_Moscow.webm,
File:Edward_Snowden_speaks_about_dangers_to_democracy_at_Sam_
Adams_award_presentation_in_Moscow.webm,
File:Edward_Snowden_speaks_about_government_transparency_at_Sam_Adams_
award_presentation_in_Moscow.webm Original artist: WikiLeaks
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File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Original artist: ?

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
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from http://www.darpa.mil/iao/ (Currently down, see archived page: [1] Original artist: USGov-Military
File:Is_Snowden_a_Hero?_SnowdenHK_
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Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Is_Snowden_a_Hero%3F_SnowdenHK_%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%
AF%E8%81%B2%E6%8F%B4%E6%96%AF%E8%AB%BE%E7%99%BB%E9%81%8A%E8%A1%8C_Hong_Kong_Rally_to_
Support_Snowden_SML.20130615.7D.42298.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Is Snowden a Hero? / SnowdenHK:
Hong Kong Rally to Support Snowden / SML.20130615.7D.42298 Original artist: See-ming Lee
File:NSA_Muscular_Google_Cloud.jpg
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Muscular_Google_Cloud.jpg
License:
Public
domain
Contributors:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/
national-security/nsa-infiltrates-links-to-yahoo-google-data-centers-worldwide-snowden-documents-say/2013/10/30/
e51d661e-4166-11e3-8b74-d89d714ca4dd_story.html Original artist: U.S. National Security Agency
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File:PRISM_-_Snowden_Interview_-_Laura_Poitras_HQ.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/
PRISM_-_Snowden_Interview_-_Laura_Poitras_HQ.webm License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Vimeo: PRISM: Snowden Interview
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domain Contributors: Extracted from PDF version of a DNI 100-day plan followup report (direct PDF URL here). Original artist: Federal
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