HAESTAD METHODS

WASTEWATER COLLECTION
SYSTEM MODELING AND DESIGN
First Edition
Authors
Haestad Methods
Thomas M. Walski
Thomas E. Barnard
Eric Harold
LaVere B. Merritt
Noah Walker
Brian E. Whitman

Managing Editor
Thomas E. Barnard

Project Editors
Kristen Dietrich, Adam Strafaci, Colleen Totz

Contributing Authors
Christine Hill, Gordon McKay, Stan Plante, Barbara A. Schmitz
Peer Review Board
Jonathan Gray (Burns and McDonnell), Ken Kerri (Ret.),
Neil Moody (Moods Consulting Pty, Ltd.), Gary Moore (St. Louis Sewer District),
John Reinhardt (Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection),
Reggie Rowe (CH2M Hill), Burt Van Duin (Westhoff Engineering Resources)

HAESTAD PRESS
Waterbury, CT USA

Table of Contents

Preface

xi

Continuing Education Units

xv

About the Software

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Introduction to Wastewater Collection

System Modeling

xvii

1.1

Wastewater Collection System Overview

1
Terminology.............................................................................................. 2
Sources of Wastewater ............................................................................ 2
Types of Conveyance............................................................................... 3

1.2

Modeling
5
Applications of Collection System Models .......................................... 5
Types of Collection System Modeling .................................................. 7

1.3

Historical Perspective on Collection System Analysis

7
Collection Systems................................................................................... 7
Hydraulics History ................................................................................ 11
Historical Summary .............................................................................. 16

1.4

The Modeling Process

Steady Gravity Flow Hydraulics

16

23

2.1

Fluid Properties
24
Density and Specific Weight ................................................................ 24
Viscosity .................................................................................................. 24
Fluid Compressibility............................................................................ 27
Vapor Pressure ....................................................................................... 27

2.2

Fluid Statics and Dynamics

28
Static Pressure ........................................................................................ 28
Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure ............................................. 29
Velocity and Flow .................................................................................. 30
Reynolds Number.................................................................................. 31
Velocity Profiles ..................................................................................... 31

ii

Table of Contents

Chapter 3

2.3

Fundamental Laws
32
Conservation of Mass ............................................................................ 32
Conservation of Energy ........................................................................ 33
Conservation of Momentum ................................................................ 36

2.4

Hydraulic Design Variables

38
Flow Rate or Discharge ......................................................................... 38
Channel/Pipe Slope................................................................................ 38
Depth of Flow ......................................................................................... 38
Velocity .................................................................................................... 39

2.5

Energy and Head Losses

40
Energy Equation..................................................................................... 41

2.6

Hydraulic Elements
44
Open-Top Cross Sections ...................................................................... 44
Closed-Top Cross Sections.................................................................... 46
Noncircular Cross Sections................................................................... 49

2.7

Mannings n Variation
49
Calculating n with the Darcy-Weisbach Equation ............................ 50
Variation of n with Depth ..................................................................... 52
Recommended Values of Mannings n................................................ 53

2.8

Minor Losses in Junction Structures

54
Energy-Loss Method ............................................................................. 55
Composite Energy-Loss Method ......................................................... 60

2.9

Tractive Force Self-Cleansing

63
Tractive Tension ..................................................................................... 63
Sediment Carrying Capacity Experimental Analysis.................... 65
Camp Formula........................................................................................ 69
Yaos Method........................................................................................... 69
Abwassertechnische Vereinigung (ATV) Method............................. 71
Additional Considerations ................................................................... 71

2.10

Specific Energy and Critical Flow

72
Specific Energy ....................................................................................... 72
Froude Number...................................................................................... 74
Subcritical and Supercritical Flow....................................................... 74
Hydraulic Jumps .................................................................................... 75
Flow Profiles ........................................................................................... 76
Backwater Curves .................................................................................. 77

2.11

Hydraulics of Flow-Control Structures

78
Orifices..................................................................................................... 79
Weirs ........................................................................................................ 79
Gates ........................................................................................................ 84

Unsteady Gravity Flow Hydraulics

91

3.1

Basics of Unsteady Flow Analysis

93

3.2

Types of Routing

94

iii

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

3.3

Hydrodynamic Equations
95
Saint-Venant Equations......................................................................... 95
Approximation to Hydrodynamic Equations ................................... 96
Diffusion Analogy ................................................................................. 97
Kinematic Wave ..................................................................................... 97
Muskingum Routing ............................................................................. 98
Muskingum-Cunge Routing ................................................................ 98
Convex Routing ................................................................................... 100
Weighted Translational Routing........................................................ 100
Level Pool Routing .............................................................................. 100
Summary of Methods.......................................................................... 101

3.4

Complications to Routing Methods

101
Manholes and Junction Tables ........................................................... 103
Surcharging .......................................................................................... 103
Overflows and Diversions.................................................................. 104
Parallel Pipes and Loops..................................................................... 105
Flow Reversal ....................................................................................... 106
Dry Pipes............................................................................................... 107
Drop Structures.................................................................................... 107

Force Main and Pumping Hydraulics

113

4.1

Friction Losses
113
Darcy-Weisbach Equation .................................................................. 116
Colebrook-White Equation and the Moody Diagram.................... 117
Hazen-Williams Equation .................................................................. 118
Swamee-Jain Equation ........................................................................ 120
Manning Equation ............................................................................... 120
Pipe Roughness Changes ................................................................... 121
Comparison of Friction Loss Methods ............................................. 121

4.2

Minor Losses
122
Minor Loss Valve Coefficients ........................................................... 123

4.3

Energy Addition Pumps

125
Pump Head-Discharge Relationship ................................................ 125
System Head Curves ........................................................................... 126
Other Pump Characteristic Curves ................................................... 128
Fixed-Speed and Variable-Speed Pumps ......................................... 129
Affinity Laws for Variable-Speed Pumps ........................................ 129
Power and Efficiency........................................................................... 130

Model Construction

137

5.1

Developing the Modeling Plan

137

5.2

The Modeling Process

138
Purpose and Objectives of a Model................................................... 138
Develop Alternatives........................................................................... 141
Scales of Models................................................................................... 141
Software Selection and Training ........................................................ 143

iv

Table of Contents

Define Data Requirements.................................................................. 143

Identify Data Sources .......................................................................... 144
Collect Data........................................................................................... 146
Validate the Data.................................................................................. 147
Build the Model.................................................................................... 148
Identify Data Gaps............................................................................... 148
Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................................. 148
Calibrate the Model ............................................................................. 148
Validate the Model............................................................................... 148
Run Simulations ................................................................................... 149
Develop Solutions ................................................................................ 150
Bookkeeping ......................................................................................... 151
5.3

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Constructing the Sewer Model

152
Level of Detail....................................................................................... 153
Subbasin Delineation........................................................................... 154
Pipes....................................................................................................... 154
Manholes ............................................................................................... 160
Pumps .................................................................................................... 164
Wet Wells............................................................................................... 168

Dry Weather Wastewater Flows

173

6.1

Definition of Flow Rates

175
New Systems ........................................................................................ 175
Existing Systems................................................................................... 176

6.2

Unit Load Factors

176
Residential............................................................................................. 176
Commercial Sources ............................................................................ 177
Industrial Wastewater Flows.............................................................. 179
Fixture Unit Method............................................................................ 181
Land-Use Methods .............................................................................. 183
Measured-Flow Methods.................................................................... 185
Assigning Loads to a Model............................................................... 187

6.3

Peaking Factors
187
Peaking Factor Charts and Equations............................................... 188
Minimum Flows................................................................................... 190
Selection of Flow Generation Rate and Peaking Factor ................. 191

6.4

Time-Varying Flows
193
Diurnal Curves ..................................................................................... 193
Developing Systemwide Diurnal Curves......................................... 195
Defining Usage Patterns Within a Model......................................... 196

Wet Weather Wastewater Flows

7.1

203

Wet Weather Flow Definitions

204
What Is Wet Weather Flow? ............................................................... 204
Components of Flow in Wastewater Collection Systems............... 204
Modeling Wet Weather Flows............................................................ 206

Chapter 8

7.2

Wastewater Collection System Hydrology

208
Combined Sewer System Hydrology ............................................... 208
Modeling Combined Sewer Systems ................................................ 210
Separate Sanitary Sewer System Hydrology ................................... 212
Modeling Separate Sanitary Sewer Systems.................................... 213
Continuous versus Event Hydrology ............................................... 216

7.3

Rainfall
217
Rainfall Data ......................................................................................... 217
Selecting Model Simulation Events................................................... 218
Calibration Events ............................................................................... 219
Design Storms ...................................................................................... 219
Continuous Records ............................................................................ 228

7.4

Modeling Runoff
229
Rainfall Abstractions ........................................................................... 230
Horton Equation .................................................................................. 233
Green-Ampt Equation......................................................................... 233
Rational Method .................................................................................. 234
NRCS (SCS) Method............................................................................ 236

7.5

Determining Hydrographs from Runoff Volumes

239
Determining Peak Flow and Time to Peak....................................... 240
Snider Triangular Hydrograph.......................................................... 240
Unit Hydrograph Approach .............................................................. 242
NRCS (SCS) Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph ............................... 243
Nonlinear Reservoir ............................................................................ 246

7.6

Empirical Methods for Generating Hydrographs

248
Percentage of Rainfall Volume (R-Factor) ........................................ 249
Unit Hydrographs from Flow Measurements................................. 249
Simplifications to Unit Hydrograph ................................................. 250
Inflow Coefficient Method ................................................................. 250
Rainfall/Flow Regression.................................................................... 252
RTK Hydrograph Method .................................................................. 254
Unit Loads for Design Studies ........................................................... 261

7.7

Snowmelt
262
Runoff Potential ................................................................................... 262
Snowmelt Models ................................................................................ 263

Data Collection and Flow Measurement

271

8.1

Flow Measurement Considerations

271
Components of Flow ........................................................................... 272
Review of Existing Information......................................................... 273
Selection of Metering Locations......................................................... 273
Safety Considerations ......................................................................... 274

8.2

Flow Measurement
275
Hydraulic Control Sections in Open Channels ............................... 275
In-Pipe Methods................................................................................... 280
Manual Methods.................................................................................. 281

vi

Table of Contents

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

8.3

Instrumentation
283
Depth ..................................................................................................... 284
Velocity Meters..................................................................................... 287

8.4

Precipitation Measurement
292
Precipitation Data Acquisition........................................................... 293
Measurement of Rainfall..................................................................... 293
Gauge Operation Considerations ...................................................... 294
Radar Imagery...................................................................................... 295

Model Calibration

301

9.1

Basic Calibration Concepts

302
Overview of Calibration ..................................................................... 302
Calibration Parameters........................................................................ 303
Building-Block Approach ................................................................... 305
Steady-State and Extended-Period Simulations.............................. 305

9.2

Dry Weather Flows

9.3

Wet Weather Flows

309
Constant Unit Rate Method................................................................ 310
Percentage of Rainfall Volume (R-Value) ......................................... 312
Percentage of Stream Flow ................................................................. 313
RTK Hydrograph ................................................................................. 315
Predictive Equation Based on Rainfall-Flow Regression ............... 316

9.4

Special Considerations in Calibration

320
Volume Differences.............................................................................. 321
Shape Considerations.......................................................................... 322
Timing Shifts......................................................................................... 323

9.5

Understanding Overflows
324
Estimating Combined Sewer Overflow ............................................ 325
Estimating SSOs ................................................................................... 326
Detecting Overflows with Scattergraphs ......................................... 326

Design of New Gravity Wastewater

Collection Systems

305

333

10.1

Materials
334
Pipes....................................................................................................... 334
Manholes ............................................................................................... 335
Other Appurtenances .......................................................................... 336

10.2

Initial Planning
337
Decision to Provide Sewer Service to an Area................................. 337
Types of Conveyance........................................................................... 338
Separate versus Combined Systems.................................................. 338

10.3

Preliminary Design Considerations

339
Data Requirements .............................................................................. 340
Alternatives........................................................................................... 341

vii

Chapter 11

10.4

Initial System Layout

341
Gravity Sewer Layout ......................................................................... 342
Manhole Location and Spacing ......................................................... 342
Location of Pumping Facilities .......................................................... 343
Sewer Easements.................................................................................. 343
Example of a Sewer Network Layout ............................................... 344

10.5

Flows in Sanitary Sewers

346
Low Flows in Early Years ................................................................... 346
Allowances for Infiltration and Inflow............................................. 346
Phased/Staged Construction .............................................................. 348

10.6

Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

348
Pipe Slopes............................................................................................ 348
Curved Sewer Alignment ................................................................... 349
Minimum Depth of Cover .................................................................. 349
Maximum Depth.................................................................................. 352

10.7

Hydraulic Design
352
Pipe Sizing ............................................................................................ 354
Manholes............................................................................................... 355
Computer Modeling for System Design........................................... 356
Steady Flow versus Extended-Period Simulation
(EPS) Analysis ................................................................................ 356
Design Maximum Flow Rates with Pumping ................................. 358

10.8

Special Installations
358
Sewers in Steep Terrain....................................................................... 358
Sewers Along Streams......................................................................... 359
Elevated Crossings .............................................................................. 359
Inverted Siphons (Depressed Sewers) .............................................. 360

10.9

Wastewater Collection System Optimization

Wastewater Collection System Evaluation

and Rehabilitation

361

371

11.1

Planning for System Characterization

372
Performance Requirements ................................................................ 373
Current Performance........................................................................... 374
Approach to System Characterization.............................................. 375

11.2

System Characterization
376
Review Existing Records .................................................................... 376
Update System Inventory................................................................... 378
Collection System Condition Investigation ..................................... 379
Inspection of the Condition of Controls and
Ancillary Structures....................................................................... 382

11.3

Hydraulic Investigations
384
Field Data Collection........................................................................... 385
Data Analysis ....................................................................................... 386
Application of Hydraulic Modeling ................................................. 390
Assess Hydraulic Performance.......................................................... 394

viii

Table of Contents

11.4

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Evaluating Rehabilitation Strategies

395
Preventive Maintenance Program ..................................................... 399
Source Controls .................................................................................... 399
Sewer Separation.................................................................................. 400
Pipe Rehabilitation/Replacement ...................................................... 401
Inflow/Infiltration Control.................................................................. 402
Interbasin Transfers ............................................................................. 405
Real-Time Controls .............................................................................. 405
Storage Facilities .................................................................................. 406
Wet Weather Treatment Facilities ...................................................... 407

Force Mains and Pump Stations

419

12.1

Need for Pump Stations

12.2

Pump Station Overview and Design Considerations

423
Components.......................................................................................... 423
Design Decisions .................................................................................. 425
Pump Capacity ..................................................................................... 425
Pump Station Configuration .............................................................. 426
Pump Types and Selection.................................................................. 427
Wet Well Sizing .................................................................................... 432
Net Positive Suction Head .................................................................. 433
Appurtenances ..................................................................................... 435

12.3

Force Main Sizing with a Single Pump Station

435
Determining Pipe Sizes ....................................................................... 436
Developing System Head Curves...................................................... 437
Selecting Economical Pipe Size.......................................................... 438

12.4

Modeling Pumped Systems

441
Modeling Pumps.................................................................................. 442
Downstream Flow Attenuation ......................................................... 442
Identifying Potential Problems .......................................................... 443
Modeling a Pipeline with Multiple High Points ............................. 444

12.5

Efficiency Considerations
448
Constant-Speed Pumping................................................................... 448
Variable-Speed Pumping .................................................................... 451
Automated Energy Calculations ....................................................... 455

12.6

Force Mains with Multiple Pump Stations

455

12.7

Hydraulic Transients

457

Low-Pressure Sewers

467

13.1

420

Description of Pressure Sewers

468
Storage Tanks........................................................................................ 470
Service Lines ......................................................................................... 470
Pressure Mains ..................................................................................... 471
Air-Release/Vacuum-Breaker Valves ................................................ 471
Discharge Points................................................................................... 471

ix

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

13.2

Estimating Flows
472
Empirical Approaches......................................................................... 473
Poisson Distribution to Estimate Loads ........................................... 475

13.3

Pressure Sewer Design Considerations

13.4

Modeling Pressure Sewers

479
Modeling to Size Pressure Mains ...................................................... 480
Representing All Service Connections as Nodes ............................ 481
Detailed Models ................................................................................... 482

Utilizing GIS

478

489

14.1

GIS Fundamentals
490
Data Management ............................................................................... 491
Geographic Data Representations..................................................... 494

14.2

Developing an Enterprise GIS

495
Keys to Successful Implementation .................................................. 495
Needs Assessment ............................................................................... 496
Design.................................................................................................... 497
Pilot Study ............................................................................................ 504
Production ............................................................................................ 504
Rollout ................................................................................................... 505

14.3

Model Construction
505
Model Sustainability and Maintenance............................................ 506
Communication Between the GIS and Modeling Staff .................. 507
Network Components......................................................................... 508
Wastewater Loads................................................................................ 510
Building the Model.............................................................................. 515
Pitfalls in Constructing Models from GIS ........................................ 517
Loading Model Results to GIS ........................................................... 520

14.4

GIS Analysis and Visualization

520
Basic GIS Uses and Examples ............................................................ 520
Advanced GIS Uses and Examples ................................................... 522

Regulatory Issues

529

15.1

United States Laws and Regulations

529
Clean Water Act ................................................................................... 530
U.S. Federal Regulations..................................................................... 531
Water Quality Standards and Total Maximum
Daily Loads (TMDLs) .................................................................... 537
Section 404 Dredge and Fill Permits ................................................. 538

15.2

Canadian Laws and Regulations

538
Sanitary Sewer Systems ...................................................................... 539
Combined Sewer Systems .................................................................. 539

15.3

European Union Laws and Regulations

546
Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) ...................... 546

Table of Contents

Water Policy Framework Directive (WPFD) ................................... 549

Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Directive (IPPC) ............ 549
Product Directives ............................................................................... 549
Control of CSOs in EU Member States ............................................. 549
Design Criteria for CSOs..................................................................... 550
15.4

Use of Models for Regulatory Compliance

551

Appendix A Symbols

557

Appendix B

Conversion Factors

563

Appendix C Physical Properties

567

Bibliography

573

Index

589