DNA: The Molecule of Life

Salwa Hassan Teama

Contents

What is DNA???
General Structure of Nucleic Acid
Variety of DNA Structures
Sizes of Different DNA
DNA Replication
DNA Denaturation
Mitochondrial DNA
Function of DNA
DNA Damage

The DNA

The genetic material of all cellular organisms and

most viruses,
The gigantic molecule which is used to encode
genetic information for all life on Earth,
Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and
protists) store their DNA inside the cell nucleus,
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea); it is found in the
cell's cytoplasm.

Human DNA

Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called

chromosomes.
In normal human cell DNA contained in the nucleus,
arranged in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
22 pairs of chromosomes (autosomes); The 23
chromosome pair determines the sex of individual
and is composed of either;(XX) (female) or (XY)
(male).

Chromosome/Amount of DNA
Chromosome

Amount of DNA
(Mb)

Chromosome

Amount of DNA
(Mb)

263

13

114

255

14

109

214

15

106

203

16

98

194

17

92

183

18

85

171

19

67

155

20

72

145

21

50

10

144

22

56

11

144

164

12
Table adapted from; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7587/table/A657/?report=objectonly

April 25, 1953: James

Watson and Francis Crick's
describes the double
helical structure of DNA.
The structure suggests a
possible copying
mechanism for the genetic
material.

April 25, 1953: Rosalind

Franklin and Ray Gosling
provide further evidence
of the helical nature of
nucleic acids, Rosalind
franklin used x
crystallography to help
visualize the structure of
DNA.

The DNA

DNA is a long chain polymers of small compound

called nucleotides (The building blocks of nucleic
acids).

There are four different types of nucleotides found in

DNA, differing only in the nitrogenous base: A is for
adenine; G is for guanine; C is for cytosine and T is
for thymine.

Nucleotide

Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base;

sugar (deoxyribose) and a phosphate group. The
phosphate joins the sugars in a DNA chain through
their 5' and 3' hydroxyl group by phosphodiester
bonds.

The bases pair in a specific way: Adenine A with

thymine T (two hydrogen bonds); Guanine G with
cytosine C (three hydrogen bonds).

Chargaff's Rules

Thymine is always equal to

the adenine.
Cytosine is always equal to
guanine.

The Double Helix

The DNA double helix often linked as a twisted

ladder.
The curving sides of the ladder represent the sugarphosphate backbone of the two DNA strands; the
rungs are the base pairs.
The two strand of helix run in opposite direction
(anti-parallel).
The DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen
bonds between the bases.

Variety of DNA Structures

B DNA

The most dominant form,

Wide major groove easily accessible to proteins; narrow minor

groove,
Right-handed helix,
Represents the sodium salt of DNA in a fiber produced at very
of relative humidity (92%),
Diameter of approx. 2nm,
10bp/turn,
Rise/bp along axis; 3.4 (0.34 nm),
Rise/turn of helix; 33.2 (3.32 nm),
Inclination of bp to axis -1.2.

A DNA

Right-handed helix,

Deep, narrow major groove not easily accessible to proteins.

Wide, shallow minor groove accessible to proteins, but lower
information content than major groove,
Represents the sodium salt of DNA in a fiber produced at a
relative humidity (75%),
Diameter (2.3nm),
10.7 bases/turn,
Rise/bp along axis; 2.4 (0.24 nm),
Rise/turn of helix; 24.6 (2.46 nm),
Inclination of bp to axis +19.

Z DNA

Left-handed helix,

Major "groove" not really groove. Narrow minor groove,

Its bases seem to zigzag,
Diameter (1.8nm),
12 bases/turn,
Rise/bp along axis; 3.7 (0.37 nm),
Rise/turn of helix; 45.6 (4.56 nm),
Inclination of bp to axis; -9.

Sizes of Various DNA

Natural DNAs varies in sizes from several

kilobases to thousands of megabases.

The sizes are expressed;

Molecular weight,
Number of base pairs and
Length.

Sizes of Various DNAs

Source

Length

Base pairs (bp)

Molecular weight

Subcellular genetic system

Bacteriophage T2 or T4
Human mitochondria

50 (m)
5 (m)

2x105
16.596

1.3x108
9.5x106

Bacteria
H influenzae
Escherichia coli

620 (m)
1.6 (mm)

1.83x106
4.64x106

1.2x109
3.1x109

Eukaryotes (content per

haploid nucleus)
Drosophila melanogaster
Homo sapiens (human

6 cm
1.1m

1.8x108
3.2x109

1.2x1011
2.3x1012

Source: Table adapted from:. Molecular Biology. Fourth Edition. Robert F. Weaver. McGraw-Hill International Edition.

DNA Replication

All gene duplication; the

transfer the genetic information
from a parent to a daughter cell.
The DNA base sequence are
precisely copied.

Three proposed models of DNA replication:

Semiconservative replication; describes the method by which

DNA is replicated in all known cells; it would produce two

copies that each contained one of the original strands and one
entirely new strand.
Conservative replication; would leave the two original
template DNA strands together in a double helix and would
produce a copy composed of two new strands containing all of
the new DNA base pairs.
Dispersive replication; would produce two copies of the DNA,
both containing distinct regions of DNA composed of either
both original strands or both new strands.

Classes of Protein involved in Replication

Protein

Function

Helicases

Unwinding of DNA (separating the 2

strands)

Single stranded binding protein(SSBP)

Stabilize unwinding and protect

SSDNA from nucleases

Topoisomerases

Relieve DNA supertwists by nicking

and sealing phosphodiester bonds in
DNA backbone

Primase

Synthesizing the RNA primers

DNA polymerase III

DNA synthesis

DNA polymerase II

Erase RNA primers and fill the gaps

left after removal of primers by
synthesizing DNA

DNA ligase

Join Okazaki fragments together on

lagging strand by forming
phosphodiester bond.

Table Adapted from :Applied molecular biology ;eds: Ali Khalifa;2002

DNA Denaturation

Denaturation; when a DNA solution is heated

enough, the noncovalent forces that hold the two
strands together weaken and finally break and the two
strand come apart.

Denaturation is a reversible process. The two single

complementary strands can be made to renaturate or
anneal into the native double stranded molecule by
adjusting the temperature or the salt concentration.

Melting Temperature

The temperature at which the DNA strands are half

denatured.

The GC content of a natural

DNA can vary from less

than 25% to almost 75%, the can have a strong effect
on physical properties of DNA , in particular on its
melting temperature and density which increases
linearly with GC content.

Relative G+C Contents of Various DNAs

Source of DNA

Percent (G+C)%

Streptococcus pyogenes

34

Haemophlius influenzae

39

Escherichia coli

51

Herpes simplex virus

72

Source adapted from: Molecular Biology. Fourth Edition. Robert F. Weaver McGraw-Hill International Edition.

Mitochondrial DNA

Among the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 total genes in

the human genome.
Contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for
normal mitochondrial function.
Thirteen of these genes provide instructions for
making enzymes involved in oxidative
phosphorylation.
The remaining genes provide instructions for making
molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and
ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs).

Function of DNA
Storage of genetic information
Transmission of genetic information

DNA Damage

The cellular DNA is to structural damage

through the action of endogenous or
environmental mutagens.

In absence of efficient repair mechanisms.

Stable mutations can be introduced into DNA
during the process of replication at damaged
sites within the DNA.

Mammalian cells possess several distinct DNA repair mechanisms

including: Enzymatic reversal repair, nucleotide excision repair and post
replication repair.

DNA Uses in Technology

Genetic engineering
Forensic science
Bioinformatics

DNA nanotechnology

References & Further Reading

Ali Khalifa. Applied molecular biology; eds: ( Fathi Tash and Sanna Eissa). 109
pages. Egypt. University Book Center. 2002. Available in paper copy from the
publisher
Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and
Peter Walter. Molecular Biology of the cell. ISBN. 9780815341055/Available in paper
copy from the publisher
Daniel H. Farkas. DNA Simplified: The Hitchhiker's Guide to DNA. Washington, DC:
AACC Press, 1996, ISBN 0-915274-84-1. Available in paper copy from the publisher
Franklin R. and Gosling R.G Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate.
Nature 171, 740-741 (1953). Available in paper copy from the publisher
Watson J.D. and Crick F.H.C. A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic
Acid.. Nature 171, 737-738 (1953).
Wilkins M.H.F., A.R. Stokes A.R. & Wilson H.R. Molecular Structure of
Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids .Nature 171, 738-740 (1953)
Robert F. Weaver. Molecular Biology. Fourth Edition. McGraw-Hill International
Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-110216-2Available in paper copy from the publisher.
Robert F. Mueller,Ian D. Young. Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics: ISBN.
044307125X . Available in paper copy from the publisher

Image Citation

National Institute of General Medical Science. Chromosome inside a nucleus

http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/chapter1.html
National Institute of General Medical Science. Human Chromosome
http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/chapter1.html
Double helical structure of DNA. Adapted from: Watson J.D. and Crick F.H.C. Nature 171, 737-738 (1953).
Franklin R. and Gosling R.G Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate. Nature 171, 740-741 (1953)
Madprime. DNA chemical structure. 27 March 20. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_chemical_structure.svg
Boris (PNG), SVG by Sjef. Nucleotides November 04 2005. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nucleotides_1.svg
Pray, L. Chargaff's Rules. Discovery of DNA structure and function: Watson and Crick. Nature Education 1(1).
(2008). http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397
George Rice, Montana State University. Summary of DNA replication.
http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/research_methods/genomics/replication.html
Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) A-DNA, B-DNA and Z-DNA. 9 February 2007
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A-DNA,_B-DNA_and_Z-DNA.png
Mammalian DNA Repair system. Adapted from. http://www.nih.gov/sigs/dna-rep/whatis.html.
Harold Brenner. DNA repair. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dnarepair1.png
ShanelMitochondrial DNA
2008-06-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mitochondrial_DNA_en.svg