Heat Transfer:

Chap 15: Fundamentals of Heat Transfer

Chap 16: Differential Equations of Heat Transfer
Chap 17: Steady-State Conduction
Chap 18: Unsteady-State Conduction
Chap 19: Convective Heat Transfer

What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy transport due to a spatial temperature
difference.

What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration
and electronic states of the atoms and molecules that comprise matter.
It represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is
directly linked to the temperature of matter.

* Thermal Energy, Temperature and Heat Transfer:

Quantity

Meaning

Symbol (units)

Thermal energy

Energy associated with

microscopic behavior of matter

E or U (J, J/kg)

Temperature

A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in
matter

T (K, C)

Heat transfer

Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradient

Heat

Amount of thermal energy

transferred over a time interval

Q (J, Btu)

Heat transfer
rate

Thermal energy transfer per

unit time

q (J/s or W)

Heat flux
(vector)

Thermal energy transfer per unit

time per unit surface area

q (W/m2)

(1 Btu = 252 cal)

* Modes of Heat Transfer (or Heat Transfer Mechanisms):

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Conduction:
- Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to the
random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or electrons.
- No bulk fluid motion
- Dominant in solids, important in fluids

* Modes of Heat Transfer (or Heat Transfer Mechanisms):

Convection:
- Heat or energy transfer by fluid motion
- Forced convection:

fluid flow caused by external means (pump, etc.)

- Natural convection: fluid flow caused by energy transfer itself (i.e.,

density gradient in space)
- Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature
variations in a material medium.

Radiation:
- Heat or energy transfer by photons
All materials radiate thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons). When this radiation falls in a second body, it
may be partially reflected, transmitted or absorbed. It is only the
fraction that is absorbed that appears as heat in the body.
- Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require
a material medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.

* Convective Heat Transfer (Newtonian fluid):

T0

, , Cp, k

L
U, T

u = 0
(continuity equation)

Du
= p + 2 u + g ( Navier - Stokes equation )

Dt
DT

2
C
k
T +

(convective energy equation)

=

Dt

Unknowns : p, u , T

(5 unknowns and 5 equations)

* Convective Energy Equation:

C p

DT
= q +
Dt

or

T
+ u T = q +

C p

Fouriers law of
conduction

q = q" = k T
C p

DT
= k 2T +
Dt

or

T
+ u T = k 2T +

C p

convection
term

conduction
term

Viscous
dissipation

* Fouriers law of conduction:

q = q" = k T
- Heat flux is proportional to the temperature gradient.
- Heat flux is in the direction of decreasing temperature.
- The proportionality constant, k is called thermal conductivity.
Unit of k :

[k ] =

W
mK

* Thermophysical Properties
T

+ u T = k 2T +
t

C p

- Transport properties: k (thermal conductivity), (viscosity)

- Thermodynamic properties: , Cp

[ C p ] = kg3 kgJ K =
m

m3 K
J

volumetric heat capacity

(ability of a material to store thermal energy per unit volume)
Thermal diffusivity:

C p

Recall kinematic viscosity:

m2
[ ] =
s
m2
[ ] =
s

* Convective Energy Equation:

T

+ u T = k 2T +
t

C p
Conduction:

- Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to the

random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or electrons.

- No bulk fluid motion i.e., u = 0 & = 0

- Dominant in solids, important in fluids

T
C p = k 2T
t

or

k
T
=
2T
t
C p

Here is the thermal diffusivity

k
=
C p

or

T
= 2T
t
m2
[ ] =
s

* Heat Transfer by Conduction:

T
= 2T
t

(heat equation)
Temperature profile, T(x, t)

Boundary conditions (?)

- Fouriers law of conduction provides the heat flux. q = q" = k T
- Boundary conditions depend on the heat transfer situation.
If there is an energy source within the medium,

T
Cp
= k 2T + q
t
Rate of energy generation per unit volume (W/m3)

* Heat Transfer by Conduction:

T
= 2T
t

(heat equation)

In Cartesian coordinate system:

2T 2T 2T
T
2

= T =
+
+
x 2 y 2 z 2
t

T T T

,
q = q" = q "x , q "y , q "z = k ,
x y x

In cylindrical coordinate system:

2
2

1
T
1
T
T
T

+
+
r
= 2T =

r r r r 2 2 z 2
t

T 1 T T
,
q = q" = q r" , q" , q "z = k ,

r
r

* One-dimensional steady-state conduction in a slab (17.1)

L

2T
T

=
2
x
t

Initial condition:

T
T1
T2

st.-st.

At t = 0, T (0, x) = T2

2T
x

=0

BCs:
At x = 0, T = T1

At x = L, T = T2

Steady-state solution:
T T
T ( x) = T1 1 2 x
L
T T T
q "x = k = k 1 2 (W/m2)
x L
q = A q "x (heat transfer rate, W)

* One-dimensional steady-state conduction in a slab (17.1)

Steady-state solution:
T1 T2
T ( x) = T1
x
L

L
T
T1
T2
x

T T T
q "x = k = k 1 2 (W/m2)
x L
q = A q "x (heat transfer rate, W)

- Temperature profile is the same regardless

of the material (e.g., wood, metal block)
- Heat flux (and heat transfer rate), however,
is proportional to k.
wood:

k = ~0.15 W/m-K

Aluminum: k = 237 W/m-K

Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials

2
W
q" W / m
[k ] = =
=
mK
K /m
T

Materials (300K)
gas
liquid
non-metallic solid
metallic solid

W/m-K
~0.05
~1
1 ~ 10
~100

k = k (T , P )
Dependence on T & P?

Materials
air
Steam (380K)
Water
Glass
Soil
Teflon
Wood
Plaster board
Glass fiber
Aluminum
Copper

W/m-K
2.63 X 10-2
2.46 X 10-2
0.613
1.4
0.52
0.35
~0.15
0.17
0.036
237
401

* Dependence of k on T & p ?

k n c

In case of gases:

mean free path

mean molecular speed
number density
- If T increases,

c increases.

- If molecular mass is smaller,

Thus, k increases.

is larger. Thus, k is large.

k hydrogen > k helium

- If p increases, n increases. But decreases. Thus, k is a weak function of p.
k(T, p) of liquids:

not well understood