This document downloaded from

vulcanhammer.net
since 1997,
your source for engineering information
for the deep foundation and marine
construction industries, and the historical
site for Vulcan Iron Works Inc.
Use subject to the fine print to the
right.

All of the information, data and computer software

("information") presented on this web site is for
general information only. While every effort will
be made to insure its accuracy, this information
should not be used or relied on for any specific
application without independent, competent
professional examination and verification of its
accuracy, suitability and applicability by a licensed
professional. Anyone making use of this
information does so at his or her own risk and
assumes any and all liability resulting from such
use. The entire risk as to quality or usability of the
information contained within is with the reader. In
no event will this web page or webmaster be held
liable, nor does this web page or its webmaster
provide insurance against liability, for any
damages including lost profits, lost savings or any
other incidental or consequential damages arising
from the use or inability to use the information
contained within.
This site is not an official site of Prentice-Hall, the
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga,
Vulcan
Foundation Equipment or Vulcan Iron Works Inc.
(Tennessee Corporation).
All references to
sources of equipment, parts, service or repairs do
not constitute an endorsement.

Dont forget to visit our companion site http://www.vulcanhammer.org

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN TEXTBOOK

DREDGING EQUIPMENT

(FORMERLY NAVFAC DM-38.2)

JULY 1981

NAVFAC DM-38.2
JULY 1981
APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE

DREDGING EQUIPMENT

DESIGN MANUAL 38.2

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

NAVAL FACILITIES ENGINEERING COMMAND
200 STOVALL STREET
ALEXANDRIA, VA. 22332

DISTRIBUTION:
SNDL
23A1
24J1
27G
398
39C1
39E
42A3
45B
49
51A
51B1
51B3
B2A
B5
C34
C37D
E3A
FA6

FA7

FA10
FA18
FA23
FA32
FB6
FB7
FB10
FB21
FB31
FB34
FB36
FB41
FB48
FC3
FC4
FC5
FC7
FC12
FD2
FE2
FE4

FF1
FF5
FF6
FF19

(1 copy each unless otherwise specified)

(COMNAVFORAZORES only)

FF38
FG2
FG3
FG6
FH3
FH6
FH8
FH25

(JCS,
only)
(USCG
(Holy
(Port

NSA, DLA, and DNA

only)
Loch, Souda Bay only)
Hueneme only)

(Bermuda, Brunswick, Cecil

Field, Key West,
Jacksonville, Virginia
Beach only)
(Guantanamo, Keflavik,
Brooklyn, Panama Canal,
Mayport, Roosevelt Roads
only)
(Antigua, Brawdy, Buxton,
Levee only)
(Alameda, Fallon, Lemoore,
Oak Harbor, Miramar, North
Island, Moffet Field only)
(Adak, Midway only)
(Guam only)
(Kadena, Sasebo only)
(Big Sur, Coos Head,
Ferndale, and Pacific
Beach only)
(London only)
(Sigonella only)

(Adak, Edzell, Hanza,

Galeta Island, Homestead,
Winter Harbor, Sabana
Seca, and Sonoma only)
(Washington only)
(New Orleans, Seattle only)

(Balboa, Harold Holt, Nea

Makri, Thurso, Stockton,
and Ponce only)
(Cheltenham and East
Machias only)
(Wahiawa and Norfolk only)
(Beaufort only)
(Bethesda only)
(Cairo only)
(Philadelphia, Portsmouth
VA, Camp Lejeune, Oakland,
Newport, Great Lakes, and
Long Beach only)

FJ5
FKA6A1
FKA6A2
FKA6A3A
FKA6A3B
FKA6A9
FKA6A12
FKA6A15 (Code 521)
FKA6A16
FKA9
FKM8
FKM9
FKMl2
FKM13
FKMl5 (Philadelphia only)
FKN1
(West and Lant only (85
copies each))
FKN1
(South and North only (50
copies each))
FKN1
(Pac only, 25 copies each)
FKN1
(Ches only, 25 copies
each)
FKN1
(Ches, FPO-1 only)
FKN2
FKN3
(6 copies each)
FKN5
(5 copies each)
FKN8
FKN1O
FKP1B (less Concord)
FKP1B (Concord only, 3 copies)
FKP1E
FKP1J
FKP1M
FKP3A
FKP7
FKP8
FKP11
FKQ3
FKR1A
FKR1B (2 copies)
FKR2A (Dallas only)
FKR3A
FKR3H
FKR4B
FKR5
FKR7E (3 copies)
FR3
FR4
FT1

FT2
FT6
FT13
(Less Millington)
FT18
FT19
(San Diego only)
FT22
FT27
(Idaho Falls only)
FT28
FT31
FT37
FT55
FT64
FT73
FT74A (MIT and Texas only)
FT74B (California, Illinois,
Rensselaer, Georgia Tech
only)
FT78
(2 copies)
V2
V3
V5
V8
V12
V14
V15
V16
(less Camp Smith)
V17
V23
V25
copy to:

(One copy each unless

otherwise indicated)

21A
A2A
(ONR only)
A3
A4A
A5
A6
(Code LFF)
C7
(Brazil and Chile only)
FD1
FE1
FGl
FKA1A
FKA1B (2 copies)
FKA1C (Code 043 - 50 copies)
FKA1F
FKN2
(Port Hueneme (Code 156)
only)
FR1
Additional copies are available
from:
Commanding Officer
Naval Publications and
Forms Center
5801 Tabor Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19120

RECORD OF CHANGES

Change No.

Date of
Change

Date entered

Signature of person
entering Change

ABSTRACT
Information is presented for use in procurement of dredging services and
equipment by local OICCs and Command engineers. Legal considerations, site
characteristics, environmental aspects, and basic economics of dredging operations are included. Types of available dredging equipment, their capabilities,
and their limitations are described.

38.2-iii

FOREWORD
This design manual is one of a series developed from an evaluation of facilities in the shore establishment, from surveys of the availability of new
materials and construction methods, and from selection of the best design
practices of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command, other Government
agencies, and the private sector. This manual uses, to the maximum extent
feasible, national professional society, association, and institute standards
in accordance with NAVFACENGCOM policy. Deviations from these criteria should
not be made without prior approval of NAVFACENGCOM Headquarters (Code 04).
Design cannot remain static any more than can the naval functions it serves or
the technologies it uses. Accordingly, recommendations for improvement are
encouraged from within the Navy and from the private sector and should be
furnished to NAVFACENGCOM Headquarters (Code 04). As the design manuals are
revised, they are being restructured. A chapter or a combination of chapters
will be issued as a separate design manual for ready reference to specific
criteria.
This publication is certified as an official publication of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command and has been reviewed and approved in accordance with
SECNAVINST 5600.16.

Commander
Naval Facilities Engineering Command

38.2-v

CIVIL ENGINEERING DESIGN MANUALS

DM Number

Chapter superseded
in Basic DM-38

Title

38.1

Weight Handling Equipment and Service Craft

38.2

Dredging Equipment

38.3

Yard Craft

38.4

Pile Driving Equipment

38.5

Towing Nonself-propelled Floating Structures

38.2-vi

CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-l

SCOPE

38.2-l

2.

..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
CANCELLATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.

RELATED CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-l

4.

PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Work Accomplishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-1
38.2-1
38.2-l

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

38.2-2

1.

PERMITS AND OTHER LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . .

a. Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army . . . . . .
b. Disposal of Dredged Material . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-2
38.2-2
38.2-2
38.2-2

2.

SITE INVESTIGATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Hydrographic Surveys and Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Map of Disposal Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Characteristics of Area To Be Dredged . . . . . . . .
d. Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Test Borings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Test Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-2
38.2-2
38.2-3
38.2-3
38.2-3
38.2-3
38.2-4

3.

PROJECT DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-4

4.

OVERDEPTH DREDGING. . . . . . . . .
a. Overdepth Allowance . . . . . .
b. Designed Overdepth . . . . . . .
c. Mandatory Maximum Dredged Depths

38.2-4
38.2-4
38.2-4
38.2-5

5.

OVERWIDTH DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-5

6.

SPOIL AREAS AND UTILIZATION OF SPOIL . . . . . . . . . . .

a. Utilization of Spoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Dikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Spoil Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-6
38.2-6
38.2-6
38.2-6
38.2-8

7.

REMOVAL OF ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-8

8.

RECOVERY OF SUBSTRATUM (UNDERCUTTING) . . . . . . . . . . 38.2-8

Section 1.
1.

Section 2.

Section 3.
Part 1.
1.

DREDGING DESIGN

. . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ..
...........

38.2-l

. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

38.2-9

MECHANICAL DREDGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BUCKET DREDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Uses, Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-9

TYPES OF DREDGING EQUIPMENT

38.2-vii

38.2-9
38.2-9
38.2-9
38.2-9
38.2-9

CONTENTS
Page
2.

MOUNTING CONVENTIONAL, LAND-BASED EXCAVATION

EQUIPMENT ON A BARGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-9

3.

DIPPER DREDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-12
38.2-12
38.2-12
38.2-12
38.2-12

4.

LADDERDREDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-12
38.2-12
38.2-13
38.2-13

Part 2.

HYDRAULIC DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-14

1.

PLAIN SUCTIONTYPE. . . . .
a. Description . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth . . .
c. Uses, Advantages . . . .
d. Disadvantages . . . . .
e. Length of Discharge Pipe

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .............
...............

38.2-14
38.2-14
38.2-14
38.2-14
38.2-16
38.2-16

2.

CUTTER HEAD TYPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Uses, Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Disadvantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Length of Discharge Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-16
38.2-16
38.2-16
38.2-19
38.2-19
38.2-19

3.

DUST PAN TYPE . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Uses, Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Disadvantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-19
38.2-19
38.2-19
38.2-19
38.2-19

4.

HOPPER DREDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Capacity and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Uses, Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-19
38.2-19
38.2-19
38.2-22
38.2-22

5.

SIDECAST DREDGE
a. Description
b. Capacity and
C. Use . . . .
d. Disadvantage

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......................
Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-22
38.2-22
38.2-22
38.2-23
38.2-23

6.

NAVY HYDRAULIC DREDGE INVENTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-23

38.2-viii

CONTENTS
Page
Part 3.

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-23

1.

SECTIONALIZED DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-23
38.2-23
38.2-23

2.

DUMP SCOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................................
a. Side Dump
b. Bottom Dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-23

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

38.2-26

..................

38.2-26

3.

PIPELINES

38.2-26

1.

ECONOMICS OF DREDGING
BASIC PRINCIPLES . . .
a. Depth . . . . . .
b. Other . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

38.2-26
38.2-26
38.2-26

2.

RELATIVE COSTS OF REMOVAL BY DIFFERENT TYPES

OF EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38.2-26

Section 4.

3.

CONCEPTUAL OR PLANNING COST ESTIMATES . . . . . . . . . . 38.2-27

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference-1
APPENDIX:

Metric Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A-1

FIGURES
Figure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Table
1.

Title
Sketch Illustrating Some Inaccuracies in Leadline Soundings .
Typical Discharge Pipe Patterns in a Retention Basin . . . . .
Use of Silt Curtain to Control Disturbed Sediment in
DredgeArea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open Water Extended Aeration Treatment/Disposal . . . . . . .
Bucket Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dipper Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bucket-Ladder Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suction Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Pump Barge Dredging Operation . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic, Cutter Head, Pipeline Dredge . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Cutter Head Dredging Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Dust Pan Dredging Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic Seagoing Hopper Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sidecast Dredge in Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Side Dump Scow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE
Title
Hydraulic Dredges Currently in Navy Service Craft Inventory .
38.2-ix

Page
38.2-5
38.2-7
38.2-7
38.2-8
38.2-10
38.2-13
38.2-14
38.2-15
38.2-16
38.2-17
38.2-18
38.2-20
38.2-21
38.2-22
38.2-25

Page
38.2-24

DREDGING EQUIPMENT
Section 1.

INTRODUCTION

SCOPE. This manual contains the following: information on procurement

1.
of dredging; types of equipment available, their characteristics and capacities; basic economics of dredging operations; and preparation of plans and
specifications for the procurement of dredging for harbors, anchorages, turning basins and ship channels. A catalogue (description and characteristics)
of dredges currently in the Navy inventory is included for guidance in the
potential procurement of dredging by assignment of Navy equipment.
CANCELLATION. This manual on dredging equipment, NAVFAC DM-38.2, cancels
2.
and supersedes Chapter Two, NAVFAC DM-38, Weight Handling Equipment and Service Craft, of August 1975.
RELATED CRITERIA. Certain criteria related to the subject matter of
3.
this manual appear elsewhere in the design manual series. See the following
sources:
Source

Subject

Civil Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVFAC DM-5 Series

Hydrographic Surveys
Plans, Specifications and Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . NAVFAC DM-6 Series
Survey-Based Plans and Maps
Soil Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVFAC DM-7 Series
Soils Exploration
Harbor and Coastal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVFAC DM-26 Series
Harbors and Ship Channels
Turning Basins
4.

PLANNING.

Jurisdiction. Jurisdiction over navigable waters in the United

a.
States, its territories and possessions, is assigned to the Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army. Application forms and permits for dredging are
obtained from them.
b.

Work Accomplishment.

With Navy-owned equipment.

(1)
maximum extent consistent with economy.

Use Navy-owned dredges to the

By the Corps of Engineers. When Navy-owned dredges suitable

(2)
for the project are unavailable, the work may be accomplished by contractual
agreement with the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army.

38.2-l

By contract with private firms. When the only suitable

(3)
floating equipment- (dredges, pipelines, scows, or drillboats) is in private
ownership, or where the workload exceeds the capability of available government equipment, dredging may be done by private contractors.
Section 2.
1.

DREDGING DESIGN

PERMITS AND OTHER LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army. Permit must be obtained

a.
for all work in navigable waters of the continental United States, its territories, and possessions. This permit is obtained by the agency procuring the
dredging.
Disposal of Dredged Material. The disposal site (unless a public
b.
spoil area is to be used) should be selected and acquired by the agency procuring the dredging. The disposal site must be clearly indicated on the project plans or in project specifications. A permit is required from the Corps
of Engineers, Department of the Army when disposal is to be in one of the public spoil areas under control of procuring agency, or when the runoff from the
spoil area will be returned to any navigable water, including spoiling on shore
or foreshore areas. Permits from various state or local agencies concerned
with pollution, stream control, fish and wildlife, and wetlands preservation
also may be necessary. It is necessary to make local inquiry and investigation in each case and to do so thoroughly as such agencies are being commissioned at an increasing rate and failure to obtain a necessary permit can
result in a costly delay of a project. These permits may be obtained by the
agency procuring the dredging or by a contractor. Normally, however, because
of the time required to obtain said permits, they are obtained by the agency
procuring the dredging.
Environmental Considerations. An environmental impact assessment
(EIA) must be included with every program cost estimate (PCE). A candidate
environmental impact statement (CEIS) may also be required.
2.

SITE INVESTIGATIONS.

a.
Hydrographic Surveys and Mapping. See also related criteria. The
survey should cover the entire area to be dredged, including slope areas
and any areas of potential sloughing. If payment for dredging is to be on the
basis of price per unit volume, the survey (or a resurvey) should be made just
prior to doing the dredging. The results of the survey should be presented in
map form. For preliminary layouts and similar purposes, consider availability
of maps or charts promulgated by various governmental agencies, in particular
the Navy Oceanographic Office, and the National Ocean Survey under the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the Department of Commerce. Drawing
of contours is desirable, but not essential. The position of all known obstructions (including bridges, jetties, piers, overhead and submarine cables
and pipelines, wrecks, and large items of debris) should be shown, together
with the nature of said obstructions. Soundings for preparation of hydrographic maps, preferably, should be made by echo sounding wherever there is
adequate depth of water for the proper operation of such equipment. In shallow depths, sounding with a leadline or pole (Figure 1) is permissible but has
certain inherent inaccuracies including sinkage of lead into bottom, drift of
38.2-2

sounding line, and variable slacking of sounding line. If a lead is used,

type and weight should be specified. Ranges should not be spaced more than 50
feet apart, with soundings at like intervals (or continuous). Where local
detail is required, ranges and soundings should be at closer intervals. Datum
for soundings shall be mean low water (MLW) or mean lower low water (MLLW),
whichever is used as station datum.
b.
Map of Disposal Area. Map of disposal area showing existing contours and final grading is required where finished grading of disposal area is
desired. Any desired planting of disposal area should be indicated. Grading
of disposal area should allow for any required diking, for inevitable losses
(shrinkage) in conveying and depositing of spoil material, and for losses due
to runoff. If rock dredging is involved, the in-place fill will bulk compared to the predredged volume. A bulk factor for rock, in common use, is 30%.
Characteristics of Area To Be Dredged. Indicate hydrographic conc.
ditions such as direction and approximate velocities of currents and waves,
Indicate tidal range. Meteorological data such as temperature, winds, fog and
ice conditions should be listed.
Cross Sections. If payment for dredging is to be on a price per
d.
unit volume basis, usually quantities are determined on the basis of average
end areas. Sometimes the computation is made on the basis of horizontal
slices. Either method is applicable, but the method should be stipulated as
the results are not always identical. If the end area method is to be used,
cross sections will be required. If more than one type of material will be
encountered, this should be indicated on the cross sections.
e.

Test Borings.

Number and spacing. At the present state of the art, no gen(1)

erally accepted rules have been formulated. Number and spacing of test borings required to adequately define the work remain a matter of individual
judgement, based on the following principles:
(a)
For maintenance dredging, in general, review of historical records should be adequate and no borings are required.
Spacing of borings should be determined by degree of
(b)
variation in the material to be dredged. Spacing of 100 to 500 feet apart is
reasonable if conditions are substantially uniform. Where conditions are variable, closer spacing is required.
Depth. Borings should penetrate at least 2 feet below pro(2)
posed final dredged level.
Test data. For purposes of evaluating the necessary dredging
(3)
plant and the probable production, the principal element of interest is the
density (or consistency) of the material to be removed and, for cohesive
soils, shear strength. Density (or consistency) may be estimated from the
Standard Penetration Test. For firm (or stiff) cohesive soils, consider execution of unconfined compression tests. For loose (or soft) to medium soils,
strength tests usually are not required. For purposes of estimating stable
38.2-3

underwater side slopes, additional data may be required (see DM-7 Series for
principles and sample calculations). Approximate values, for purposes of preliminary design are:
Soil consistency
Hardpan and gravelly clay . . . . . . .

1:1-1:2

Sand and gravel with some fines . . . .

Coarse sand and gravel without
or with little fines . . . . . . . .

1:2-1:5
1:3-1:4

Mud and soft silt . . . . . . . . . . .

1:6-1:8

Firm cohesive soils . . . . . . . . . .

1:1-1:1[

1:1-1:2
1:2-1:3

-3

1:4-1:6
--

Test Dredging. For very large projects, consider test dredging in

f.
representative areas before the dredging plant is selected and/or prior to
selection of side slopes.
3.
PROJECT DEPTH. The project depth usually is determined by the sponsoring
Command or Agency. For harbor and channel depth requirements, see Harbors,
NAVFAC DM-26.1.
4.

OVERDEPTH DREDGING.

Overdepth Allowance. Usual overdepth allowance is 1 foot in land

a.
cuts or in cuts in protected waters, and 2 feet in exposed locations which are
subject to substantial wave action. Another rule often used is an overdepth
allowance of 2 feet in soft bottoms and 1 foot for hard bottoms. This allowance is intended as a tolerance to accommodate the inaccuracies inherent in
the dredging process. Two common ways of treating the tolerance follow:
Allow, for example, 1 foot of tolerance all over the area to
(1)
be dredged, which volume is to be paid for, whether dredged or not. However,
the level everywhere must be below the minimum depth specified.
Make a final survey and pay for everything dredged, down to
(2)
the limit of the tolerance, the bottom everywhere being below the minimum
depth specified.
Tolerance on side slopes also is necessary as side slopes normally
are excavated in benches, with some of the loose material inevitably falling
to the bottom of the slope or onto the benches.
Designed Overdepth. Provide for mandatory overdepth dredging as an
b.
allowance for advance maintenance to compensate for future silting. The depth
to be allowed is determined by economic analysis, weighing the investment value
of the increased expenditure against the costs of successive future mobilizations of equipment and other fixed costs involved in redredging.

Slopes show ratio of rise to run.

Finer material will assume flatter slopes.
3
May be as flat as 1:15.
2

38.2-4

FIGURE 1
Sketch Illustrating Some Inaccuracies in Leadline Soundings
c.
Mandatory Maximum Dredged Depths. Specify any limitations imposed
by considerations of stability of adjacent structures, cover over buried utilities or structures, etcetera.
5.
OVERWIDTH DREDGING. Consider need for dredging to excess width of channel to provide advance maintenance to compensate for silting or sloughing of
side slopes.

38.2-5

6.

SPOIL AREAS AND UTILIZATION OF SPOIL.

Utilization of Spoil. The key to economy in dredging is the profita.

able use of the dredged material. Use as landfill (for commercial development,
recreation, etcetera) is common. Recovery of aggregates or minerals should be
considered. Every possible attention should be devoted to this aspect of the
work. See paragraph 1.b for disposal area permits.
b.

Environmental

Considerations.

Control of discharge. Provide settling basin for discharge

(1)
prior to its effluence into any water course. Design outlet and boundary
facilities to permit pool level regulation and sectionalization of fill areas.
Outlet facilities usually include a weir of adjustable height and are located
so that overflow water must travel as great a distance as possible before passing out of settling basin, thereby giving maximum settling time and minimum
solids content in the overflow water (see Figure 2). A limitation on the
solids content in the overflow water of 8 grams/liter is a common measure of
the adequacy of retention in the settling basin.
Control of disturbed sediments in dredged area. Consider use
(2)
of silt curtains (Figures 3 and 4) to control the spread of disturbed sediments near dredged area.
During creation, and upon completion of above-water fills,
(3)
take necessary precautions to eliminate undrained areas and to prevent erosion.
Upon completion of below-water fills, consider seeding with
(4)
shellfish larvae or a variety of organisms to produce a productive area.
Polluted sediments. Under current (1973) standards of the
(5)
Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, if any one of the following pollution parameters exceeds the limit expressed below, the sediment is considered
polluted and unacceptable for disposal in open water.
Pollutant

Concentration % (dry wt. basis)

Volatile solids
Chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D.)
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
Oil-grease
Mercury
Lead
Zinc

6.0
5.0
0.10
0.15
0.001
0.005
0.005

Dikes. Artificial dikes or levees are often required for retention

c.
boundaries of settling basins. For principles of design see hydraulic fills
in NAVFAC DM-7 Series. Consider need for slope protection for dike. For
principles of design of slope protection see NAVFAC DM-26 Series.

38.2-6

FIGURE 2
Typical Discharge Pipe Patterns in a Retention Basin

FIGURE 3
Use of Silt Curtain to Control Disturbed Sediment in Dredge Area
38.2-7

FIGURE 4
Open Water Extended Aeration Treatment/Disposal
d.

Spoil Data.

Approximate Percentage of Solids in Hydraulic Spoil. The

(1)
percentage of solids handled by hydraulic dredges depends on the type of
equipment being used, the character of the materials being pumped, the effectiveness of the operator, and the efficiency of the equipment. The percentage
of solids also depends on the depth of the materials below water, the specific
gravity of the solids and the slurry, and the suction velocity in the pipeline.
The use of a proper cutter is important. The solids usually vary from 5 to
20% in the pipeline.
Typical Unit Weights of Spoil. Slurry weights in the dis(2)
charge pipeline vary from 68 to 80 pounds per cubic foot.
7.
REMOVAL OF ROCK. Removal of rock (except for soft rock) requires that
the rock be broken into sections of a size which can be handled by available
equipment. This can be accomplished by drilling and blasting or by breaking
with impact tools. No special provisions of the contract are required, other
than to use safe blasting techniques and to beware of blasting near existing
structures. Water transmits the blast shock wave which is, in effect, an
overpressure which decays with time and distance from the explosive source.
8.
RECOVERY OF SUBSTRATUM (UNDERCUTTING). Consider a soil profile consisting of several feet, or tens of feet, of muck overlying sand. It is desired
to recover the sand without stripping the muck. This can be done by a method
called undercutting. It also is possible to increase the depth of water by
undercutting and allowing the level of the muck to sink into the undercut.
This is a little-known, but potentially important, technique. It consists of
using a jet ejector, passed through the overlying muck to penetration in the
sand, and switching to horizontal jetting which causes the surrounding sand to
funnel to the ejector, leaving wells in the sand. The procedure is repeated
well after well. Eventually, the wells collapse and the bottom sinks after
the ejector has been removed.

38.2-8

Section 3.

TYPES OF DREDGING EQUIPMENT

Part 1.
1.

MECHANICAL DREDGES

BUCKET DREDGE.

Description. Essentially a crane or derrick mounted on a floating

a.
platform and operating a clamshell, orange peel, or dragline bucket. May be
a specially built machine (Figure 51, or simply a land machine (usually a
crawler) secured to a floating platform, or the turret and upper works of a
land machine mounted on a floating platform.
b.
Capacity and Depth. Capacity depends on the character of materials
to be handled, weight, and cohesion. The depth is an important factor. The
speed of the bucket affects the ability of the material to stay in it. The
capacity can only be determined by the size of the bucket, the percentage of a
bucket load one can get, the speed of the hoisting operation, and the location
and manner of discharge. Handling a sandy material from shallow water, one
can get a swing in 45 seconds, while handling clay from deep water might require 120 seconds per swing. This type of equipment can be used in depths to
100 feet or more. The depth is limited only by economical limits and drum
capacity.
c.

Uses, Advantages.
(1)

Small operating crew.

Can dig anything other than rock or highly cemented soil

(2)
Can
dredge
rock when broken to pieces by blasting.
materials.
(3)
d.

Highly versatile machine.

Disadvantages.
(1)

Slow moving.

Relatively low production rate.

Point of spoiling must be directly alongside the dredge.

(2)
Otherwise requires use of barges and of tugs for moving barges.
2.
MOUNTING CONVENTIONAL, LAND-BASED EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT ON A BARGE. This
variation of a bucket dredge has been useful in isolated and advanced base
environments where conventional equipment cannot be procured. The criteria
for floating cranes in DM-38.1 are also generally applicable to this conversion. The barge must provide the necessary buoyancy and satisfactory stability, and the overall cost of conversion should not exceed the cost of engaging
a conventional dredge. Prepare the barge and excavating equipment as follows:
Investigate the following loads on the barge and their effect on
(1)
stability and structural strength.
Dead load. Include vessel, excavating machinery, and auxili(a)
ary equipment mounted in or on the barge.
Live load. Include weight of payload, water and fuel tanks,
(b)
and anticipated deck live load.
38.2-9

FIGURE 5
Bucket Dredge

38.2-10

Pulls on cables. After the operating cables for the excava(c)

tion equipment have been selected, assume that their breaking strengths represent the maximum forces which can be applied to the barge due to this phase of
dredging operations.
(d)
maximum reach.
(e)

Loads due to vertical and lateral acceleration of bucket, at

Vertical and horizontal components of the mooring cable pulls.

(f) Wind, current, ice, and wave loads. For special wind loads
on cranes see DM-38.1. Where the equipment will be used only in sheltered
waters, use L/30 trochoidal wave; use L/10 to L/20 wave for seagoing hulls
unless otherwise specified in the project criteria. (L is the length of the
hull of the dredge, at the water level.)
Load applied to spuds through spud hoist. Consider spuds
(g)
capable of lifting the entire vessel, including live load.
(h)

Damage control.

(i)

Buoyant force of water.

Provide necessary anchorages and/or tiedowns to secure the excavat(2)

ing equipment to the barge.
Install limit and overload switches to restrict operating forces to
(3)
the allowable operating loads of the various components.
Provide reinforcement in or on the barge deck to distribute the
(4)
concentrated loads from the excavating equipment.
(5)

Consider adding blisters to the hull for added stability.

Check existing hull compartmentation for damage control.

(6)
NAVSHIPS Technical Manual, NAVSHIPS 0901-882-0002 Chapter 9880.

See

When converting an existing hull, check for damaged or deteriorated

(7)
framing and/or deck and hull plates. Repair or reinforce as required.
It is desirable, for safety, that the beam of the barge be adequate
(8)
to provide a walkway for personnel beyond the tailswing of the deck-mounted
excavating machinery. Where the original beam is inadequate, sponsons may be
added. Alternately, the base of the machine may be elevated to provide overhead clearance (6.5 to 7 feet) if the additional height does not have too much
effect on the overall stability of the barge.
If a shovel or backhoe is mounted on a barge, set the machine as
(9)
close to the deck edge as permitted by stability, to avoid the necessity for
digging in a vertical position from which the digging force is small. Move
the dipper stick far enough out on the boom so that the minimum clearance
between the stick and the hull fender will be 6 inches for the close-in position. When the boom is in lowest position, the angle to the horizontal should
not be less than 25 degrees in order not to overstress the boom and/or its
supports.
38.2-11

Where required by the material to be dredged, perforate the buckets

(10)
to provide additional drainage paths. Holes for silt and sand should not be
larger than 0.5 inch; for gravel and clay, about 1 inch; and for rock, coral,
and the like, 2 inches. Spacing should be chosen in accordance with the character of the material to be dredged. If the type of material is expected to
vary significantly while dredging, provide more than one bucket.
Repaint the excavating equipment with protective coating resistant
(11)
to a marine environment. If necessary, install enclosures or shielding to
reduce the entry of spray into machinery areas.
Where possible, used fixed ballast. If this cannot be done or is
(12)
inadequate, provide pumps and watertight compartments (at the end of the vessel away from excavating equipment) to allow water to be used for counterweight
or ballast. If water is used for ballast, the compartments must be full to
eliminate free surface effects on stability.
(13)
3.

Add lighting facilities as required.

DIPPER DREDGE.

a.
Description. Essentially, a power shovel, with the bucket at the
end of a very long stick and mounted to accommodate the intended depth of digging (see Figure 6).
b.
Capacity and Depth. Capacity of a dipper dredge depends primarily
on the character of materials handled. In hard bottoms the bucket may be one
quarter full, whereas in sand or clay, a heaped bucket might be obtained.
Most dippers have been designed for 45-foot maximum channel depths, but some
can be used to 60-foot depths.
c.

Advantage.

d.

Disadvantages.

Can dig virtually any material other than firm rock.

Point of spoiling must be directly alongside the dredge.

(1)
Otherwise requires use of barges and of tugs for moving barges.

4.

(2)

Relatively low output.

(3)

Larger operating crew than for bucket dredge.

LADDER DREDGE.

a.
Description. A series of buckets on an endless chain which rolls
over a drum or sprocket at either end of a long frame (the ladder). One end
of the ladder is lowered to the bottom, which brings the buckets into contact
with the material to be dredged. The buckets dump, by gravity, near the upper
end of their travel. (See Figure 7.)

38.2-12

Capacity and Depth. Preliminary designs have been made for machine
b.
digging to depths of 150 feet. Probably feasible to dig to depths of over 300
feet. Digging volumes to 100 cubic yards per hour under average conditions.
c.
Use. Not extensively used in general dredging practice. Mostly
used for mining.

FIGURE 6
Dipper Dredge
38.2-13

FIGURE 7
Bucket-Ladder Dredge
Part 2.
1.

HYDRAULIC DREDGES

PLAIN SUCTION TYPE.

a.
Description. Operates on principle of a vacuum cleaner. A stream
of water is caused to flow through the suction pipe by means of a centrifugal
pump. Loose materials are sucked up into and carried along with the stream
and discharged from the end of the conveyance pipe. (See Figure 8.) The pump
barge (Figure 9) is a variation of this type.
b.
Capacity and Depth. This type of dredge can bring up solids of 20%
or more in loose materials as long as the suction is kept into the material
and the proper amount of water can flow to the suction mouth. The limit of
depth is about 115 feet in sandy materials.
c.

Uses, Advantages.

Often used to recover sand from wet borrow pit and for exca(1)
vating jobs in loose sand.
(2)

No need for barges or for towing barges.

(3)

Operates continuously and in darkness or fog.

(4)

Relatively small crew.

38.2-14

OUTBOARD PROFILE
FIGURE 8
Suction Dredge

38.2-15

FIGURE 9
Typical Pump Barge Dredging Operation
d.

Disadvantages.
(1)
(2)

Limited to removal of loose material.

Discharge pipeline is an obstruction to passing traffic.

Length of Discharge Pipe. Length of discharge pipe depends on the

e.
pressure produced by the pump, the velocity, and percentage and character of
materials being pumped. Some dredges can pump up to 15,000 feet in sand or
silt. Beyond that, booster pumps are put in the line.
2.

CUTTER HEAD TYPE.

Description. Same principle as plain suction type, but employs a

a.
"cutter" at the end of the intake pipe to loosen the material to be dredged.
Cutter consists of a rotating basket frame of spiral knives surrounding the
suction nozzle (see Figure 10). The cutter head carves clay; breaks off
chunks of softer rock, such as coral or shale; and stirs up gravel or sand so
that the stream of suction water is continually, and heavily, loaded with the
excavated material (see Figure 11).
b.
Capacity and Depth. Capacity varies from 5 to 20% of solids.
Depth limit is usually less than 50 feet, as these dredges are designed for
channel work, but with ladder extensions, they can be effective to at least
100 feet.
38.2-16

FIGURE 10
Hydraulic, Cutter Head, Pipeline Dredge

38.2-17

FIGURE 11
Typical Cutter Head Dredging Operation

c.

Uses, Advantages.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

d.
traffic.
e.
3.

Most widely used type of hydraulic dredge.

No need for barges or for towing of barges.
Operates continuously and in darkness or fog.
Relatively small crew.

Disadvantage.

Discharge pipeline is an obstruction to passing

Length of Discharge Pipe.

(See Plain Suction Type.)

DUST PAN TYPE.

Description.
a.
spread suction heads are
loosening of material to
water jets. (See Figure

Similar to cutter head type, except that horizontally

employed instead of a single suction nozzle, and
be dredged is accomplished by means of high velocity
12.)

Capacity and Depth. Capacity is similar to suction and cutter type

b.
dredges. Since these are used mostly on shallow shoals and soft material, the
percentage of solids should be on the minimal side, about 5 to 10%. This type
of equipment seldom is used in depths greater than 45 feet.
c.

Uses, Advantages.
(1)

Originally developed for cutting channels in loose material.

Operates off lines running parallel to direction of travel of

(2)
dredge. Therefore, not necessary to have lines crossing, and interfering in,
adjacent channels.
(3)

High percentage of solids in discharge.

Dredge and its equipment can be secured and moved to another

(4)
location more readily than, for example, a cutter head dredge.
d.
4.

Disadvantage.

Generally requires nearby spoil site.

HOPPER DREDGE.

Description. Operates as a self-propelled suction or cutter head

a.
dredge, but the dredged material is pumped into, and retained in, hoppers in
the hull of the vessel for transport to the spoil area, where it is discharged
from the hoppers into the spoil basin. (See Figure 13.)
Capacity and Depth. Capacity depends on the size of the hoppers.
b.
These vary from 1,200 cubic yards to 8,000 cubic yards. This type of equipment usually is used on channel maintenance work to 45-foot depths, but can
load to 100-foot depth when at anchor with the proper suction extension.

38.2-19

FIGURE 12
Typical Dust Pan Dredging Operation

OUTBOARD PROFILE

FIGURE 13
Hydraulic Seagoing Hopper Dredge

c.

Uses, Advantages.

(1)
Used where distance from dredged area to spoil area-exceeds
reasonable pipeline length.
Operates without pipelines, scows, or tugs.
(2)
Capable of operating in rough water.
d.

Disadvantages.
(1)
(2)
(3)

5.

Self-propelled.

Time in transit often considerable.

Dredge not excavating while discharging.
Limited operation in darkness or fog.

SIDECAST DREDGE.

Description. Discharge pipe is mounted on a rotating boom.

is cast to side of dredged channel (see Figure 14).

Spoil

b.
Capacity and Depth. Capacity depends on the size of pump. Solids
load depends on the amount of material available to the suction mouth. May
vary from 5 to 20%. Usually used in depths to 45 feet.

FIGURE 14
Sidecast Dredge in Operation
38.2-22

Use. Used where material is such that it will not re-enter the
c.
dredge channel, that is, not used for sandy materials or silts that can be
carried away in flotation by currents.
d.
Disadvantage. Material may re-enter the channel or float and
deposit into unwanted areas. Great discoloration of the surrounding waters.
Environmental impact is serious.
NAVY HYDRAULIC DREDGE INVENTORY (1981).
6.
the Navy inventory are listed. in Table 1.
Part 3.
1.

Hydraulic dredges currently in

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT

SECTIONALIZED DREDGES.

Description. Conventional dredges, but specially detailed and

a.
manufactured to be disassembled for transport and reassembled at the site of
the work.
b. Use. Generally for inland work (lakes, muck removal for stabilizing embankments, etcetera) and advanced base military operations.
DUMP SCOWS. Operation of bucket-type dredges ordinarily involves the use
2.
of dump scows. There are two general types of dump scow, side dump and bottom
dump. Both are barges divided transversely into a series of open-top bins to
reduce the size of the closing gates. Elsewhere, the barge is completely
closed to provide buoyancy when the decks are awash, as is frequently the case
when loaded.
Side-dump scows are used in shallow water of insufficient depth for
bottom-dump gates to hang freely. If the depth of water is adequate, bottomdump scows are preferable to side-dump scows because of their greater capacity
and inherent stability.
Dump scows (Figure 15) usually are built of steel, with carrying capacities of between 500 and 3,000 cubic yards. The usual preference is for 750to 1,500-cubic-yard scows, because they can be handled easily with the dredges
winch or windlass and are large enough for economical towing to distant disposal grounds. Scows of more than 1,000-cubic-yard capacity normally are
equipped with mechanical/electrical gear for control of the hopper doors.
Power, when required, is supplied to scow from the tug. Wire rope, rather
than chain, has come into use on larger scows for holding hopper doors closed
and has proved entirely satisfactory.
Dump scows with shaped or rounded ends are also coming into use. A shaped
end offers much less resistance to towing than square ends and needs less tug
power for handling the tow. The same tug power can also handle more scows
with shaped ends.
Depressed, hopper-division bulkheads are used on some modern scows, allowing quicker loading by dipper dredge. They are of special advantage in
loading scows by hydraulic dredge discharge, because the depressed bulkheads
permit the pumped mixture to flow to all hoppers at once.
38.2-23

TABLE 1
Hydraulic Dredges Currently in Navy Service Craft Inventory
Hull
Pontoon

YM

Light

LOA
(ft)

Length
(ft)

Beam
(ft)

Depth
(ft)

195

134

38

10

32

34

14

33

43

17

Displacement

Weight
(tons)

482

Draft

5'-7

Full Load
Weight
(tons)

Draft

Pipe

Location

Suction
(in)

Discharge
(in)

Ladder
(ft)

Digging
(ft)

Year

18

16

66.5

401

1934

Charleston, NSY

500

5-10

23

2-6

15

1969

Coronado, Ca.

15

43

2-6

12

30

20

1969

Davisville, R.I.

352

118

80

28

122

2'-4

170

3-3

18

16

60

45

1970

Mare Is., NSY

38

151

111

38

288

4-0

379

5-3

24

20

72

503

19504

Subic Bay, P.I.

Depth capability increased from 35 to 40 in 1964.

Dredge is of three sections bolted together.
3
Can be modified to 63 feet.
4
Acquired by USN in 1968.
2

Dredge

FIGURE 15
Typical Side Dump Scow

38.2-25

a.
Side Dump. Side-dump scows have bins with a longitudinal hip running through the center so that the bottom slopes down from the center to the
side. The side consists of flap gates, hinged at the top, that may be closed
tightly with chains and ratchet wheels. To dump the scow, the pawls are disengaged from the ratchets, allowing the load to force the gates open and slide
out. After the bins are emptied, the gates are closed with ratchet wheels.
b.
Bottom Dump. Bottom-dump scows have bins shaped like the inverted
frustum of a pyramid, the bottoms of which are closed by one or a pair of flap
gates. To unload the barge, the flap gates are dropped open, downward. After
the bins are emptied, they are closed by ratchet wheels similar to those of a
side-dump scow.
3.
PIPELINES. The discharge line from the centrifugal pump of a standard
hydraulic cutter-head dredge is divided into three parts: the pipe on the
dredge, floating line, and shore line.
The dredge pipe is connected with the floating line by a flexible joint,
allowing considerable play as the dredge swings about one of the rear spuds.
The floating line is made up of 50- or 60-foot lengths of pipe, each supported
by a pontoon and successively connected by flexible ball joints. A walkway is
supported above the pipe. Usual walkway width is 16 inches. The floating
line is swung in a wide arc between the dredge and the shore line to allow the
dredge to maneuver in advance without frequent additions to the line.
The shore pipeline is made up of light sections of pipe, about 15 to 20
feet long, to permit easy handling in the field, connected by tapered slip
joints of band-and-lug construction. The line may have two discharge ends
separated by a Y, one of which remains closed by a valve in the Y when additional pipe is added. This arrangement saves stopping the dredge to add
lengths of pipe.
Section 4.
1.

ECONOMICS OF DREDGING

BASIC PRINCIPLES.

a.
Depth.
decreases.
b.

As the dredge depth increases, the economy of removal

Other.
(1)

As the hardness of the dredged material increases, the cost

increases.
(2)

As the discharge pipeline length increases, the cost

increases.
2.

RELATIVE COSTS OF REMOVAL BY DIFFERENT TYPES OF EQUIPMENT.

Bucket dredge
Dipper dredge
Hopper dredge

1.25
1.25
1.00

38.2-26

Hydraulic dredge, cutterhead

Hydraulic dredge, plain
Hydraulic dredge, dust pan
Sidecast dredge

0.75
0.60
0.30
0.25

CONCEPTUAL OR PLANNING COST ESTIMATES. Original dredging, such as chan3.

nel and turning basin dredging, not directly related to the specific construction of an item, carries the category code 165. Dredging performed primarily
to provide fill, such as site improvement, shall carry the category code 932.
Dredging directly related to the specific construction of an item shall bear
the same category code as the item to be constructed.

38.2-27

REFERENCES
(Publications containing criteria cited in this manual)
NAVFACENGCOM Design Manuals and P-Publications.
Government agencies may obtain Design Manuals and P-Publications from the U.S.
Naval Publications and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Ave., Philadelphia, PA 19120.
TWX 710-670-1685, AUTOVON: 442-3321. The stock number is necessary for
ordering these documents and should be requested from the NAVFACENGCOM Division in your area.
Non-Government organizations may obtain Design Manuals and P-Publications from
the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC 20402.
DM-5 series:

Civil Engineering

DM-6 series:

Mechanical Engineering

DM-7 series:

Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures

DM-26 series:

Harbor and Coastal Facilities

DM-38.1:

Weight Handling Equipment and Service Craft

Reference-l

APPENDIX
1

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

0.5 inch = 1.25 cm

1 inch = 2.5 cm
6 inches = 15 cm
1 foot = 30 cm
2 feet = 60 cm
15 feet = 4570 m
20 feet = 6 m
50 feet = 15 m
100 feet = 30 m
150 feet = 45 m
15,000 feet = 4.5 km
3

100 cu yd = 76 m

500 cu yd = 380 m

1,000 cu yd = 760 m

1,500 cu yd = 1,140 m

8,000 cu yd = 6,080 m

68 pounds per cubic foot = 1,090 kg/m

80 pounds per cubic foot = 1,280 kg/m

Conversions are approximate.

A-1
*U.S. G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E : 1 9 8 1 - 7 3 0 - 1 7 1