geoproblemas

Fig. 2.3 (a) Sine wave frequency less than Nyquist frequency. (b) Sine wave
frequency greater than Nyquist frequency (solid line) showing the ctitious
frequency that is generated by aliasing (dashed line). (c) Relationship
between input and output frequencies for a sampling frequency of 500Hz
(Nyquist frequency fN = 250Hz).
Figura 2.3
(a) onda sinusoidal frecuencia menos frecuencia Nyquist.
(b) onda senoidal de frecuencia mayor que frecuencia de Nyquist (lnea
slida) mostrando la frecuencia de ctitious que se genera por suavizado
(lnea discontinua).
(c) relacin entre las frecuencias de entrada y salidas para una frecuencia
de muestreo de 500Hz (frecuencia de Nyquist fN = 250Hz).
Sampling frequencyis the number of sampling points in unit time or unit distance.Intuitively,it may
appear that the digital sampling of a continuous function inevitably leads to a loss of information in the
resultant digital function, since the latter is only specied by discrete values at a series of points.Again
intuitively, there will be no signicant loss of information content as long as the frequency of sampling is
much higher than the highest frequency component in the sampled function.Mathematically,it can be
proved that,if the waveform is a sine curve, this can always be reconstructed provided that there are a
minimum of two samples per period of the sine wave. Thus,if a waveform is sampled every two
milliseconds (sampling interval), the sampling frequency is 500 samples per second (or 500Hz). Sampling
at this rate will preserve all frequencies up to 250Hz in the sampled function.This frequency of half the
sampling frequency is known as the Nyquist frequency (fN) and the Nyquist intervalis the frequency
range from zero up to fN

Frequencyis de muestreo el nmero de muestreo puntos en unidad de

tiempo o distancia de la unidad. Intuitivamente, puede parecer que el
muestreo digital de una funcin continua conduce inevitablemente a una
prdida de informacin en la funcin digital resultante, puesto que el ltimo
es especicado nicamente por valores discretos en una serie de puntos.
Otra vez intuitivamente, no habr ninguna prdida importante de contenido
de informacin como la frecuencia de muestreo es mucho mayor que la
mximo componente de frecuencia en la funcin muestreada.
Matemticamente, puede demostrarse que, si la forma de onda es una
curva sinusoidal, este puede siempre ser reconstruida siempre que hay un
mnimo de dos muestras por periodo de la onda senoidal. As, si una forma
de onda se muestrea cada dos milisegundos (intervalo de muestreo), la
frecuencia de muestreo es de 500 muestras por segundo (o 500Hz).
Muestreo en este caso conservar todas las frecuencias de hasta 250Hz en
la funcin muestreada. Esta frecuencia de la mitad la frecuencia de
muestreo es conocida como la frecuencia de Nyquist (fN) y la Nyqui...
Fn=(1/2AT)

(2.2)where At = sampling interval.

If frequencies above the Nyquist frequency are present in the sampled function,a serious form of
distortion results known as aliasing,in which the higher frequency components are folded backinto the
Nyquist interval. Consider the example illustrated in Fig. 2.3 in which sine waves at different frequencies
are sampled. The lower frequency wave (Fig. 2.3(a)) is accurately reproduced,but the higher frequency
wave (Fig.2.3(b),solid line) is rendered as a ctitious frequency, shown by the dashed line, within the
Nyquist interval.The relationship between input and output frequencies in the case of a sampling
frequency of 500Hz is shown in Fig.2.3(c).It is apparent that an input frequency of 125Hz,for example,is
retained in the output but that an input frequency of 625Hz is folded back to be output at 125Hz also. To
overcome the problem of aliasing, the sampling frequency must be at least twice as high as the highest
frequency component present in the sampled function. If the function does contain frequencies above the
Nyquist frequency determined by the sampling,it must be passed through an antialias lter prior to
digitization. The antialias lter is a low-pass frequency lter with a sharp cut-off that removes frequency
components above the Nyquist frequency,or attenuates them to an insignicant amplitude level.

Si las frecuencias por encima de la frecuencia de Nyquist se presentan en la

funcin muestreada, una forma grave de distorsin resulta conocido como
aliasing, en el cual los componentes de mayor frecuencia son ' doblado
back'into el intervalo de Nyquist. Considere el ejemplo ilustrado en la gura
2.3, en el que se muestrean las ondas sinusoidales a frecuencias diferentes.
La onda de frecuencia inferior (Fig. 2.3(a)) es reproducido con exactitud,
pero la onda de frecuencia mayor (Fig.2.3 (b), lnea continua) se representa
como una frecuencia de ctitious, se muestra por la lnea discontinua en el
intervalo de Nyquist. En Fig.2.3(c) se muestra la relacin entre las
frecuencias de entrada y salidas en el caso de una frecuencia de muestreo
de 500 Hz. Es evidente que una frecuencia de entrada de 125Hz, por
ejemplo, se retiene en la salida, pero que una frecuencia de entrada de
625Hz se dobla hacia atrs para ser salida en 125Hz. Para superar el
problema de aliasing, la frecuencia de muestreo debe ser al menos dos
veces tan alta como el componente de frecuencia ms alta presente en la
funcin muestreada. Si la funcin no...

Problems

1. Over the distance between two seismic recording sites at different ranges
from a seismic source, seismic waves have been attenuated by 5dB. What is
the ratio of the wave amplitudes observed at the two sites?
2. In a geophysical survey, time-series data are sampled at 4ms intervals for
digital recording. (a) What is the Nyquist frequency? (b) In the absence of
antialias ltering, at what frequency would noise at 200Hz be aliased back
into the Nyquist interval?
3. If a digital recording of a geophysical time series is required to have a
dynamic range of 120dB, what number of bits is required in each binary
word?
4. If the digital signal (-1, 3, -2, -1) is convolved with the lter operator (2, 3,
1), what is the convolved output? 5. Cross-correlate the signal function (-1,
3, -1) with the waveform (-2, -4, -4, -3, 3, 1, 2, 2) containing signal and
noise, and indicate the likely position of the signal in the waveform on the
basis of the cross-correlation function. 6. A waveform is composed of two inphase components of equal amplitude at frequencies f and 3f. Draw graphs
to represent the waveform in the time domain and the frequency domain.

Problemas
1. Sobre la distancia entre dos sitios de grabacin ssmica en diferentes
gamas de una fuente ssmica, las ondas ssmicas han sido atenuadas por
5dB. Cul es la relacin de la onda las amplitudes observaron en los dos
sitios?
2. en un estudio geofsico, datos de series de tiempo se muestrean a 4ms
intervalos para la grabacin digital. (a) Cul es la frecuencia de Nyquist?
(b) en ausencia de antialias esplendido, en qu frecuencia sera ruido a
200Hz ser alias en el intervalo de Nyquist?
3. Si una grabacin digital de una serie de tiempo geofsicas es necesaria
para tener un rango dinmico de 120dB, se requiere lo que el nmero de
bits en cada palabra binaria?
4. Si la seal digital (-1, 3, -2, -1) es convolved con el operador del ltro (2,
3, 1), cul es la salida convuelta? 5. Cruz-correlacionar la funcin de la
seal (-1, 3, -1) con la forma de onda (-2, -4, -4, -3, 3, 1, 2, 2) que contiene
seal y ruido e indican la posicin probable de la seal en la forma de onda
en base a la funcin de correlacin cruzada. 6. una medicin...

Problems
1. How does the progressive loss of higher frequencies in a propagating seismic pulse lead to an
increase in pulse length?
2. A 10Hz seismic wave travelling at 5kms-1 propagates for 1000m through a medium with an absorption
coefcient of 0.2dBl-1. What is the wave attenuation in decibels due solely to absorption?
3. A wave component with a wavelength of 100m propagates through a homogeneous medium from a
seismic source at the bottom of a borehole. Between two detectors, located in boreholes at radial
distances of 1km and 2km from the source, the wave amplitude is found to be attenuated by 10dB.
Calculate the contribution of geometrical spreading to this value of attenuation and, thus, determine the
absorption coefcient of the medium.
4. What is the crossover distance for direct and critically refracted rays in the case of a horizontal
interface at a depth of 200m separating a top layer of velocity 3.0kms-1 from a lower layer of velocity
5.0kms-1?
5. A seismic pulse generated by a surface source is returned to the surface after reection at the tenth of
a series of horizontal interfaces, each of which has a reection coefcient Rof 0.1. What is the
attenuation in amplitude of the pulse caused by energy partitioning at all interfaces encountered along
its path?
6. At what frequency would a 150Hz signal be recorded by a digital recording system with a sampling
rate of 100Hz?

Problemas
1. La prdida progresiva de las frecuencias ms altas en un pulso ssmico
propagacin lleva a un aumento en la longitud del pulso? 2. una onda
ssmica de 10Hz a 5kms-1 se propaga por 1000m a travs de un medio con
un coefcient absorcin de 0.2dBl-1. Qu es la atenuacin de la onda en
decibelios debido nicamente a la absorcin? 3. un componente de la onda
con una longitud de onda de 100m se propaga por un medio homogneo de
una fuente ssmica en el fondo de un pozo. Entre dos detectores, situados
en perforaciones a distancias radiales de 1km y 2km de la fuente, la
amplitud de onda se encuentra atenuado por 10dB. Calcular la contribucin
de separarse geomtrico en este valor de atenuacin y, por lo tanto,
determinar la coefcient de absorcin del medio. 4. Cul es la distancia de
cruce directa y crticamente refractan rayos en el caso de una interfaz
horizontal a una profundidad de 200 metros que separa una capa superior
de la velocidad de 3.0kms-1 de una capa ms baja de la velocidad de
5.0kms-1? 5. gneros del pulso ssmico...

Problems
1. A seismic wave is incident normally on a reector with a reection
coefcient R of 0.01. What proportion of the incident energy is transmitted?
2. What is the root-mean-square velocity in reection surveying, and how is
it related to interval velocity and to stacking velocity?
3. A zero-offset reection event at 1.000s has a normal moveout (NMO) of
0.005s at 200m offset. What is the stacking velocity?
4. (a) Calculate the approximate dimensions of the Fresnel zone in the
following two cases: (i) Reection proling is used to investigate lower
crustal structure at a depth of about 30km. The dominant frequency of the
reected pulse is found to be 10Hz. Using a typical average crustal velocity
of 6.5kms-1. (ii) A high-resolution reection survey is used to map rockhead
beneath a Quaternary sediment cover about 100m thick using a highfrequency source. The dominant frequency of the reected pulse is found to
be 150Hz. Use a sediment velocity of 2kms-1. (b) Discuss the importance of
the above Fresnel zone dimensions as indications of the inherent limits on
horizontal resolution achievable in different types of reection survey. (c)
Use the frequency and velocity information to calculate the vertical
resolution of the two surveys above and again discuss the general
importance of the results obtained to the vertical resolution that is
achievable in reection seismics.
5. In the initial stages of a seismic reection survey, a noise test indicates a
direct wave with a velocity of 3.00kms-1 and a dominant frequency of
100Hz, and ground roll with a velocity of 1.80kms-1 and a dominant
frequency of 30Hz. What is the optimum spacing of individual geophones in
ve-element linear arrays in order to suppress these horizontally-travelling
phases?
6. In CDP stacking, the method of applying a NMO correction to individual
seismic traces creates distortion in seismic pulses recorded at large offset
that can degrade the stacking process. Why?
7. Along a two-dimensional marine survey line involving a 48-channel
streamer with a hydrophone array interval of 10m, shots are red every
40m. (a) What is the fold of CMP cover? (b) If the cover is to be increased to
24-fold, what must the new shot interval be?
8. In single-channel seismic proling, what is the optimum depth for towing
an air gun source with a dominant frequency of 100Hz such that the
reected ray from the sea surface will interfere constructively with the
downgoing primary pulse? (The compressional wave velocity in sea water is
1.505kms-1.)
9. What is the signicance of the curved boundary lines to the typical
ground roll sector of the fkplot illustrated in Fig. 4.25, and how may it be
explained?
10. How may three-dimensional seismic survey data be used to study
velocity anisotropy?)

Problemas
1. Una onda ssmica es incidente normalmente sobre un reector con un
coefcient reection R de 0.01. Qu proporcin de la energa incidente se
transmite?
2. Cul es la velocidad cuadrtica media en reection topografa, y cmo
est relacionado a la velocidad de intervalo y velocidad de apilamiento?
3. un evento zero-offset reection en 1.000s tiene una normal moveout
(NMO) de 0.005s en el desplazamiento de 200m. Cul es la velocidad de
apilamiento?
4. (a) calcular las dimensiones aproximadas de los Fresnel de la zona en los
dos casos siguientes:
(i) Reection de perles se utilizan para investigar la estructura cortical
inferior a unos 30km de profundidad. Se encuentra la frecuencia dominante
del reejase pulso de 10 Hz. con una tpica velocidad media corteza de
6.5kms-1.
(ii) un estudio de alta resolucin reection se utiliza para asignar rockhead
debajo de una cubierta de sedimentos cuaternarios a 100m de espesor
utilizando una fuente de alta frecuencia. La frecuencia dominante del pulso
reejase se encuentra a 150 Hz. Utilice una velocidad de sedimento de 2
km-1.
(b) discutir la impor...

Problems
1. A sandstone, when saturated with water of resistivity 5ohmm, has a
resistivity of 40ohmm. Calculate the probable range of porosity for this rock.
2. On a sonic log, the travel time observed in a sandstone was 568 m s over
a sourcereceiver distance of 2.5m. Given that the seismic velocities of
quartz and pore uid are 5.95 and 1.46kms-1, respectively, calculate the
porosity of the sandstone. What would be the effect on the observed travel
time and velocity of the sandstone if the pore uid were methane with a
velocity of 0.49kms-1?
3. During the drilling of an exploratory borehole, the rock chippings ushed
to the surface indicated the presence of a sandstoneshale sequence. The
lateral log revealed a discontinuity at 10m depth below which the resistivity
decreased markedly. The SP log showed no deection at this depth and
recorded consistently low values. The gamma-ray density log indicated an
increase in density with depth across the interface from 2.24 to 2.35Mgm-3.
(a) Infer, giving your reasons, the nature of the discontinuity. (b) What
porosity information is provided by the data?
4. Figure 11.15 shows the SP and short normal (including a partial expanded
scale version), long normal and lateral resistivity logs of a borehole
penetrating a sedimentary sequence. Interpret the logs as fully as possible.
5. Figure 11.16 shows the SP, induction, laterolog, sonic, calliper and gamma
logs of a bore
hole in a sequence of shale and sandstone. Interpret the logs as fully as
possible.
6. Two gravity readings in a borehole, 100m apart vertically, reveal a
measured gravity difference of 107.5gu. What is the average density of the
rocks between the two observation levels?
Problemas
1. Una arenisca, cuando se satura con agua de 5ohmm de resistencia, tiene
una resistencia de 40ohmm. Calcular el rango probable de la porosidad de
esta roca.
2. en un registro de sonic, el tiempo del recorrido en una piedra arenisca fue
568 m s sobre una distancia fuente receptor de 2, 5 m. Dado que las
velocidades ssmicas de cuarzo y poro uid 5.95 y 1.46kms-1,
respectivamente, calcular la porosidad de la piedra arenisca. Cul sera el
efecto sobre los tiempos de viaje observados y la velocidad de la piedra
arenisca que el poro uid metano con una velocidad de 0.49kms-1?
3. durante la perforacin de un pozo exploratorio, el ushed de virutas de
roca a la supercie indica la presencia de una secuencia de arenisca,
pizarra. El registro lateral revel una discontinuidad a 10m de profundidad
ms abajo que la resistencia disminuye notablemente. El registro SP no
mostr deection a esta profundidad y registr valores constantemente
bajos. El log de densidad de rayos gamma indica un aumento en la densidad
con la profundidad a travs de la interfaz de 2.24 a 2.35Mgm-3. ( ...