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Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1

The Human Organism

1-1

Overview
Anatomy: scientific discipline that
investigates the bodys
structure
Physiology: scientific
investigation of the
processes or functions
of living things

Topics of Anatomy
Gross or macroscopic: structures examined
without a microscope
Regional: studied area by area
Systemic: studied system by system
Surface: external form and relation to deeper
structures as x-ray in anatomic imaging

Microscopic: structures seen with the microscope

Cytology: cellular anatomy
Histology: study of tissues
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Physiology
Areas of study: examples
Cell physiology: cell processes
Neurophysiology: nervous system function
Cardiovascular: heart and blood vessels

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Areas of Study requiring knowledge of both

Anatomy and Physiology
Pathology: structural and functional changes
caused by disease
Exercise Physiology: changes in structure and
function caused by exercise

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Structural and Functional Organizations

1. Chemical Level
2. Cell Level
3. Tissue Level
4. Organ Level
5. Organ System Level
6. Organism Level

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Organs of the Body

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11 Organ Systems of the Body

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Organ Systems of the Body (cont.)

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Organ Systems of the Body (cont.)

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Organ Systems of the Body (cont.)

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All organ systems

must work together
for the organism
to function properly.

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Characteristics of Life
Organization: specific relationships and functions
Metabolism: all chemical reactions of the body
Responsiveness: ability to sense changes and adjust
Growth: increase size and/or number of cells
Development: changes in an organism over time
Differentiation: change from general to specific
Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs

Reproduction: new cells or new organisms

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Homeostasis
Maintenance of a relatively stable internal
environment as a result of coordinated responses
to any variation from the normal range
pH
Temperature
Blood pressure
Blood levels of Ca, O2, Glucose, etc.

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Homeostasis
Values of variables fluctuate around a set point
establishing a normal range of values.
What is the set point for body temperature?

1-15

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Maintenance: Feedback Systems

Two types: negative and positive
Components
Receptor: monitors value of some variable
Control center: establishes set point
Effector: can change value of variable

Stimulus: deviation from the set point; detected

by the receptor
Response: produced by the effector

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Negative Feedback
Any deviation from the set point is made
smaller (resisted)
regulation of blood pressure
body temperature
blood sugar levels

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Regulation of Body Temperature

Hyperthermia

Stress

Heat receptors in
the skin

Receptors

Hypothalamus

Control
Center

Stress reduced, shuts

down mechanism

Perspiration
evaporates cooling
the skin

Effect

Increased
activity of sweat
glands
Increased blood
flow to the skin

Effectors

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1-19

Regulation of Blood Sugar

Hyperglycemia

Pancreas-beta cells

Stress

Receptor / Control center

Insulin is released
into blood

Stress reduced, shuts

down mechanism

Blood glucose
is reduced

Effect

Liver and Muscle cells

take up glucose from
the blood

Effectors

*
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Negative Feedback

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Regulation of Blood Pressure

1-23

Changes in B.P. During Exercise

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Positive Feedback
When a deviation occurs, the response is to make
the deviation greater
Unusual in normal, healthy individuals; leads
away from homeostasis and can result in death
Normal positive feedback: childbirth
Harmful positive feedback: hemorrhaging, blood
pressure drops and the hearts ability to pump blood
decreases

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Regulation of Child Birth

Pressure of Fetus on the
Uterine Wall

Nerve endings in the uterine

wall carry afferent messages to
the Hypothalamus

Intensifies

Increasing strength of
uterine contractions

Production and Release of

Oxytocin into the Blood

Birth of the child will bring this process to a close.

Harmful Positive Feedback

Hemorrhage leads to BP; leads to flow in coronary a.
Consequences in the heart:
lactic acid and hydrogen ion accumulation, leading to
further in coronary blood flow
increased vasodilator metabolites, which lead to further BP
contraction of ventricles of the heart, leads to cardiac
output and further BP
excessively BP (shock) leads to death.

Result: increases hemorrhaging and blood pressure.

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Coagulation: Negative and Positive Feedback

Entire sequence of clotting is a negative feedback pathway.

Positive feedback mini-loops are built in to speed up
production of chemicals needed to form the clot.

Terminology
Professionals around the world use these
standardized terms in order to effectively
communicate.
You will use these terms throughout your
studies!

Terminology
Anatomical Position
Body erect, face forward,
feet together, palms face
forward

Other Body Positions

Supine: lying face upward
Prone: lying face
downward

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Terminology
Directional Terms
Anterior vs. Posterior
(Ventral vs Dorsal).
Superior vs Inferior
Cephalic vs Caudal
Medial vs. Lateral
relative to the midline
Proximal vs. Distal
Superficial vs. Deep
relative to body surface
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1-33

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Body Parts and Regions

1-34

Abdominal Subdivisions

4 Quadrants

9 Regions
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Body Planes
Sagittal divides body into
right and left sides
Frontal or Coronal divides
body into anterior and
posterior sections
Transverse / Cross divides
body into superior and
inferior sections
Oblique: Other than at a
right angle

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Planes Through an Organ

Longitudinal: cut along
the length of an organ
Cross/Transverse: cut
at right angle to length
of the organ
Oblique: cut at any but
a right angle

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Body Cavities
Dorsal Cavity
Cranial Cavity: brain
Spinal Cavity: spinal cord

Ventral Cavity
Thoracic Cavity (Diaphragm separates
thoracic from abdominal cavities

Pleural Cavities (2): lungs

Mediastinum: all thoracic
structures except lungs
Pericardial Cavity: Heart

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Serous Membranes
Coverings (organs) and linings (cavities)

Fist represents an organ

Inner covering : visceral serous membrane
Outer covering: parietal serous membrane
Serous fluid between two membranes produced by membranes

Functions: independent movement; reduce friction

Inflammation of the serous membranes: -itis

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Serous Membranes:
Pericardium heart (pericarditis)
Pleura lungs (pleuritis or pleurisy)
Peritoneum abdominopelvic cavity (peritonitis)

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Too much fluid or air between 2 pleurae

Hemothorax

Pneumothorax

Imaging Techniques
Radiography
Ultrasound (US)
Computed Tomography (CT)
Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)
Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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Radiography (X-ray): Shadowy negative

of internal body structures

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Ultrasound (US): computer-analyzed sound

waves bounced off a structure in the body.
Advantages: less expensive, dynamic testing

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Computed Tomography
(CT Scan) computer-analyzed
composite of radiograph;
shows slices of body. Adv:
better detail than (US), Faster
than MRI. Disadv: high
radiation dose

Dynamic Spatial
Reconstruction (DSR):
3-D version of CT using
multiple slices.

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Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA):

3-D comparison of radiographs with and without dye.

Used in heart and blood vessel studies.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):

uses electromagnetism and radio waves to read varying
alignment of protons in soft tissues. More detail than CT

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Positron Emission Tomography (PET):

uses radioactively labeled glucose to calculate degree of
metabolic activity in cells (i.e. cancer cells)

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