Book 1 Updraft Gasifier 2012

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Design and Development of Updraft Gasifier

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Nomenclature
List of Figures
vi
List of Tables
vii
Chapter One
1.0
Introduction
1.1
Background of the Study
1.2
Objectives of the Study
1.3
Significance
1.4
Justification
1.5
Scope of the Study
Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1
Biomass Energy Conversion Processes
2.2
History of Gasification Technology
2.3
Updraft Gasification
2.3.1 Drying
2.3.2 Pyrolysis
2.3.3 Gasification Reactions
2.4
11
2.3.3.1
Oxidation
10
2.3.3.2
Reduction
10
Factors Affecting Gasification Reactions
13
2.4.1 The Heat Effect
13
2.4.2 Temperature of the Reactor
13
2.4.3 Size Distribution of the Fuel
13
2.4.4 Gasifier Pressure
14
2.4.5 The Height of The Reactor
14
2.4.6 Air Velocity
14
2.4.7 Equivalent Ratio
15
2.4.8 Catalysts
15
2.4.9 Fuel Moisture Content
15
2.4.10 Ash Content
16
[i]
Chapter Three: Updraft Gasifier Design
18
3.0
Materials and Methods
18
3.1
Materials
18
3.2
Methods
18
3.3
The Design Calculations
20
3.3.1 Calorific Value of the Wood Fuel
21
3.4
The Design of the 15hp Updraft Gasifier Capacity
24
A. Biomass Consumption Gasifier
24
B. The Updraft Gasifier Dimensions
25
a. Reactor Diameter
25
b. Height of the Reactor
25
c. Time to Consume the fuel
26
d. Amount of Air needed for Gasification Air Flow Rate
26
e. Superficial Air Velocity
27
f. Resistance to Air Flow
27
C. Overall Size (Dimension) Of The Updraft Gasifier
28
a. The Fuel Hopper
28
b. Synthetic (Product) Gas Pipe
30
c. Determination of the thickness of Insulation
31
d. The weight of the Fibre Glass
33
e. Grate
34
f. Torus
34
g. The Air Inlet Pipe
34
h. The size and Location of the ash/char container
35
i. The overall perimeter of the Mild Steel sheet gasifier material
35
j. Purchase components
35
3.3 Fabrication
36
3.3.1 Construction Materials
36
3.3.2 Tools and Equipment
37
3.3.3 General Guidelines
37
3.3.4 Detailed Procedure in Fabricating the Laboratory Scale

Updraft Gasifier
39
[ii]
Chapter Four
41
4.0
Performance Testing and Evaluation
41
4.1
Test Equipment
41
4.2
Operating Performance Considered
41
4.3
Experimental Procedure
41
4.4
Test Parameters
42
Chapter Five
44
5.0
44
Results and Discussion
5.1
The Design
44
5.2
The Drawing
44
5.3
Fabrication
45
5.4
Proximate Analysis of the Sawdust and Palm Kernel Shell
46
5.4.1 Moisture Content
47
5.4.2 Volatile Matter Content of the Fuels
48
5.4.3 Ash Content
49
5.5.4 Fixed Carbon
50
Ultimate Analysis of the Produced Synthetic Gases
51
5.5.1 For the Sawdust
51
5.5.2 For The Palm Kernel Shell
53
5.5
5.5.3 Calculation of the Heating Values Based On the Ultimate Analysis 56

5.6
The Producer Gas Production
5.7
Results of the Test Parameters for Sawdust
60
5.7.1 Performance Calculation for Sawdust
61
5.7.2 Performance Calculation for Palm kernel Shell
64
5.8
57
Results of the Performance Test Carried out on the Updraft Gasifier
68
5.8.1 Results of The Test Parameters for Sawdust
69
5.8.2 Results of The Test Parameters for Palm Kernel Shell
69
5.8.3 Results of The Experiment and Gasifier Performance
69
[iii]
Chapter Six
70
6.0
Recommendations and Conclusion
70
6.1
Recommendations
70
6.2
Conclusion
72
References
74
Appendixes
79
Isometric View of the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
79
Projection Views of the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
80
Sectional Views of the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
81
Exploded Views of the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
82
Components of the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier I
83
Components of the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier II
84
[iv]
NOMENCLATURE
Thermal efficiency of the gasifier
(%)
Lower Calorific Value
(kJ/kg)
Higher Calorific Value
(kJ/kg)
Air Flow Rate
Fuel Consumption Rate
(kg/hr)
Inner diameter of the fuel hopper (reactor)
(m)
Height of the Updraft Gasifier
(m)
Operating Time of the gasifier
(hr)
Density of wood fuel
Density of air
Density of the insulating material
Density of the combustible gas
Height of the fuel hopper
(m)
Volume of the reactor
Superficial Air Velocity
Resistance to Air Flow
Specific resistance (per meter depth of water
Thickness of the reactor material
(m)
Thickness of insulation
(m)
Weight of the insulation material
(kg)
Recommended Equivalent ratio
Stochiometric Air Fuel ratio
[v]
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1
World Energy Demand
Fig. 2.1
Updraft Gas Producer
Fig. 3.1
Inner Fuel Hopper
28
Fig. 3.2
Dimension Specification of the Fuel Hopper
29
Fig. 3.3
Outer Fuel Hopper
29
Fig. 3.4
Dimension Specification of the Outer Material of the Fuel Hopper
30
Fig. 3.5
The Producer Gas Pipe
30
Fig. 3.6
Heat Flow through the Fuel Hopper
31
Fig. 3.7
Dimension Specification of the Fuel Hopper Insulation
34
Fig. 5.1
Isometric View of the Assembly Drawing of the

Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
45
Fig. 5.2
The Updraft Gasifier
46
Fig. 5.6
Indication of the Syngas (combustible gas) Production in

The Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
58
Fig. 5.7
Production of Combustible Gases From Woodchip Fuel

By (Yinesor 2008) In Turkey
59
Fig. 5.8
The Chinese Gasifier Stove
59
Fig. 5.9
The Graph of Temperature Distribution in The Gasifier against Time

(When Gasifying Sawdust)
Fig. 5.10
61
The Graph of Temperature Distribution in The Gasifier against Time

(When Gasifying Sawdust)
65
[vi]
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1
Gasification Oxidation Reactions and Change in Enthalpy
11
Table 2.2
Gasification Reduction Reactions and Change in Enthalpy
12
Table 3.1
Ultimate Analysis of Wood
22
Table 5.1
The laboratory proximate analysis of 1g of each of the fuel samples
50
Table 5.2
The Ultimate Analysis of The Fuel Samples
55
Table 5.3
The Weight of The Sawdust Considered
60
Table 5.4
Temperature Readings (Saw Dust)
60
Table 5.5
Weight of the Sawdust Used
64
Table 5.6
Temperature Readings (Palm Kernel Shell)
64
Table 5.7
Summary of the Experimental and Performance Of

The Gasifier with the Fuel Samples
[vii]
68
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
1.1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The importance and wide-ranging role of energy in the development process of a nation is well
known. Energy demand, supply and pricing have enormous impact on the socio-economic
development, the living standard and overall quality of life of the population of a nation.
Generally, population and economic growth result in increase in the rate of energy consumed
(Ojolo et al, 2012).
Some of the most promising, attention-getting energy alternatives are not revolutionary ideas.
Windmills and waterwheels are well known and have been around for centuries. Today, a variety
of improvements, including innovative turbine designs, are transforming these ancient machines
into cutting-edge technologies that can help nations satisfy their energy needs. There is another
old process that is probably not popular in this part of the world, and may join wind and
hydropower in the pantheon of clean, renewable energy. The process is known as Gasification, a
set of chemical reactions that uses heat and limited oxygen to convert a carbon-containing
feedstock into a synthetic gas, or syngas (Harris 2009). Gasification is a Thermo-chemical
process in which, chemical transformation occur along with the conversion of energy.
The wood gasifier design has its origin, in World War II during actual shortage of gasoline and
diesel fuel. It is alternatively useful for keeping internal combustion engines in operation during
prolonged crises.
Today, with a global climate crisis looming on the horizon and power-hungry nations on the hunt
for alternative energy sources, gasification is making a comeback. The Gasification Technologies
Council expects world gasification capacity to grow by more than 70percent by 2015 (Harris,
2009).
Gasification is the production of combustible gases from solid and organic materials by the
application of heat with limited air. Gasification uses heat and an oxidant to break down solid
carbon materials into basic building block chemicals, such as (Babu,

2008; Jenkins, 2008; Senapati, 2008). Where, Fuel consists of solid carbon containing materials.
Air is at a level below the stoichiometric ratio needed for combustion; and Liquids produced
include methanol, acetic acid, acetone, and tar.
It sounds like combustion, but it is not. Combustion uses an abundance of oxygen to produce
heat and light by burning. Gasification uses only a tiny amount of oxygen, cooked under intense
pressure. When burning any biomass, various gases and vapour called smoke must be driven
from solid fuel and then the smoke is burned. This initiates a series of reactions that produces a
gaseous mixture composed primarily of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This syngas can be
burned directly or used as a starting point to manufacture fertilizers, pure hydrogen, methane or
liquid transportation fuel.
1.2
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The goals of this project are to design, manufacture and test a laboratory scale updraft gasifier
made out of ordinary, available hardware. Others are to examine the operation of the laboratory
scale updraft gasifier, collect data from the experimental system and observe the effect of
operation parameters; fuel type (palm kernel shell, and saw dust) and heating values.
1.3
SIGNIFICANCE
One of the main uses of wood gasification has been to power internal combustion engines.
Before 1940, gasification-powered cars were occasionally seen, especially in Europe. Then,
during World War II, petroleum shortages forced people to think about alternatives. The
transportation industries of Western Europe relied on wood gasification to power vehicles and
ensure that food and other important materials made it to consumers. After the war, as gas and oil
became widely available, gasification was largely forgotten. A future petroleum shortage,
however, has revitalized interest in this old technology. The car driver of the future may be asked
to fill up with sticks of wood instead of a few gallons of gas. In Nigeria today, scarcity of the
fossil fuel is often noticed. The dependence on the petroleum products could be reduced by
employing the technology behind the design of Gasifier.
Although the electric power industry is epileptic in Nigeria, this technology can be applicable in
this industry. The chemical, refining and fertilizer industries are also industries where the
technology can be applied. This is because the major components of syngas hydrogen and
carbon monoxide are the basic building blocks of several other products. Some of the most
important products derived from syngas include methanol, nitrogen-based fertilizers and
hydrogen for oil refining and transportation fuels. Even slag, a glasslike byproduct of the
gasification process, can be used in roofing materials or as a roadbed material.
1.4
JUSTIFICATION
The continuous growth of global energy consumption raises urgent problems related to energy
availability, safe operation and its efficiency. The larger part of mineral oil and gas reserves
energy supply is located within a small group of countries and the reserve is also reducing at an
alarming rate, forming a vulnerable energy supply as shown in Figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 World Energy Demand
Moreover, this supply is expected to reach its limits. On the other side, the use of fossil fuels
causes numerous environmental problems, such as local air pollution and greenhouse gases
(GHGs) emission.
A possible way to deal with these problems is the development of cleaner and renewable energy
sources. Modern use of biomass is an interesting option, because biomass is worldwide available,
it can be used for power generation and biofuels production, and it may be produced and
consumed on a -neutral basis.
This technology was developed around 1920 and played an important role in generating motives
power till other fuels made their appearance. Biomass is one of the renewable energy sources,
capable of replacing fossil fuels through a process known as gasification (Hassan et al, 2011).
The use of biomass as an energy source has high economic viability, large potential and various
social and environmental benefits. Inexpensive materials such as forest residue, wood residue,
and rice straw are few potential feedstocks for biomass gasification. However, the cellulose,
hemicelluloses and lignin composition of these materials may differ significantly. Taking
advantage of the energy potentials in biomass will help meet part of the energy demand and
assist in the socio-economic development of the end users (Joseph et al 2011; Ojolo et al 2012).
Keeping in view importance of biomass gasifier, a laboratory scale updraft biomass gasifier is
designed.
1.5
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This project examines the design, manufacture and performance test of a laboratory scale Updraft
Gasifier, with sawdust and palm kernel shell as the feedstock and the biomass energy potential.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a biomass overview and the methods available for converting it into
energy. Also studied is the history of the gasification technology. Thereafter, review of the basic
characteristics of updraft fixed-bed gasification equipment used for biomass gasification is
studied in order to gain in depth knowledge of the processes taking place in the reactor. These
processes are used to explain the characteristics of gases produced by examining the combustion
temperatures attained in the process.
The updraft fixed bed gasifier is the oldest form of gasifier and is still used for coal and biomass
gasification (Brammer and Bridgwater, 2002; Lucas et al., 2004; Ramana et al., 2005). The
Biomass is fed in at the top of the reactor and moves downwards as a result of the conversion of
the biomass and the removal of ashes through a grate at the bottom of the reactor. The air intake
is at the bottom and the gas leaves at the top. Air or oxygen and/or steam are introduced below
the grate and diffuse up through the bed of biomass and char. Complete combustion of char takes
place at the bottom of the bed, liberating . These hot gases (~1000) pass through
the bed above, where they are reduced to and cooled to 750. Continuing up the
reactor, the reducing gases ( ) pyrolyze the descending dry biomass and finally dry the
incoming wet biomass, leaving the reactor at low temperature (~500) (Reed and Siddhartha,
2001; Stultz and Kitto, 1992; Bridgwater and Evans, 1993). The updraft gasifier is also called a
counterflow gasifier. The major advantages of this type of gasifier are its simplicity, high
biomass burn-out and internal heat exchange leading to low gas exit temperatures and high
equipment efficiency, as well as the possibility of operation with many types of feedstock
(sawdust, palm kernel shell, cereal hulls, rice husk etc) (FAO 1985).
2.1
BIOMASS ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESSES
Biomass is the solar energy stored in chemical form in plant and animal materials and is among
the most precious and versatile resources on earth. It provides not only food but also energy,
building materials, paper, fabrics, medicines and chemicals. Today, biomass fuels can be utilized
for tasks ranging from heating to fuelling automobiles. In this respect, biomass is considered the
renewable energy source with the highest potential to contribute to the energy needs of modern
society for both the developed and developing economies world-wide because the prospects for
production at competitive costs are vast (Mori et al 2003).
2.2
HISTORY OF GASIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
The use of gasification technology to produce combustible gases is not a new concept. Gasifiers
were used as far back as 1861 to fire furnaces in the iron working industry (Rambush, 1923).
Between the years 1879-1881, J. E. Dawson, in England, developed a cooling and cleaning
process, and showed that gas engines could be powered by a gasifier (Rambush, 1923). Most of
these early gasifiers were of the updraft variety. However, a downdraft gasifier was described as
far back as 1843 in Sweden by Gustaf Ekman (Reed and Jantzen, 1979). Also, most of the early
gasifiers used coal or coke as a fuel. It was not until the early 1920's that gasifier technology had
grown sufficiently to include the many different forms of cellulosic fuels (Horsfield, 1979).
The development of gasifiers in Sweden is an interesting case study. The following material was
taken from the text edited by SERI (Reed and Jantzen, 1979). In 1918, Axel Swedlund of
Sweden designed an updraft charcoal generator, which was followed in 1924 by the first of his
downdraft designs. During 1923 and 1924, several experiments were conducted using updraft
gasifiers on trucks, buses, and rail cars. One experiment consisted of driving a truck 624
kilometers. However, due to the high tar content of the gas, the engine had to be removed and
cleaned after 320 kilometers. The results of these experiments showed that, although the use of
gasifiers to power internal combustion engines was possible, it was not convenient at that time.
In general, start-up was very difficult when the gasifier was the only fuel available. Also, during
that period, the engines had relatively little power even when using liquid fuel.
The increase in the car fleet continued into the early 1940's but for the outbreak of World War II,
which was accompanied by a commercial blockade. At this time, the opportunity to buy liquid
fuel was severely restricted. These circumstances led to an intensive gasifier research program
during the war. During the last years of the war, gasifier technology had advanced to the point
where it was considered an adequate substitute for liquid fuel. When the war ended, however,
liquid fuels once again became plentiful, and it was not economically feasible to continue gasifier
research. (Reed and Jantzen, 1979).
The project briefly describes the small scale updraft gasifier that uses woodfuel. The design,
performance, and the fabrication of the gasifier are illustrated in detail in the succeeding chapters
to provide interested individuals and organisations a comprehensive guide in designing,
fabricating and operating the gasifier.
2.3
UPDRAFT GASIFICATION
A gasification reactor provides a method to provide gas-solid reactions in which a gas stream
passes through a bed of particles. If the particles remain fixed in their positions, the equipment is
called a fixed-bed reactor. In fact, the particles are usually allowed to move without detaching
from each other and therefore the process is better classified as moving bed. The particles will
not detach from each other if the gasification agent velocity is less than the fluidization velocity.
The updraft gasifier is the oldest and simplest type of gasifier. It is also known as counter-current
or counter-flow gasification. Feedstock is introduced at the top of the gasifier while air intake is
at the bottom. Syngas leaves at the top of the gasifier as shown in Figure 2.0. The updraft gasifier
offers these advantages: Proven technology, low cost process, able to handle high moisture
biomass and high inorganic content (e.g., municipal solid waste), Low gas exit temperatures and
high equipment efficiency. The disadvantages are: syngas contains 10-20 percent tar by weight,
requiring extensive syngas cleanup before engine, turbine, or synthesis applications (Brammer
and Bridwater, 2002; Lucas et al 2004; Ramana et al 2005).
Carbon monoxide and hydrogen are the two primary components of syngas. During a process
known as gas cleanup, the raw syngas runs through a cooling chamber that can be used to
separate the various components. Cleaning can remove harmful impurities, including sulphur,
mercury and unconverted carbon. Even carbon dioxide can be pulled out of the gas and either
stored underground or used in ammonia or methanol production. That leaves pure hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, which can be combusted cleanly in gas turbines and other internal combustion
engines to produce electricity. Or, some power plants convert the syngas to natural gas by
passing the cleaned gas over a nickel catalyst, causing carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to
react with free hydrogen to form methane. This substitute natural gas behaves like regular
natural gas and can be used to generate electricity or heat homes and businesses (Bridgwater and
Evans 1993; Stultz and Kitto 1992; Reed and Siddhartha 2001; Harris 2008).
Fig. 2.1: Updraft gas producer (Chandrakant 1997)
The gasification processes include: (a) pre-treating the feedstock; (b) feeding it into the gasifier;
(c) treating the generated syngas; (d) use of the syngas to produce electricity and heat; and (e)
proper disposal of other byproducts (Bridgwater 2002). Inside the gasifier itself, biomass is
added in either a dry or wet form. The feedstock then reacts with air or oxygen () at high
temperatures and pressure. To heat the gasifier, the char byproduct of gasification may be
combusted. The feedstock undergoes three thermal and chemical processes within the gasifier.
There are a few types of gasifiers (updraft, downdraft, bubbling fluidized bed, circulating
fluidized bed). The processes that occur within the updraft gasifiers under consideration are:
Fixed bed gasification can be of updraft, downdraft or cross draft type. Since there is an
interaction of air or oxygen and biomass in the gasifier, they are classified according to the way
air or oxygen is introduced to the system. Here, only updraft gasification is discussed because
this is the basis of the design of the reactor in this project.
Figure 2.1 shows a schematic view of a possible gasifier configuration using this technique. The
particles of biomass, for instance wood chips are fed at the top of the reactor and slowly move to
the bottom where the residual ash is withdrawn. The combustion and gasification agents
normally air is injected through the distributor at the bottom.
In their downward movement, the biomass particles undergo the following main processes:
drying, devolatilization, gasification, and combustion. During the conversion in a gasifier, there
is no sharp delimitation between these regions. For instance, a descending particle may be going
through devolatilization in its outer layers while inner layers are drying. A simplified sequence of
events occurring in the updraft gasifier is described as follows starting from the top of the fuel
bed.
2.3.1 Drying
During this event, the temperature of the wood chips is increased and the moisture in the wood is
evaporated by heat exchange between the wood and the hot gas stream that is coming from the
combustion zone.
2.3.2 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a chemical breakdown of complex compounds due to heat. It occurs as the organic
matter heats up. Volatile substances such as tar, , and are released and a combustible
residue resembling charcoal, called char, is produced.
In this zone, the temperature of the dry wood chips is increased further and the volatile products
are released from the wood chips thereby leaving char. For all biomass, volatiles represent a
significant portion of the fuel and in gasifiers; devolatilization provides part of the produced
gases. The release of volatiles is driven by increase of temperature. As the wood chips slowly
descend, the hot gases produced in the gasification and combustion zones exchange energy with
the colder solid. Three main fractions are produced during pyrolysis of biomass:
x
x
Light gases, among them .

Tar, composed of relatively heavy organic and inorganic molecules that escape the solid
matrix as gases and liquid in the form of vapor.
Char, the remaining solid residue.
This can be represented as

Biomass Char + Volatiles (gases + tar) H = 420 kJ/kg
2.3.3 Gasification Reactions

The process of gasification involves several reactions between solid carbon and an oxygencontaining gas stream, usually air. Among the products from these reactions are the noncombustible gases plus the combustible gases . In order to
maximize the amount of combustible gases produced, gasification takes place utilizing excess
carbon. This is in direct contrast to the combustion process, which takes place with excess, or at
least theoretical, oxygen. The gasification process occurs at temperatures between 600-1000
degrees Celcius and decomposes the complex hydrocarbons of wood (Brown 2005; Rezaiyan and
Cheremisinoff, 2005)
As gasification proceeds, there are two distinct reaction zones formed in the gasifier. The first
zone formed which involves the complete combustion of the fuel to carbon dioxide and steam, is
known as the oxidation zone. This zone is characterized by the following reactions:
2.3.3.1 Oxidation
Partial oxidation of woodfuels carbon releases heat that helps feed the gasification reaction. The
volatile products and some char produced are burned in a controlled manner to form and CO
in a process called oxidation.
10
Table 2.1 Gasification oxidation reactions and change in Enthalpy (SunGrant Bioweb
Gasification of Biomass, Inayat et al., 2010)
Change in Enthalpy
Oxidation reactions
(Eqn. 1)
( Eqn. 2)
(Eqn. 3)
(Eqn. 4)
The amount of heat given off in this zone is dependent upon the nature of the fuel. The nature of
the fuel also determines if other components, such as other hydrocarbons, tars, or sulphur
compounds, are present in the product stream from the oxidation zone. The products from the
oxidation zone then enter an adjacent reduction zone, which is the second main reaction zone in
the gasifier.
2.3.3.2 Reduction
In the reduction stage, the carbon remaining in the char reacts with the to produce CO
and , with some , which together are transformed to a gaseous mixture known as syngas.
The high temperature in the gasifier converts the inorganic materials left behind by gasification
and fuses them into a glassy material, generally referred to as slag. The slag has the consistency
of coarse sand. It is chemically inert and may have a variety of uses in the construction and
building industries.
It is in this zone that the combustible gases are formed, as shown by the following equations:
11
Table 2.2 Gasification reduction reactions and change in Enthalpy (SunGrant Bioweb
Gasification of Biomass, Inayat et al., 2010).
Change in Enthalpy
Reduction reactions
( Eqn. 5)
( Eqn. 6)
Equation (5) is known as the Boudouard reaction and Equation (6) is the heterogeneous watergas reaction. These reactions are related by the homogenous water-gas shift reaction.
(Eqn. 7)
In addition, methane may be formed in the reduction zone by a variety of reactions, the simplest
being:
(Eqn. 8)
Methane formation, however, rarely occurs at low pressure. Of course there are many other
reactions which take place in both zones. The equations which have been given are considered
the main reactions, as the products of the other reactions are present only in small quantities
under normal gasifier operation.
As the thermodynamic data illustrates, heat is produced in the oxidation zone by the combustion
of carbon, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. The amount of heat produced in this zone greatly
affects the efficiency of the gasifier, as this is the only heat source for the endothermic
Boudouard and heterogeneous water-gas reactions. The methane formation reaction is weakly
exothermic, however the heat given off by this reaction is insignificant compared to that given
off by the oxidation reactions.
12
2.4
FACTORS AFFECTING GASIFICATION REACTIONS
Studies have shown that there are a number of factors influencing the gasification reactions and
influence the syngas composition and distribution including temperature, pressure, and height of
the reactor fuel bed; the air velocity, the gasifying medium; the equivalent ratio, the pressure of
catalysts and the fuel moisture and particle (Inayat et al., 2010).
2.4.1 The Heat Effect
The heat effects in the reduction zone can be understood by applying Le Chatelier's principle.
This implies that an increase in temperature causes a shift toward the side of heat absorption in
order to decrease the temperature. Since the Boudouard and the heterogeneous water-gas
reactions are both endothermic, an increase in temperature would cause a shift in the reactions
favouring formation of more . The same increase in temperature would tend to
discourage formation of , as the methane formation reaction is exothermic. The rate of
gasification and the performance of the gasification reactor is temperature dependent. Increasing
the temperature increases the formation of combustible gases, decreases the yield of char and
liquids and leads to more complete conversion of the fuel (Voloch, 1983; Elliot and Sealock,
1985; Fout, 1988; Scott 1998; Harris, 2006).
2.4.2 Temperature of the Reactor
There is a need to properly insulate the reactor so that heat losses are reduced. If heat losses are
higher than the heat requirement of the endothermic reactions, the gasification reactions will not
occur (Hobbs et al., 1993).
2.4.3 Size Distribution of the Fuel
Fuel should be of a form that will not lead to bridging within the reactor. Bridging occurs when
unscreened fuels do not flow freely axially downwards in the gasifier. Therefore particle size is
13
an important parameter in biomass gasification because it determines the bed porosity and thus
the fluid-dynamic characteristics of the bed. On the other hand, fine grained fuels lead to
substantial pressure drops in fixed bed reactors.
2.4.4 Gasifier Pressure
Increase in the gasifier pressure result in decreases in fuel weight loss during devolatisation
(Nandi and Onischak, 1981), but at a constant temperature, the first-order rate constant (K) (the
rate of reaction K is directly proportional to the concentration of one of the reactants) for char
gasification increases with increasing pressure. Gasification rates of char increase with increasing
pressure and are most significant at high temperature (Plante, 1988). Methane
yields increase as pressure increase (Liinanki, 1981) and and molar ratio
(number of moles of carbon divided by the number of moles of carbon monoxide) increase with
the higher total pressure of char-steam gasification process (Richard, 1985). High pressure
appears to increase the heat transport properties of biomass fuel (McLendon, 2004).
2.4.5 The Height of the Reactor
For a given reactor temperature, higher fuel bed heights increase the residence time, increase
total syngas yields, and increase formation of (Font, 1988; Beaumont,
1984). Conversion efficiencies (energy output in the gas form divided by the energy input in the
fuel) increase, bed temperature decreases (due to the increase in heat capacity), and fuel bed
pressure (pressure difference between the bottom and top of the bed) decreases in the dense bed
(bed of sand) of the reactor but is unaffected in the freeboard region (the region above the sand)
with increasing fuel bed height (Sadaka, 1998).
2.4.6 Air Velocity
Air velocity (the velocity that maintains the particles suspended in the gasifying media) plays an
important role in the mixing of particles in the gasifier. In air gasification system, higher velocity
14
increases fuel bed temperature and decreases the energy content of the syngas (due to increased
amount of oxygen and nitrogen in the inlet gas. Studies differ on the impact of gas velocity on
syngas yield, composition, and energy content with one study showing no difference over the
range evaluated (Raman, 1981).
2.4.7 Equivalent Ratio
The equivalence ratio (actual fuel-to-air ratio divided by the stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio) has
the strongest influence on the performance of gasification reactors because it affects the fuel bed
temperature, syngas quality, and the thermal efficiency of the reactions. Higher equivalence
ratios result in smaller pressure drops in both the dense bed and the freeboard regions of the
reactor when the reactor operates at different fluidization velocities and fuel bed heights. High
equivalence ratios increase the rate of syngas production and increase reactor temperature due to
more exothermic reactions (Schoeters, 1989). Low equivalence ratios reduce fuel bed
temperatures resulting in the production of less syngas, more tar, and a lower energy content of
the syngas (Ergudenler, 1992).
2.4.8 Catalysts
Catalysts are used in the gasification process to enhance the quality of the syngas and reduce the
rate of tar production (Baker, 1985). A major problem that occurs with the use of conventionally
supported Ni catalysts during the catalytic steam reforming of tar is the deposition of carbon on
the catalyst due to the high aromatic character of the carbon.
2.4.9 Fuel Moisture Content
The characteristics of the fuel affect the gasification process. High fuel moisture content reduces
the gasification temperature (due to the energy required to evaporate the water in the fuel) which
leads to the production of higher volumes of char (Elliot and Sealock, 1985). The rate of thermal
diffusion within the fuel particles decreases with increased particle size, resulting in a lower
15
heating rate and the production of more char and less tar. At a given temperature, syngas yield
increases as particle size decreases (Raman et al, 1980). Heating value versus temperature plots
for different particle sizes are parabolic with the maximum heating value aligned with the
smallest particle size. Gasification rates increase as particle size decreases (Edrich et al, 1985).
2.4.10 Ash Content

Ash is a very important parameter that affects the composition and calorific value of syngas
(Iqbal et al., 2010). Miskam et al., (2009) reported that the lower the ash content the better the
producer gas.
The process of gasification must involve physical transport before the chemical process can take
place. In the oxidation zone, as the oxygen carrying stream comes into contact with the burning
carbon, all free oxygen is exhausted to form a mixture of . This free oxygen
does not necessarily penetrate to the surface of the fuel, but rather it is burned at the boundary
layer to form more and from (Gumz, 1950). This theory is supported by an
indirect proof. One support for this view is the lack of slag formation in the interior of the fuel
bed. If the oxygen penetrated to the surface of the fuel and, as the primary reaction, was burned
to , the interior of the bed, which is well insulated by the rest of the bed, would soon show
temperatures well above those required for slag formation (Gumz,1950). These temperatures
would be so much in excess that even an extensive humidification of the oxygen carrying stream
would not be sufficient to prevent slag formation (Gumz, 1950).
Immediately following the oxidation zone is the reduction zone. Here, too, the gasification
reactions are heterogeneous; therefore they take place at the phase boundary between the solid
fuel and gas. The temperature at this phase boundary, which is very difficult to measure, governs
the rate of reaction. Accordingly, a higher quality gas is formed at the beginning of the reduction
zone, where the temperature is still high. As the distance from the heat producing oxidation zone
increases, the temperature of the reduction zone decreases, which corresponds to a slightly
decreasing gas quality, as more is formed (Gumz,1950). The gas formed at this boundary
16
layer is mixed by diffusion and convection with the gas of combustion leaving the oxidation
zone.
Therefore, the total gas quality increases as the distance from the oxidation zone increases. Heat
transfer is analogous to the mass transfer at the phase boundary. The gasification reactions finally
stop (1) when the concentration gradient between the gas phase and boundary layer goes to
zero, and (2) when the temperature driving force is evened out and no more heat transfer takes
place (Gumz, 1950).
According to the preceding discussion, it would appear that the gasifier should be operated at the
highest temperature possible in order to produce a gas of the highest quality. However, the
beneficial effects that the higher temperatures have on the reaction rates of the endothermic
gasifier reactions are soon offset by several important physical considerations.
First, such high temperatures are difficult to attain without the added complexity of outside
heaters, as heat loss becomes a major factor. Secondly, at temperatures above approximately
1200C, the ashes formed from the combustion of gin trash begin to melt and form slag (Schacht
and Le Pori, 1978).
Since the gasification process is composed of both chemical and physical reactions, even the
accelerated reaction rates at high temperatures may not result in the optimum gas composition. In
general, the rate of chemical reaction is so fast above 900C that it is negligible when compared
to the transport phenomena. Below 600C the rate of chemical reaction is slow compared to the
transport phenomena (Gumz, 1950).
17
CHAPTER THREE
UPDRAFT GASIFIER DESIGN
3.0
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1
MATERIALS
The project considered four essential components: fuel for the heat, combustion to obtain the
heat, application of the heat, and human factors such as costs, and user-friendliness. Failure in
any of these four will lead to failure in the project. The human factors are much more personal
and cultural, have less to do with the actual physical gasifier, but often require the greatest efforts
and investments of time and money.
This gasification is accomplished by controlled, incomplete burning of sawdust, and palm kernel
shell. These fuels are readily available and composed primarily of carbon with varying hydrogen,
oxygen & impurities such as sulphur, ash, moisture and mercury while adding air and steam. To
do this, one will ignite the feedstock, pump air with the aid of a portable air compressor which
then pump the resulting gases from the gasifier base. Once the gases are withdrawn, they may be
burned to produce heat or generate electricity. Or they may be used in synthetic gases to produce
chemicals or to help create liquid fuels. Other materials include a Grate made from stainless steel
upon which the burning of the fuel takes place. Adapter is needed to convert the 230Va.c to
12Vd.c of the compressor that supplies the air for the combustion processes. To measure the
temperature at various levels of the reactor, a K-type thermocouple is required with a digital
meter.
3.2
METHODS
The design of the updraft gasifier will involve determining the amount of power needed to
generate electricity, the amount of fuel to be supplied to the gasifier needed to meet the energy
required for generating the electricity. Compute the size of the combustion chamber in terms of
diameter and height of the reactor. Compute the amount of air and the amount of draft needed to
gasify the fuel. These are important information in the selection of the fan or blower needed for
18
the reactor. Fabricate the gasifier with standard dimensions to minimize wastage of materials as
well as to prevent additional labour cost. Test the gasifier and taking necessary data.
Factors Considered
There were several factors considered in designing the laboratory scale updraft gasifier. Proper
consideration of these different factors helped in a great deal to achieve the desired design and
performance. As given below, the different factors considered in designing the updraft gasifier
are:
1. Type of Reactor The operating performance of the gasifier basically depends on the
type of reactor used, the type under consideration is Updraft reactor.
2. Cross-sectional Area of the Reactor This is the area in which the wood fuels are burned
and this is where the fuel is gasified. The wider the cross-sectional area of the reactor, the
stronger the power output of the gasifier. Uniform gasification was achieved with the
reactor designed in circular rather than in square or rectangular cross-section.
3. Height of the Reactor The height of the reactor determined the continuous operation
time and the amount of gas produced for a fixed column reactor. Usually the combustion
zone moves down the entire height of the gasifier reactor. The higher the reactor,
however, the more pressure draft is needed to overcome the resistance exerted by the air
compressor.
4. Thickness of the Fuel Bed The thicker the layer of fuel in the reactor, the greater is the
resistance required for the air to pass through the fuel column. The only advantage in
using a thicker column of the gasifier is that it slows downward movement of the
combustion zone in the reactor, which can help in minimizing the erratic production of
flammable gas during gasification.
5. Air Compressor and Pressure A low pressure air compressor was installed to provide
the necessary airflow needed for the wood fuel and palm kernel shell gasification.
6. Insulation for the Reactor The gasifier reactor was properly insulated with fiber glass
for two reasons: first, this provides better conversion of the feedstock into gas. Second, it
prevents burning of skin when the reactors surface accidentally touched.
19
7. Location of Firing the Fuel For Updraft gasifier, firing the fuel from the top is the best
and easier way. Firing the fuel in this manner minimizes smoke emission. However
reloading of the fuel in between operation might not be possible. On the other hand, the
advantage of firing from the bottom is that the total start-up for the same height of the
reactor can be extended, which cannot be done when firing the fuel from the top of the
reactor.
8. Size and Location of the Char Chamber The size of the chamber for carbonized fuel
determines the frequency of unloading the char or the ash. Bigger chamber can
accommodate larger amount of char and can allow longer time before the char is
removed. In addition, designing a shorter chamber will give sufficient height for the
gasifier and the burner. To properly discharge the ash or the char, a shelled cuboid is
welded to the base of the hopper, the box is provided with a doorway.
9. Safety consideration Opening the reactor requires safety. The opening is provided with
plug and socket to prevent the release of the syngas to the atmosphere.
3.3
THE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
The laboratory scale updraft gasifier is designed for an engine of the following specification. The
oxygen supplied for combustion is usually provided by atmosphere air, and it is necessary to use
accurate and consistent analyses of air by mass and by volume. It is usually in combustion
calculations to take air as 23.3% , 76.7% , by mass and 21% , 79% by volume. The
small traces of other gases in dry air are included in the nitrogen, which is sometimes called
atmosphere nitrogen.
The equations for the complete combustion of the products of gasification with Oxygen are given
below from the reduction reaction (Eastop and McConkey, 1993):
For the incomplete combustion

20
For complete combustion

Since there is one atom of Carbon in each mole of then there must be 1 mol of in the
products, giving one atom of Carbon on each side of the equation. Similarly, since there two
atoms of hydrogen in each mole of then there must be 1 mole of in the products, giving
two atoms of hydrogen on each side of the equation. Then balancing the atoms of oxygen, it is
seen that there are atoms on the left-hand side of the equation. There is one
atom of oxygen in the Carbon monoxide. Therefore, a further two atoms of oxygen must be
supplied, and hence 1 mol of oxygen is required as shown.
Since the is supplied as air, the associated must appear in the equation (Eastop and
McConkey, 1993),
i.e.

21
Table 3.1
Ultimate analysis of wood (Yinesor, 2008)

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS RANGE OF VALUES
LOWER
HIGHER
50
53
5.8
7.0
0.3
Cl
0.0001
0.1
38
44
0.1
Ash
0.1
3.3.1 CALORIFIC VALUE OF THE WOOD FUEL
The Calorific Values of wood fuel: Table 1 presented ultimate analysis of wood with lower and
higher range values.
Lower Calorific Value (LCV)

Higher Calorific Value (HCV)

Where C, H, O, S are percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur respectively,

Calculation of LCV and HCV from the lower value of the Ultimate analysis of wood;
22


Also the Calculation of LCV and HCV from the higher value of the Ultimate analysis of wood;


23
3.4
THE DESIGN OF THE 15HP UPDRAFT GASIFIER CAPACITY
The mechanical power of the laboratory scale updraft gasifier is 11.19kW. The design
components are based on mechanical power and various factors taken into consideration, fuel
consumption rate is obtained with the following calculations.
The Brake Power in kW is calculated as

Brake Power,

A. BIOMASS CONSUMPTION GASIFIER
Then the Brake thermal efficiency

Where
BP = Brake Power (kW)
T = Time to consume the fuel (s)
= Mass of fuel consumed (kg)
= FCR = Fuel Consumption Rate
LCV = Lower Calorific Value obtained from the higher value of the Ultimate
analysis of wood.
For this gasifier, the thermal efficiency of the engine is taken as 70%.
Then the Fuel Consumption Rate is calculated as

24

B. THE UPDRAFT GASIFIER DIMENSIONS

(a) Reactor Diameter (D)
This refers to the size of the reactor in terms of the diameter of the cross-section of the cylinder
where the fuel is being burned. This is a function of the amount of the fuel consumed per unit
time (FCR) to the specific gasification rate (SGR) of the fuel ranging from 100 to 250
.
The reactor diameter is computed using the formula with

Where SGR is the amount of woodfuel used per unit area of the reactor.

The power output of the updraft gasifier is highly dependent on the diameter of the reactor. The
bigger the diameter of the reactor, the more energy that can be released by the gasifier. This also
means more fuel is expected to be burned per unit time since the gas production is a function of
gasification rate in kg of fuel burned per unit time per unit area of the reactor.
(b) Height of the Reactor
This refers to the total distance from the top and the bottom end of the reactor. This determines
how long would the gasifier be operated in one loading of fuel. Basically, it is a function of a
number of variables such as the required time to operate the gasifier (T), the specific gasification
rate (SGR), and the density of the fuel.
As shown below, the height of the gasifier is computed using the formula

25
For a desired operating time of the gasifier of 2.5 hours, assuming the density of the fuel is
(Singh 2008),

The working height of the reactor is fixed 37.75 % more in order to

a. Socket and Plug
b. Accommodate grate
c. Provide space for ash collection at the bottom

The height of the fuel hopper
This is the distance from the top of the reactor to the top of the grate.

The height (hf) is the same for both the inner and the outer fuel hopper
The height of the ash container
(c) Time to consume the fuel
This refers to the total time required to completely gasify the fuel inside the reactor. This
includes the time to ignite the fuel and the time to generate gas, plus the time to completely burn
all the fuel in the reactor. The density of the fuel , the volume of the reactor , and the fuel
consumption rate (FCR) are the factors used in determining the total time to consume the fuel in
the reactor. This is computed using the formula

(d) Amount of Air needed for Gasification Air Flow Rate (AFR)
26
This refers to the rate of flow of air needed to gasify the fuel. This is very important in
determining the size of the fan or of the blower needed for the reactor in gasifying the fuel. This
can be simply determined using the rate of consumption of the fuel (FCR), the stoichiometric air
of the fuel (SA), density of air and the recommended equivalent ratio for gasifying
wood fuel of 0.3 to 0.5. This is obtained using the formula

(e) Superficial Air Velocity

This refers to the speed of the air flow in the fuel bed. The velocity of air in the bed of the fuel
will cause channel formation, which may greatly affect gasification. The diameter of the reactor
and the air flow rate (AFR) determine the superficial velocity of air in the gasifier. This is
computed using the formula

(f) Resistance to Air Flow

This refers to the amount of resistance exerted by the fuel and by char inside the reactor during
gasification. This is important in determining whether a fan or blower is needed for the reactor.
The height of the fuel hopper and the specific resistance of the fuel, which is 0.65 cm
water per meter depth of fuel.

In summary, the updraft gasifier requires reactor diameter of 0.20m, fuel hopper height of 0.7m
and the total overall height of 964.25mm. The electrically powered mobile (portable) air
compressor is capable of supplying of air per hour to the fuel column and of overcoming
draft resistance for the fuel column of 0.455 cm of water.
27
C. OVERALL SIZE (DIMENSION) OF THE UPDRAFT GASIFIER

(a) The Fuel Hopper
(i)
Inner part of the hopper is as shown in Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1 Inner Fuel Hopper

Material The material used to fabricate this part is Mild Steel. Mild steel (<0.25% carbon) was
used, readily welded and has the following typical mechanical properties.
Grade 4A in BS4360; weldable structure steel;
Tensile strength,
Yield strength,
Elongation,
Tensile modulus,
Hardness,
Thickness

The dimensions of the inner rector are indicated in Fig. 3.2
28
0.641m
0.63m
0.70
Figure 3.2 Dimension specification of the fuel hopper

(ii)
Outer material of the reactor
The outer material is also Mild Steel (the same properties with the inner hopper) as shown in
Figure 3.3
Fig. 3.3 Outer Fuel Hopper
Material The insulating material is Mild Steel
29
Thickness

The dimensions of the inner rector are indicated in Fig. 3.4
0.968m
0.955m
0.70m
Figure 3.4 Dimension specification of the outer material of the fuel hopper
(b) Synthetic (Product) Gas Pipe

This pipe is made from Galvanized Iron. One end of this pipe is welded to the lid of the fuel
hopper. It is from this pipe the producer gas released for further processing and application. The
other end has a 25mm thread length, this is to enable another internal threaded pipe be fixed on
this section to transport the gas to any desired location. See Fig. 3.5
Fig. 3.5 The producer gas pipe
30
(c) Determination of the thickness of Insulation

Material The insulating material is fiber glass. Figure 1 shows the conduction and convection
of heat flow through the gasifier walls, the suitable thickness and the location of the insulating
material. The heat flow by conduction takes place between three layers of two different materials
(the inner and outer mild steel and the fibre glass).
The thickness of insulation

Figure 3.6 Heat flow through the fuel hopper
The heat flow by convection takes place at the hot fluid inside the gasifier and the atmospheric
condition. The heat transferred from the hot fluid inside the fuel hopper to the external walls.
Fibre glass is used because is a poor conductor of both heat and electricity and therefore useful
for thermal insulation. This is to reduce the flow of heat between the inner material of the fuel
hopper and the outer material of the Mild Steel. The inner and outer temperatures have been
31
selected to represent the maximum temperature in the gasifier and atmospheric temperature
respectively (Ojolo et al., 2012).
Let,

Allowing 15% of the total power generated to be loss through the walls of the gasifier.
Then the allowable heat loss (Rajput, 2004)

32

(d) The weight of the Fiber Glass
The weight of the fiber glass depends on the density of the fiber glass ( )
(Singh, 2008), the thickness of insulation 0.05m, the inner and outer diameter,
of the fuel hopper and the volume of insulation in the hollow frustum section . See Fig. 3.7

33
0.955m
0.641m
0.70m
Figure 3.7 Dimension specification of the fuel hopper insulation
(e) Grate
This is perforated circular Stainless Steel with high heat resistance material of diameter
, sitting in the reactor at a distance 0.70m measured from the top of the reactor.
(f) Torus
The torus material is Galvanized Iron. It was welded round the grate to the Inner fuel hopper. A 4
numbers of 2mm holes were drilled to enable the updraft of the compressed air in the fuel
hopper.
(g) The Air Inlet Pipe

The material of this component is Galvanized Iron. This is used to pass the compressed
atmospheric air from the portable (vehicle tyre type) air compressor to the Torus.
34
(h) The size and Location of the ash/char container

This is the cuboid on which the fuel hoppers (both the inner and outer) were welded. A door
way is provided to ease collection of ashes formed during gasification. The dimension ( in
mm) is 600 x 600 x 150.
(i) The overall perimeter of the Mild Steel sheet gasifier material
Inner material
Outer material
The ash container = 4(600 + 600) + 4(150 + 600) = 7800mm = 7.8m

For 20% compensation

The area of the Mild Steel material sheet

(j) Purchased components
(i)
Square Plug and Socket Plain
This 4 plumbing fitting will be fixed (welded) on the lid of the fuel hopper for the passage or
loading of fuel into the fuel column.
(ii)
Valve
This is used to ease the pumping of compressed air needed for the gasification. This is the type of
valve used in vehicle tyres. The threaded end is connected to the air compressor hose while the
other end is forced into the air inlet pipe.
(iii)
Air Compressor
This is the means by which air to draft into the gasifier. It is an 80W, 12V d.c. compressor. It is
the mobile portable type used in vehicles.
35
(iv)
230V ac/12V dc Adapter
This is incorporated to be able to connect the Air compressor directly to Electricity mains. It
enables the 12V d.c. compressor be plugged directly to mains. It was locally designed and
packaged.
3.3 FABRICATION
3.3.1 Construction Materials
The updraft gasifier, similar with other gasifier, generally requires the following materials for its
fabrication:
1.
Mild steel sheet,
2.
Galvanized Iron, 14mm diameter and 2mm thick
3.
Stainless steel grate, of 160mm in diameter.
4.
Hinges
5.
Door Lock
6.
Gasifier ash container
7.
Air compressor
8.
Switch/Adapter (230V a.c./12V d.c.)
9.
Socket
10.
Square Plug
11.
Valve (used for vehicle tires)
The Mild steel sheet was used for the construction of the inner and outer cylinder of the reactor
(hopper), the hopper cover and of the ash container. The compressed air inlet pipe, the Torus and
producer gas pipes were obtained from a long Galvanized Iron pipe of internal diameter 14mm
and thickness of 2mm. The square plug and socket welded to the cover were made from
galvanised steel. The insulating material was made from fibre glass which is a good heat
resistant.
36
An 80W, 12VDC mobile vehicle portable type of Air compressor was used to provide the air
needed for gasification. A valve normally used on tires was fixed on the outlet of the compressor
air passage, while the other was forced into the inlet pipe. A switch/Adapter was used to supply
230VAC to the Air compressor. The adapter is to be connected to the mains while the power
cord of the compressor is connected in parallel to the terminals provided on the adapter. The
compressor can be easily switched OFF and ON during operation.
Hinges were obtained from hardware suppliers. They are the type of hinges commonly used for
steel windows of houses.
3.3.2 Tools and Equipment

The following are the basic tools and equipment used in the construction of the updraft gasifier:
1. Tin Snip This is a tool used for cutting metal sheets, especially for gauges 18 and
above. For the updraft gasifier, this was used for cutting the Mild steel materials sheet for
the inner and the outer reactors, as well as the ash or char chamber and the fuel hopper
cover.
2. Power hand drill This tool was used to drill holes on the Torus welded in the inner
hopper to circulate air.
3. Hammer & Chisel These were used in metal cutting and folding the metal sheets to
form them into a desired shape. They were particularly used in place blanking.
4. Arc Welding Machine This equipment was used for fixing the metal sheets together.
Since Mild steel was used for the gasifier, the arc welding machine was used with the oxy
acetylene welding, for welding the metal parts together.
5. Pliers This was used in holding pieces of the material, especially during welding, as
well as in folding parts of the metal.
3.3.3 General Guidelines

The general guidelines in fabricating the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier are enumerated
below. The succeeding section gives the specific step-by-step procedure to finish the gasifier.
37
1. Reviewed the design drawing of the gasifier. Determined its various components such as
the fuel reactor, char chamber. The materials and the dimension of the various assemblies
were obtained as shown in the design calculations. Carefully studied how these
assemblies will be fabricated considering locally available facilities and equipment with
minimum labour and material costs.
2. Prepared all the materials needed for the construction of the gasifier.
The list of materials included fabricated materials such as metal sheets and bars, and standard
materials such as square plug & socket, hinges, air compressor, adapter, and others.
3. The layouts of each of the different components of the gasifier were made on a metal
sheet. For the gasifier, one Mild steel sheet and a piece of stainless steel were used. The
use of the materials was maximized when making the layout for the gasifier parts. In
other words, wastage of materials was minimized during fabrication.
4. The metal sheet was cut according to the dimension specified in the layout using a
hammer and chisel.
5. The metal sheets were rolled (folded) in forming the inner and the outer cylinders of the
reactor. When forming metal sheets, care was taken not to abruptly bend the sheets so that
the folded cylinder would be uniform.
6. Layout of the char chamber parts was made on the metal sheet and the parts were also cut
out using chisel and hammer.
7. The external diameter of the torus was the same as the internal diameter of the inner
hopper. All parts needed to be joined together were welded. Arc welding machine was
used for welding the metal sheets, particularly in forming the inner reactor, and the cover
where proper sealing is required. Four holes (2mm) each were drilled strategically on the
torus to enable air flow within the system. The inlet pipe of the compressed air was
welded to the torus and the grate welded to the inner diameter of the torus. The outer
reactor, char chamber (ash container), socket, compressed air inlet pipe, the producer gas
pipe, the torus and grate were welded using with the same machine.
8. The reactor was filled with the Fibre glass, insulator provided for the gasifier.
38
9. The hopper was covered with Mild Steel sheet and the following accessories were welded
according dimensions in the drawing, the Socket, the producer gas pipe.
10. The portable mobile vehicle air compressor was used with an electrical adapter. These
were checked to ensure their proper functionality.
11. The adapter and the air compressor were connected in parallel with wire.
3.3.4 Detailed Procedure in Fabricating the Laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
The procedure below gives the specific steps being followed in fabricating the Laboratory Scale
Updraft Gasifier. All the metal sheet works were the first phase of work carried out followed by
metal bars work. In terms of parts, the char chamber was the first work done followed by the
installation of the fuel reactor. The inlet air pipe, drilling of the torus come next followed by the
door assembly and char grate assembly others include, the cover, the plug and socket, and the
producer gas pipe. All metal bars activities were the last activities before installing the air
compressor and the adapter.
Below is the step-by-step procedure in fabricating the updraft gasifier:
1. Made a lay out of the char chamber, fuel reactor outer cylinder, fuel reactor inner
cylinder, on the steel sheet. Then, cut these various components as required. Allowed
at least of an inch as overlap.
2. Folded the sheets into the various forms as required. For the char chamber, the sheet
was folded to make it into box.
3. Welded all connecting parts of the char chamber box, and the cylinders longitudinal
length. Welding was done with overlap to prevent possible occurrence of gap that
could cause spillage of the fibre glass insulator.
4. Four 2mm holes were drilled strategically on the top facing side of the torus. The
compressed air inlet pipe was welded to it while the grate was welded to its inner
diameter. This torus assembly was welded inside the base face of the inner cylinder.
The reactor cylinders were welded to the top of the ash container. As shown in the
39
drawing, the outer cylinder was placed enclosing the inner reactor. The clearance
between the inner and the outer cylinder was the same throughout the circumference.
5. Filled the reactor with fibre glass to the top. Pressed down (stocked) the fibre glass so
that all spaces were filled with insulation.
6. Made a layout of the cylinder top assembly. This includes the top plate, square plug
and socket, and producer gas pipe. These components were welded as shown in the
drawing.
7. Made a layout of the door assembly for the ash container. The door was well fitted
and can be easily opened or closed during operation. Properly attach welded the door
hinges and locks.
8. All Galvanized Iron pipes were cut as specified in the design. These include the torus,
air inlet and the producer gas pipe.
9. Welded all the bars as required.
10. Assembled the air compressor, valve and adapter.
40
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
4.1
PERFORMANCE TESTING AND EVALUATION
TEST EQUIPMENT
Test equipment, such as thermocouple and digital multimeter, weighing scale, and timer, were
used during the testing of the updraft gasifier in the laboratory.
4.2
OPERATING PERFORMANCE CONSIDERED
The operating performance considered in the test of the laboratory scale updraft gasifier are the
start-up time to ignite fuel samples, ignition time to generate gas, total operating time, amount of
fuel used, and amount of char produced after each operation were determined.
4.3
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Temperature profile of during the gasification was determined in this test from the time fire was
initiated into the hopper. The temperatures at the different compartments (oxidation, reduction,
pyrolysis and the gas outlet) of the gasifier were recorded.
The following were the basic steps in testing the laboratory scale updraft gasifier
1. The gasifier was made ready to be tested. A test run was conducted to test the operating
performance before conducting this actual test.
2. The freshly obtained sawdust fuel from the saw mill was sundried for three days to reduce
the moisture content. This was done because decomposed or wet sawdust taken from
dumpsites are not fitted for use in this gasifier (observation made from during the test
running) for it will continue to produce smoke.
3.
Prepared the test equipment such as weighing scale, thermocouple, and electric power
meter.
4. Measured the weight of fuel loaded in the gasifier. This was done by measuring three
different samples of the sawdust. The first sample was loaded into the gasifier to initiate
fire and was left to combust to a very high temperature after which the other two samples
were gradually loaded into the gasifier.
41
5. The thermocouples were introduced into the chamber to measure the temperature at a
distance of 200mm from each other in the gasifier and at the gas exit.
6. The fuel was ignited in the gasifier and the start-up time was recorded.
7. The gas emitted from the burner was ignited and the time until spontaneous combustion
was attained recorded.
8. The test continued until all the fuel in the reactor was totally consumed and no more
combustible gas is produced. The operating time of the gasifier was recorded from the
start of firing until no combustible gas is produced.
9. The ash was discharged from the reactor and its weight measured.
10. The result of the test is tabulated as shown in and the analysis of different parameters
needed was computed.
11. The steps above were also repeated for the palm kernel shell
4.4
TEST PARAMETERS
The following parameters are used in evaluating the performance of the laboratory scale updraft
gasifier:
1. Start-Up Time This is the time required to ignite the fuel and consequently to produce
combustible gas. This parameter is measured from the time the burning pieces of paper
are introduced to the fuel in the reactor until combustible gas is produced at the burner.
2. Operating Time This is the duration from the time the gasifier produces a combustible
gas until no more gas is obtained from the burning feedstock.
3. Total Operating Time This is the duration from the time fuel samples are ignited until
no more combustible gas is produced in the in the gasifier. Basically, it is the sum of the
startup time and the operating time of the gasifier.
4. Fuel Consumption Rate (FCR) This is the amount of sawdust fuel used in operating
the gasifier divided by the operating time. This is computed using the formula,

5. Specific Gasification Rate (SGR) This is the amount of sawdust fuel used per unit time
per unit area of the reactor. This is computed using the formula,
42

6. Combustion Zone Rate (CZR) This is the time required for the combustion zone to
move down the reactor. This is computed using the formula,

7. Heat Energy Input This is the amount of heat energy available in the fuel. This is
computed using the formula,

8. Power Output This is the amount of energy released by the gasifier based on the
amount of fuel consumed. This is computed using the formula,

9. Percentage Char Produced - This is the ratio of the amount of char produced to the
amount of sawdust used. This can be computed using the formula,

43
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
5.1
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
THE DESIGN
The design of this laboratory scale updraft gasifier obtained the following parameters the
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio as , the fuel consumption rate of , the higher
and lower calorific values were calculated from the Ultimate analysis of woodchips obtained
from the US Department of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (Yinesor, 2008). The
calorific value of was used for calculation. The various components of the
updraft gasifier were designed for, these include, the reactor has a diameter of 200mm, its height
is 700mm, while the total height is 964.25mm (this includes the height of the ash container, the
plug and socket, grate accommodation. Other calculations include the time to consume the fuel
which is 2.2hr, the amount of air needed for the gasification, and the superficial
velocity .
5.2
THE DRAWING
The parts, assembly, sectional and the projections were drawn with Autodesk Inventor
Professional 2010 (Figure 5.1). The drawings are attached as part of the appendix.
44
Fig. 5.1
5.3
Isometric View of the Assembly drawing of the laboratory Scale Updraft Gasifier
FABRICATION
The laboratory scale updraft gasifier was fabricated according to the design and the experience of
the technologists. Leakage was avoided during the welding process to ensure satisfactory
performance of the system. No leakage was observed from the welded joints. The manufactured
laboratory scale gasifier is shown in the Figure 5.2 below
45
The quality of the fuels (saw dust and palm kernel shell) was tested following the America
Society for Testing Materials. These tests included: Moisture content, Volatile and Fixed carbon,
and Ash content.
The procedure and methods employed while conducting each of these tests are:
5.4.1 MOISTURE CONTENT
The heating value of the gas produced by any type of gasifier depends at least in part on the
moisture content of the feedstock. Moisture content can be determined on a dry basis as well as
on a wet basis.
Accurately measured 1g of each of the fuel (saw dust and palm kernel shell) samples was
measured and dried in an electric oven at a temperature of 105oC for one hour.
The following data was obtained from the test
Weight of the sawdust before drying in the oven = 1g
Weight of the palm kernel shell before drying in the oven = 1g
Weight of the sawdust after drying in the oven = 0.89g
Weight of the palm kernel shell after drying in the oven = 0.89g
The moisture content of the sawdust on the wet basis is defined as

The moisture content of the sawdust on the dry basis is defined as

The moisture content of the palm kernel shell on dry basis was obtained as follows

47

The moisture content of the palm kernel shell on the wet basis is defined as

According to the FAO (1989), high moisture contents reduce the thermal efficiency since heat is
used to drive off the water and consequently this energy is not available for the reduction
reactions and for converting thermal energy into chemical bound energy in the gas. Therefore
high moisture contents result in low gas heating values.
When the gas is used for direct
combustion purposes, low heating values can be tolerated and the use of feedstocks with
moisture contents (dry basis) of up to 40 - 50 percent is feasible, especially when using updraft
gasifiers.
5.4.2 VOLATILE MATTER CONTENT OF THE FUELS
The fuel samples were crushed to powdered form, 1g of each of the crushed samples was place in
different porcelain crucibles. They were each covered with a lid with little opening left and
placed on hot plates at a temperature of 500 oC 600oC to drive off the volatiles. The heating
continued until the flame coming out through the holes have ceased. This indicates that all
volatile matter has been driven off. After this, the weight of each of the heated samples was
taken.
Weight of the sawdust before placing on hot plate = 1g
Weight of the palm kernel shell before placing on hot plate = 1g
Weight of the sawdust after heating on the hot plate = 0.18g
Weight of the palm kernel shell after heating on the hot plate = 0.45g
The volatile content of the sawdust

48
Percentage of the volatility for sawdust =

The volatile content of the palm kernel shell

Percentage

of
the
volatility
for
palm
kernel
shell

5.4.3 ASH CONTENT

The ash content test of the fuel samples was carried out by crushing the samples and accurately
weighed 1g in a porcelain crucible with a lid. The samples were heated to temperature of 500 oC
600oC on an hot plate. After two hours, the weight of the samples was taken, and given as
follows:
Initial weight of the sawdust before placing on hot plate = 1g
Initial weight of the palm kernel shell before placing on hot plate = 1g
Final weight of the sawdust after heating on the hot plate = 0.04g
Final weight of the palm kernel shell after heating on the hot plate = 0.30g
The ash content of the sawdust

The ash content of the palm kernel shell

According to FAO (1989), Ashes can cause a variety of problems particularly in up or

downdraught gasifiers. Slagging or clinker formation in the reactor, caused by melting and
agglomeration of ashes, at the best will greatly add to the amount of labour required to operate
the gasifier. If no special measures are taken, slagging can lead to excessive tar formation and/or
49
complete blocking of the reactor. A worst case is the possibility of air-channelling which can
lead to a risk of explosion, especially in updraft gasifiers.
5.4.4 FIXED CARBON

The value of the fixed carbon is calculated as follows:

For the sawdust

For the palm kernel shell

Table 5.1
The laboratory proximate analysis of 1g of each of the fuel samples
Proximate Analysis
Units
Sawdust
Palm Kernel Shell
Volatile Matter (VOL=VM)
82
55
Fixed Carbon (FC)
Ash (A)
30
Moisture Content (MC)
9.9
12
The results of the proximate analysis carried out on the properties of the feedstock (sawdust and
palm kernel shell) are presented in Table 5.1. This analysis gives the suitability of the feedstock
for use in a particular application, this includes moisture content, volatile content, the fixed
carbon and ash content in the both the sawdust and palm kernel shell. The two feedstocks
considered have very low moisture content and ash content. The significant of low ash content
helps to decrease problem related to residual disposal, equipment cleaning and various other
operational aspects (de Souza-Santos, 2004). The moisture content of the feedstock was reduced
by sun drying to obtain a high gasification temperature which results in the high energy values
obtained. The results reveal the abundant biomass energy potentials available in the feedstock
considered.
50
5.5 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE PRODUCED SYNTHETIC GASES

The "ultimate" analysis" gives the composition of the sawdust and palm kernel shell in wt% of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (the major components) as well as sulphur and nitrogen
5.5.1 FOR THE SAWDUST
1. Calculation of the percent fixed carbon on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis:

2. Calculation of the percentage volatile matter on dry, mineral-matter basis

3. Calculation of the weight percent of carbon in the fuel

51

4. Calculation of the weight percent of nitrogen in the fuel

5. Calculation of the weight percent hydrogen in the fuel

6. Calculation of the weight percent of oxygen in the fuel

52

5.5.2 FOR THE PALM KERNEL SHELL
1. Calculation of the percent fixed carbon on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis:

2. Calculation of the percentage volatile matter on dry, mineral-matter basis

3. Calculation of the weight percent of carbon in the fuel

53

4. Calculation of the weight percent of nitrogen in the fuel

5. Calculation of the weight percent hydrogen in the fuel

6. Calculation of the weight percent of oxygen in the fuel

54

Table 5.2 The Ultimate Analysis of the fuel samples
Ultimate Analysis
Units
Sawdust
Palm Kernel Shell
Carbon (C)
66.964
45.19
Hydrogen
5.71
3.85
Nitrogen
0.822
0.558
Oxygen
12.604
8.402
Sulphur (S)
Higher Heating Value (HHV)
MJ/kg
23.4
15.8
Lower Heating Value (LHV)
MJ/kg
22.2
15.0
The results of the ultimate analysis carried out on the properties of the feedstock (sawdust and
palm kernel shell) and the heating values as obtained from (Singh, 2008) are presented in Table
5.2. The ultimate gives the weight percentage of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen and
Sulphur. The results of the ultimate analysis were used to obtain both higher and lower heating
values of the two biomasses considered. These heating values show the abundant energy
potentials in the feedstock for various applications as heating and small scale power generation.
55
5.5.3 CALCULATION OF THE HEATING VALUES BASED ON THE ULTIMATE

ANALYSIS


FOR THE SAWDUST




FOR THE PALM KERNEL SHELL


56


5.6
THE PRODUCER GAS PRODUCTION
At the beginning of the test after fire has been introduced into the system, white smoke was
observed to be emitted, the gasifier started to produce a brown smoke which in the indication of
the combustible gases been formed. During this time, the brown smoke was ignited, gradually;
the production of the combustible gases began to be noticed through the production of yellow
flame at the outlet of the gasifier at about 23minutes and 28minutes for the sawdust and palm
kernel shell respectively and continued until the experiment lasted. Various pictures taken to
indicate production of these synthetic gases are shown below; these pictures also correspond to
the tests that were carried by (Yinesor 2008 and Belonio 2005) on wood chips.
57
Fig. 5.6
Indication of the syngas (combustible gas) production in the laboratory scale

updraft gasifier
58
5.7
RESULTS OF THE TEST PARAMETERS FOR SAWDUST

Start-up Time =
Operating Time =
Total Operating Time =
Table 5.3 The Weight of the Sawdust considered
WEIGHT OF SAWDUST (kg)
1
Total
0.4
0.4
0.4
1.2
Table 5.4 Temperature Readings (Saw Dust)

S/N
TEMPERATURE oC
TIME
(Mins)
OXIDATION REDUCTION PYROLYSIS DRYING

SYNGAS

44
52
69
84
39
10
109
83
75
62
85
23
470
192
161
209
83
30
473
194
179
209
120
37
475
196
162
193
103
43
376
198
154
177
99
52
448
189
142
171
100
35
35
35
35
35
58
600
336
240
300
157
10
63
685
391
236
294
252
11
69
629
360
228
222
279
12
73
486
422
223
272
209
13
81
476
364
224
278
218
60

dDWZdhZKy/d/KEKE
dDWZdhZZhd/KEKE
dDWZdhZWzZK>z^/^KE
dDWZdhZZz/E'KE
dDWZdhZ^zE'^
dDWZdhZ/^dZ/hd/KE/Ed,'^&/Z

d/DD/E^
Fig. 5.9 The Graph of Temperature distribution in the gasifier against Time (when
gasifying sawdust)
5.7.1 PERFORMANCE CALCULATION FOR SAWDUST
1. Fuel Consumption Rate (FCR) This is the amount of sawdust fuel used in operating
the gasifier divided by the operating time. This is computed using the formula,

61
2. Specific Gasification Rate (SGR) This is the amount of sawdust fuel used per unit time
per unit area of the reactor. This is computed using the formula,



5. Power Input This is the amount of energy supplied to the gasifier based on the amount
of fuel consumed. This is computed using the formula,

62
Thermal Efficiency (as used in the design)

Power Output This is the amount of energy released by the gasifier. This is computed
using the formula,

8. Gasifier Efficiency

(As confirmed by FAO, 1986, page 18)

amount of sawdust used. This can be computed using the formula,

63
5.7.2 PERFOMANCE CALCULATION FOR PALMKERNEL SHELL

Start-up Time =
Operating Time =
Total Operating Time =
Table 5.5 Weight of the Sawdust used
WEIGHT OF PALM KERNNEL SHELL (kg)
1
Total
Table 5.6Temperature Readings (Palm Kernel Shell)

S/N
TIME
TEMPERATURE oC
(MINS)
OXIDATION REDUCTION PYROLYSIS DRYING
SYNGAS
36
36
36
36
36
250
420
251
328
93
17
323
403
273
361
144
28
438
447
281
383
135
36
334
390
285
351
159
41
283
344
243
319
158
47
379
324
208
266
129
52
403
302
196
248
131
57
723
329
199
249
91
10
64
525
298
235
232
98
11
73
360
310
250
262
99
64

dDWZdhZKy/d/KEKE
dDWZdhZZhd/KEKE
dDWZdhZ/^dZ/hd/KE/Ed,'^/&/Z
dDWZdhZWzZK>z^/^KE
dDWZdhZZz/E'KE
dDWZdhZ^zE'^KE

d/DD/E^
Fig. 5.10 The Graph of Temperature distribution in the gasifier against Time (when gasifying
sawdust)
1. Fuel Consumption Rate (FCR) This is the amount of palm kernel shell fuel used in
operating the gasifier divided by the operating time. This is computed using the formula,

65
2. Specific Gasification Rate (SGR) This is the amount of palm kernel shell fuel used per
unit time per unit area of the reactor. This is computed using the formula,



5. Power Input This is the amount of energy supplied to the gasifier based on the amount
of fuel consumed. This is computed using the formula,

66
Thermal Efficiency (as used in the design)

Power Output This is the amount of energy released by the gasifier. This is computed
using the formula,

8. Gasifier Efficiency

(As confirmed by FAO, 1986, page 18)

amount of palm kernel used. This can be computed using the formula,

67
Table 5.7 Summary of the Experiment and Performance of the gasifier with the fuel samples
PARAMETERS
UNITS
SAWDUST VALUE
START-UP TIME
MINUTES
21
PALM
VALUE
28
OPERATING TIME
MINUTES
60
45
TOTAL OPERATING TIME
MINUTES
81
73
1.2
1.2
2.67
38.2
84.88
0.7
0.93
WEIGHT
OF
FUEL
CONSUMED
FUEL CONSUMPTION RATE
SPECIFIC
GASIFICATION
RATE
COMBUSTION ZONE RATE
HEAT ENERGY INPUT
28,125
31633.06
POWER INPUT
7.812
8.79
5.47
6.15
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
70
70
GASIFIER EFFICIENCY
93.0
63.4
4.2
20
685
723
POWER OUTPUT
PERCENTAGE
OF
CHAR %
PRODUCED
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE oC
IN THE GASIFIER
KERNEL
5.8 RESULTS OF THE PERFORMANCE TEST CARRIED OUT ON THE UPDRAFT GASIFIER
The quantities of both sawdust and palm kernel shell fed into the gasifier during the performance
testing are shown in Table 5.3 and Table 5.5. At the beginning of the test after fire has been
introduced into the reactor, white smoke was observed to be emitted, the gasifier started to
produce a brown smoke which in the indication of the combustible gases been formed. During
this time, the brown smoke was ignited, gradually; the production of the combustible gases began
to be noticed through the production of yellow flame at the outlet of the gasifier at about
23minutes and 28minutes for the sawdust and palm kernel shell respectively and continued until
the experiment lasted. The colour of the produced flame indicating the production of synthetic
gases and the energy content in sawdust correspond to the tests that were carried by (Yinesor,
68
2008; Belonio, 2005) on wood chips and the energy content in the palm kernel shell is close the
work of (Azali et. al, 2005).
Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.10 illustrate temperature distribution during the gasifiers performance
test operation. The highest temperatures obtained during the operation of the gasifier were found
to be closer to the designed temperature. This indicates the suitability of the insulation thickness
used for the fuel hopper.
5.8.1 RESULTS OF THE TEST PARAMETERS FOR SAWDUST
The temperature readings obtained from the experiment conducted on the suitability of Sawdust
for gasification is shown in Table 5.4. These values were obtained from the five different
thermocouples inserted at the oxidation, reduction, pyrolysis, drying and syngas zones in the
gasifier. The highest temperature reading of 685oC with sawdust as the feedstock was obtained in
the oxidation zone.
5.8.2 RESULTS OF THE TEST PARAMETERS FOR PALM KERNEL SHELL
The temperature readings obtained from the experiment conducted on the suitability of Palm
kernel shell for gasification is shown in Table 5.6. These values were obtained from the five
different thermocouples inserted at the oxidation, reduction, pyrolysis, drying and syngas zones
in the gasifier. The highest temperature reading of 723oC with sawdust as the feedstock was
obtained in the oxidation zone.
5.8.3 RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT AND GASIFIER PERFORMANCE
The performance result of the laboratory scale updraft gasifier for the two carbon containing
feedstock (sawdust and palm kernel shell) considered is summarized in Table 5.7
69
CHAPTER SIX
6.0
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
6.1
RECOMMENDATIONS
This laboratory scale updraft gasifier has been designed and powered by an 80W portable air
compressor; further studies should employ devices of lower wattage such as fan AC or DC of 3
9W. This will further increase its energy consumption.
Various sizes of the updraft gasifier, to cater for individual household, restaurant, institutional,
and large-scale operation, should be considered for the next research and development.
Different type of feedstock gasifier should be developed, this will encourage the reduction in
carbon containing fuels waste disposal. Biomass fuels available for gasification include charcoal,
wood and wood waste (branches, twigs, roots, bark, wood shavings and sawdust) as well as a
multitude of agricultural residues (maize cobs, coconut shells, coconut husks, cereal straws, rice
husks, etc.) and peat. Because those fuels differ greatly in their chemical, physical and
morphological properties, they make different demands on the method of gasification and
consequently require different reactor designs or even gasification technologies.
It is therefore recommended that dry and fresh carbon containing feedstock be used for
gasification; this will reduce the smoke production. This is necessary because decomposed or wet
sawdust taken from dumpsites are not fitted for use in this gasifier (observation made from
during the test running) for it will continue to produce smoke.
Updraft gasifier operating in a natural draft mode should be designed -This will be a gasifier that
will operate without the use of a fan or a blower. This R&D design comes to mind to address the
need of users who have no access to electricity or those whose houses are out of the grid.
A means of cooling, collecting and analysing the producer gases should be developed. Gas
chromatograph (particularly data logger type) should be purchased and made readily available
and accessible in the faculty to ease the ultimate analysis; from where both the Higher and Lower
70
calorific values (energy content) of the produced syngas will be obtained and compared with
other conventional fuel. Gas cooling mainly serves the purpose of increasing the density of the
gas in order to maximize the amount of combustible gas (FAO 1986).
Safety of Health and Environment is very important in testing and operating the gasifier. Toxic,
fire and explosion hazards are the main categories. According to FAO (1986), it is highly
recommended that the operation and installations of gasifier be done in an open environment as
well as of taking care to avoid close contact with the gases during the starting-up and closingdown phases. Fire hazards can result from the following causes: high surface temperature of
equipment; risks of sparks during refuelling; flames through gasifier air inlet on refuelling lid.
Risks can be considerably decreased by taking the following precautions: insulation of hot parts
of the system; installation of double sluice filling device; installation of back-firing valve in
gasifier inlet. Explosions can occur if the gas is mixed with sufficient air to form an explosive
mixture. This could occur for several reasons: air leakage into the gas system; air penetration
during refuelling; air leakage into a cold gasifier still containing gas which subsequently ignites;
backfiring from the fan exhaust burner when the system is filled with a combustible mixture of
air and gas during starting-up.
An important constituent of producer gas is carbon monoxide, an extremely toxic and dangerous
gas because of its tendency to combine with the haemoglobin of the blood and in this way
prevent oxygen absorption and distribution. Fortunately normal producer gas installations work
under suction, so that even if a minor leak in the installation occurs, no dangerous gases will
escape from the equipment during actual operation. The situation is different however during
starting-up and closing down of the operation. During starting-up the gas is generally vented, and
it is necessary to ensure that the gases produced cannot be trapped in an enclosed room. As a rule
a suitable chimney will provide sufficient safety. During closing-down of the operation a
pressure buildup in the gasifier will occur, caused by the still hot and pyrolysing fuel. As a result
gases containing carbon monoxide will be released from the operation during a relatively short
period. It is because of the danger from those gases that it is generally recommended that a
gasifier installation and operation be located in the open air, if necessary covered by a roof.
71
possibility of using biomass to generate mechanical or electrical power in the range from
a few kW up to a few MW. Producer gas of engine quality needs a sufficiently high
heating value (above 4200 kJ/kg), must be virtually tar and dust free in order to minimize
engine wear, and should be as cool as possible in order to maximize the engine's gas
intake and power output (FAO 1986).
It can be used to substitute conventional fuel during fuel scarcity, as it was during WWII
It will help minimize the problem on wood disposal which contributes a lot on
environmental pollution, especially the burning of this waste at saw mills and the
dumping of the same along river banks.
It will provide employment and income generating projects for Nigerians in the
production and marketing of stove, and even in the selling of wood fuel in the future.
73
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Design and Development of Updraft Gasifier

Available from: S. J. Ojolo

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Background of the Study

Objectives of the Study

Scope of the Study

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Biomass Energy Conversion Processes

History of Gasification Technology

2.3.3 Gasification Reactions

Factors Affecting Gasification Reactions

2.4.1 The Heat Effect

2.4.2 Temperature of the Reactor

2.4.3 Size Distribution of the Fuel

2.4.4 Gasifier Pressure

2.4.5 The Height of The Reactor

2.4.6 Air Velocity

2.4.7 Equivalent Ratio

2.4.9 Fuel Moisture Content

2.4.10 Ash Content

Chapter Three: Updraft Gasifier Design

Materials and Methods

The Design Calculations

3.3.1 Calorific Value of the Wood Fuel

The Design of the 15hp Updraft Gasifier Capacity

A. Biomass Consumption Gasifier

B. The Updraft Gasifier Dimensions

b. Height of the Reactor

c. Time to Consume the fuel

d. Amount of Air needed for Gasification Air Flow Rate

e. Superficial Air Velocity

f. Resistance to Air Flow

C. Overall Size (Dimension) Of The Updraft Gasifier

a. The Fuel Hopper

b. Synthetic (Product) Gas Pipe

c. Determination of the thickness of Insulation

d. The weight of the Fibre Glass

g. The Air Inlet Pipe

h. The size and Location of the ash/char container

i. The overall perimeter of the Mild Steel sheet gasifier material

3.3.1 Construction Materials

3.3.2 Tools and Equipment

3.3.3 General Guidelines

3.3.4 Detailed Procedure in Fabricating the Laboratory Scale

Performance Testing and Evaluation

Operating Performance Considered

Results and Discussion

Proximate Analysis of the Sawdust and Palm Kernel Shell

5.4.1 Moisture Content

5.4.2 Volatile Matter Content of the Fuels

5.4.3 Ash Content

5.5.4 Fixed Carbon

Ultimate Analysis of the Produced Synthetic Gases

5.5.1 For the Sawdust

5.5.2 For The Palm Kernel Shell

5.5.3 Calculation of the Heating Values Based On the Ultimate Analysis 56

The Producer Gas Production

Results of the Test Parameters for Sawdust

5.7.1 Performance Calculation for Sawdust

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