Sequences

Definition: A sequence is a function f from the set N of natural numbers

to any set S. It means that it is a rule which assigns to each natural number,
a unique element of S. Here, domain: N and codomain: S. It is denoted as
f : N S.
The set of all distinct elements of a sequence is called its range.
Note.
1. If the codomain S is a subset of R, the set of all real numbers, then the
sequence is called a real sequence and is denoted by f : N R.
2. If f : N R is sequence, then its terms are generally denoted by xn ,
n N. Thus x1 , x2 , . . . are real numbers associated to 1, 2, . . . by this
mapping. In general, the sequence is denoted by {xn }.
3. Since the domain is N, a sequence is always innite.
4. However, the range of a sequence may be a nite set. For example, if
{xn } = {(1)n }, then its range is given by the set {1, 1}.
5. A sequence {xn } dened by xn = c, for some real number c R, is
called a constant sequence.
Problems
1. Determine the function f for each of the following sequences:
(a) 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5, 8, 7, . . .
(b) 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, . . .
(c) 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 1, . . .
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(d) 1, 4, 9, 16, . . .
2. Find the rst ve terms of each of the following sequences:
2n2 + 1
}
2n2 1

n, if n is odd;
(b) f (n) =
1 , otherwise.
n
(a) {

Bounded and Unbounded Sequences

1. Bounded above sequence: A real sequence {xn } is said to be bounded
above if there exists a real number K such that
xn K n N.
2. Bounded below sequence: A real sequence {xn } is said to be bounded
below if there exists a real number k such that
xn k n N.
3. Bounded sequence: A real sequence {xn } is said to be bounded if it
is bounded both above and below. It means that, there exist two real
numbers k and K such that
k xn K n N.
Let M = max{k, K}. Then the sequence {xn } is said to be bounded if
|xn | M n N.
4. Unbounded sequence: A real sequence {xn } is said to be unbounded
if there exists no non-negative real number M such that |xn | M n
N.
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Examples
1. Let {xn } = {n}. Then 1 xn n N. {xn } is bounded below but
unbounded above.
2. {xn } = {2n1 } is bounded below but unbounded above.
3. {xn } = { n1 } is bounded. (0 xn 1 n N.)
Problems Determine the boundedness property of each of the following
sequences:
(1). {(1)n n}
(2). {sin 2n
}
4
n+1
}
(3). {
n

Limit of a Sequence
Let {xn } be a real sequence of real numbers. Then {xn } is said to approach the limit (as n approaches innity), if for every > 0, there is a
positive integer N such that
|xn | < (n N ).
It is then denoted by
lim xn =

xn as n .

(or)

Example: For the sequence {1/n}, the limit = 0. (Prove using the above
denition).

Note: A sequence with limit 0 is said to be a null sequence.

Problems Determine the limit (if it exists) for each of the following sequences:
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(1). {0}.
(2). {(1)n }
1
}
(3). {
n+1
(4). {n n1 }
107
(5). {
}
n

Convergent, Divergent and Oscillating

Sequences
Convergent Sequence: If a sequence {xn } has a nite limit , then it is
said to be convergent to .
Divergent Sequence: If a sequence {xn } has no limit, that is lim xn is
n

innite, then {xn } is said to be divergent.

Note:
(1). If lim xn = +, then {xn } is said to diverge to +. Example: {n2 }.
n

(2). If lim xn = , then {xn } is said to diverge to . Example: {2n }.

n

Oscillating Sequence: If a divergent sequence neither diverges to + nor

to , then it is called an oscillating sequence.
Note:
(1). A bounded oscillating sequence is said to oscillate finitely.
(2). An unbounded oscillating sequence is said to oscillate infinitely. (Give
Examples).

Monotonicity of a Sequence
A sequence {xn } is said to be
1. monotonically increasing if xn+1 xn n N.
2. monotonically decreasing if xn+1 xn n N.
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3. monotonic if it is either monotonically increasing or monotonically decreasing.

4. strictly monotonically increasing if xn+1 > xn n N.
5. strictly monotonically decreasing if xn+1 < xn n N.
6. strictly monotonic if it is either strictly monotonically increasing or
strictly monotonically decreasing.
Problem: Give an example for each of the above monotonic nature.
Theorems/Properties
1. Every convergent sequence is bounded.
2. The converse of the above property is not always true. (Give an example).
3. A necessary and sucient condition for convergence of a monotonic
sequence is that it is bounded.
4. A monotonic increasing sequence which is bounded above converges.
5. A monotonic decreasing sequence which is bounded below converges.
6. If a monotonic increasing sequence is not bounded above, then it diverges to +.
7. If a monotonic decreasing sequence is not bounded below, then it diverges to .
8. Let {xn } be a real sequence with limit . Then the sequence {|xn |} is
convergent with limit ||.

9. Converse of the above property is not true in general. (Give example

where it fails.)
10. Let {xn } be a real sequence. Then xn 0 (as n ) if and only if
|xn | 0 (as n ).
11. If xn (as n ) and xn 0 in a real sequence {xn }, then 0.
12. Let {xn } be a sequence with the property that xn > 0 for all n 1.
1
Then {xn } diverges to + if and only if { } converges to 0.
xn
13. Let {xn } and {yn } be real sequences such that lim xn = and lim yn =
n

. Then
(a) {xn } .
(b) {xn + yn } + .
(c) {xn yn } .
(d) {xn yn } .
(e) {kxn } k, for every constant k.
1
1
} , provided yn = 0 n and provided = 0.
yn

xn

(g) { } , provided yn = 0 n and provided = 0.

yn

(f) {

14. Let {xn } and {yn } be real sequences such that lim xn = and lim yn =
n

. If xn yn for every n N, then .

15. Suppose {xn }, {yn } and {zn } are three sequences such that xn yn
zn , n N, and lim xn = = lim zn . Then lim yn = .
n

Problems.

1. Discuss the convergence of the sequence {un } given by un =

n2

n
.
+1

Solution. Consider
n+1
n
2
2
(n + 1) + 1 n + 1
n2 n + 1
=
(n2 + 1)(n2 + 2n + 2)
< 0 n N.

un+1 un =

Hence un+1 < un n N which shows that {un } is a monotonic den

creasing sequence. Further, un = 2
> 0 for all n N. Hence {un }
n +1
is bounded below by 0. This shows that the given sequence is convergent.
Also, lim un = lim
n

n2

n
= 0.
+1

2. Discuss the convergence of each of the following sequences:

n+1
}.
n
n 1

(b) {
}.
j
j=0 3
(a) {

Subsequence of a Sequence
A sequence {yk } is called a subsequence of the sequence {xn } if there are
natural numbers n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . such that
yk = xnk for k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Theorems/Properties
1. Any sequence {xn } is a subsequence of itself.
2. Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.
3. If {xn } converges to limit then any subsequence {yk } of {xn } converges to .
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4. All subsequences of a convergent sequence converge to the same limit.

5. Any sequence which has two subsequences that converge to dierent
limits necessarily diverges.
6. A subsequence of a non-convergent sequence may be a convergent sequence.
Problem Prove that each of the following sequence is not convergent by
exhibiting two subsequences that converge to dierent limits.
(1). {(1)n }
(2). 0.0098, 0.000999, 0.0098, 0.000999, 0.0098, 0.000999, . . .

Sequences with Recurrence Relations

A recurrence relation is an equation that denes a sequence based on a
rule that gives the next term as a function of the previous term(s). We use
the principle of mathematical induction to determine the convergence of such
a sequence.
Example. Show that the sequence {an } dened by the recurrence relation

a1 = 1 and an+1 = 3an , n 1, converges to 3.

Solution.
The terms of the sequence {an } are

1, 3, 3 3, 3 3 3, . . .
Clearly a2 > a1 and a3 > a2 . Assume am > am1 for some xed m N. Then
am > am1
3am > 3am1

3am >
3am1
am+1 > am .
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Hence by mathematical induction, an > an1 n N. This proves that the

given sequence is strictly monotonically increasing.
Again, a1 < 3 and a2 < 3. Assume that am < 3 for some m N. Then
am < 3
3am < 9

3am < 3

am+1 < 3.
Hence by mathematical induction, an < 3 for every n N. This shows that
the given sequence is bounded above.
Therefore the sequence {an } is convergent. It remains to nd the limit.
Suppose that lim an = .
n

We then know that each subsequence of {an } will also converge to . Now
consider the subsequence {an+1 }.

lim 3an
n

3
=

lim an+1 =

2 = 3
( 3) = 0.
This implies that = 0 or = 3. Since an > 0, n N, we know that > 0,
as the sequence is increasing. Hence = 3.
Problems

ab2 + s2n
, n 1,
a+1
where b > a. Show that {sn } is convergent and nd its limit.

1. A sequence {sn } is dened as s1 = a > 0 and sn+1 =

2. Show that the sequence {xn } where x1 = 1 and xn =

is convergent and converges to 2.
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2 + xn1 n 2

3. Prove that the sequence {un } dened by u1 =

7, un+1 =

7 + un

converges to a positive root of the equation x2 x 7 = 0.

4. Determine the limit (if it exists) of the sequence {xn } dened by x1 = 1

and xn = 1 + 2xn1 for n 2.

Cauchy Sequence
Let {xn } be a real sequence. Then {xn } is called a Cauchy sequence if
for any > 0 there exists a natural number N such that
|xm xn | < , whenever m, n N.
Theorems/Properties
1. Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
2. Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers converges.
3. Every Cauchy sequence is bounded.
Example: {1/n} is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution.
Let {xn } = {1/n}.

Let > 0 be given. Then 1/ > 0.

Now for any distinct natural numbers m, n

|xm xn | = |1/m 1/n| < |(m + n)/mn| |1/m| + |1/n|.
Choose N such that N > 2/. (This is always possible for 1/ > 0.)
Then for m, n N,
|xm xn | |1/m| + |1/n| 1/N + 1/N = 2/N < .
This shows that the given sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
Problem Determine whether each of the following sequence is Cauchy sequence or not.
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1. {(1)n n}
2. {(1)n }
3. {n}
n

}
4. { (1)
n

1/2, if n is prime;
5. Let qn =
1, otherwise.
and let {xn } be dened as x1 = 1, xn+1 = xn + 2n qn (n 1).

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