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HUMAN FACTOR
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
JUNE 2008
CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
1.1 Introduction
From the beginning of time, man has been inseparable from water to date. It has been
a major determinant of habitability of places, which accounts for the situation of most
ancient towns developing along river bodies. London along the Thames is topmost in
this league of water-related settlements. However, this coexistence between man and
water bodies has had a chequered history; facilitating agricultural development like
the situation in the Nile Valley in Africa, along the course of the Ganges in Asia and
sometimes causing devastation to human population and property.
Human activities in space have consequences on the environment of which they are
an integral part. Sometimes human habitation of the environment serves to improve
the environment, like the introduction of energy-efficient machines and sustainable
agricultural practices. However, in some instances, the interaction has spelt doom for
the environment by plundering and depleting natural resources.
Since humans desire comfort, and inherently have free will, they tend to live close to
their most needed commodities like water and food, accounting for early civilisations
rising in geographical areas which have abundant water and fertile soils. In some
instances large groups of people have moved from their original locations to other
places like confluences and river banks for both protection and water supply.
The Accra Metropolitan Area perennially suffers from flooding with any sustained
downpour, although a greater percentage of the city is above sea level (50 to 100
metres) and has some form of organised drainage (AMA, 2002). The immediate areas
of concern had been to dredge the major rivers and streams to increase their capacity
as part of the Urban Environmental1 Sanitation Projects. Component One of the
2
In July 2001, the French government donated US$5 million to help the Ghanaian
government de-silt, construct and restructure primary drains to solve the perennial
problem of flooding in the country's capital. It was, however, limited to only parts of
the Metropolis.
There have been various speculations on the factors causing the floods from both
ordinary residents and technocrats. In the aftermath of the June 2007 floods in the
Accra Metropolis, Ing. Dr. Hagan the then President of the Ghana Institution of
Engineers noted that the floods could not be attributed to natural causes but attributed
them to human activities. He pointed out the development of physical structures
within waterways, deposition of solid and plastic waste in drains and inappropriate
drainage structure as some of the causes of floods. A similar opinion was expressed
by the then Minister of Works, Housing and Water Resources, who attributed the
early June 2007 floods to improper disposal of solid waste.(Daily Guide, June 8,
2007).
Some people also attribute the situation to lack of co-ordination among agencies
involved in the planning, design and implementation of drainage schemes and rapid
changes in the land use pattern, resulting in higher volumes of run-offs.
Further, in the incidence of flooding, industries and commercial entities are affected
including some water treatment plants which have to shut down if their water intake
points are submerged to protect machinery. Proactively, the spillways have to be
opened to allow water to run downstream to prevent the collapse of the dams.
However, the action also results in flooding as experienced in and around Weija in the
3
Ga West District in July 2007.
There appears to be a great public concern about the frequent flooding in Accra and
its social and economic consequences. The public institutions also appear to be
overwhelmed by the causes and effects of the floods. To be able to resolve the issue,
there is the urgent need for research to throw more light on the decision environment.
Some of the questions that need to be answered are:
a. What are the major causes of flooding in the metropolis?
b. Can the floods be attributed to human activities?
c. Why are the floods persisting?
d. Are there any situations which predispose the metropolis to flooding?
1.3 Objectives
Generally, the study seeks to examine the relationship between human activities and
the incidence of flooding in the metropolis. Specifically the study is to:
Data were collected for the research from some public institutions, especially those
found to be major stakeholders in urban governance, by means of semi-structured
questionnaires. Information sought from the institutions included their primary
functions and specific roles in flood prevention and management, and their
perceptions of the causes and practical suggested solutions to the Accra floods. The
following institutions were covered:
a) Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD/City Engineers)
b) Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department (AMTCPD)
c) Hydrological Services Department (HSD) – Head Office
d) Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMA)
e) National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) – Greater Accra
Regional Office
f) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Head Office
g) Accra Metropolitan Roads Department (AMRD)
h) Accra Metropolitan Public Health Unit (AMPHUD)
Thirdly, with the aid of Survey Department Air Sheets and Planning Schemes, a
survey was carried out in Dzorwulu and Alajo to take stock of drainage infrastructure,
capture relevant features and activities in the flood prone areas. Data collected in this
5
phase was mainly qualitative and was captured by means of digital photography and
note-taking. The survey was also used to validate some of the answers provided in the
sample survey.
The Odaw River was selected due to its dominance in the metropolis in terms of
catchment area and susceptibility to flooding. Further, Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi,
Avenor and Adabraka, which are settlements along the Odaw river course, were
selected for the study leaving out Korle due to its peculiarity of being in the proximity
of the Lagoon and the Sea. In terms of representation, Dzorwulu was the only 1st class
residential area with Odawna, Kotobabi and Avenor being 2nd class residential areas.
Alajo forms part of the 3rd Class residential group. Hence the sample covered all but
the 4th class residential group as none of the flood prone areas fell within this group.
6
Proportional allocation was made based on the population of the settlement.
The sampling frame (people affected by flooding along the Odaw) was estimated by
the AMA in 2006 to be 73,136. The sample covered in the household survey was one
hundred and twenty-nine (129) households, of which thirty-six (36) were in Alajo and
Adabraka each, twenty (20) in Dzorwulu, twenty-eight (28) in Kotobabi and nine (9)
in Avenor. The distribution of the sample among the settlements was based on
proportions of individual settlements’ populations of the total as presented in Table
1.1
1.6 Justification
The results of this study can serve as a guide in approaching the flooding problem,
which is getting elusive. The findings of the study will provide an insight into what
factors interplay to cause the floods, so that cost-effective and appropriate measure
can be taken to reduce its incidence and negative effects on the populace.
It may also lay to rest the speculation about the causes and rather serve as a rallying
point for action as the possible causes have been identified, with some consensus
reached on solution steps. Also, owing to the fact that flooding is associated with
water borne and water related diseases, a solution to the perennial flooding situation
will reduce the national health expenditure and keep productivity at optimal levels.
Finding a solution to the flooding menace will invariably lead to a realisation of some
of the policy objectives of the nation as outlined in the GPRS II - “... the quality of
both the built and the natural environments is vital for long-term growth and
development. Increased production can only be meaningful on the one hand when it
occurs in well-managed, amenable, efficient, safe and healthy built environments”.
2.1 Introduction
Flooding, which causes much pain and havoc in almost all areas of the world has been
intellectually investigated to some extent to reduce its incidence, effects and impacts
on humans who inhabit the land. Flooding has been linked by many people to human
interventions but such interventions seem to vary from one locality to another. In
some instances, it is even dissociated from any human action whatsoever and taken as
an act of nature. However, few have actually sought to understand the relationship
between these two variables. This chapter seeks to provide an insight into how various
people and authorities consider the phenomenon.
2.2 Floods
The word comes from the old English ‘flōd’ akin to the German word ‘flut’ and the
Dutch word ‘vloed’ from the same root as is seen in flow and float (Wikepedia
Online Encyclopedia, 2007). The Oxford Reference Dictionary defines a flood as an
overflowing or influx of water beyond its normal confines. The Wikepedia
Encyclopedia further defines it as an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges
land. It is usually due to the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or
lake, exceeding the total capacity of the body, and as a result some of the water flows
or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body.
Floods, which are the most frequent type of disaster worldwide are not recent
developments, but can be traced to biblical times. The first recorded being “the Great
Flood” in Noah’s time which was a consequence of forty days rain. Since then many
more have been chronicled with their associated destruction and disruption of social
and economic life.
Floods occur in almost all parts of the world with differing intensities and effects.
Most notable ones include the 1981, 1991 and 2002 floods along the Chiang Jiang
(Yangtze) River in China, the Mozambican floods in 2000, the 1983 and 1993 floods
on the Mississippi River and Hurricane Katrina floods in New Orleans, USA in 2005.
9
10
Bangladesh is one of the most susceptible countries to flood disasters. About one half
of the land area in Bangladesh is at an elevation of less than 8 meters above sea level.
Up to 30% of the country has been covered with flood waters (Nelson, 2006). In
1991 more than 200,000 deaths resulted from flooding and associated tropical
cyclones in Bangladesh alone.
Regional floods occur when rain falls over a large area for days or weeks causing
river flood levels to rise slowly and then fall slowly usually inundating large areas and
causing widespread economic losses (Abbott, 2006). Flash floods are called upstream
floods whereas regional floods are called downstream floods.
Floods can be attributed to several factors, which include natural ones like the
topography of the floodplain and prolonged and heavy precipitation. However, human
activities in river courses and the floodplain can also exacerbate and increase the
frequency of flooding.
Floods also occur when a river bursts its banks and the water spills onto the flood
plain. Flooding tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the rainwater reaches the
river channel, the more likely it is that it will cause flooding. The nature of the
12
landscape around a river will influence how fast rainwater reaches the channel.
ActionAid (2006) argues that flood hazards are natural phenomena, but damage and
losses from these floods are the consequence of human action. This stand may be
understood if one assumes floods in natural environments tend to have less drastic
effects on human life and property.
However other floods following tsunamis and coastal surges have natural causes like
earthquakes in the sea bed and high tides attributed to the pull forces of the moon.
Coastal flooding may also be the result of severe sea storms and strong winds which
create strong waves that batter the coast.
Further, the construction of concrete and stone buildings contributes to the problem of
flooding. While rain is easily absorbed into sand and other porous materials, it is not
easily absorbed by man-made building materials, such as pavement and concrete.
These substances cause additional run-off which must be absorbed by the surrounding
landscape. ActionAid (2006) supports this point by singling out urbanisation as the
major cause of flooding. By restricting where flood waters can go, covering large
parts of the ground with roofs, roads and pavements, obstructing sections of natural
channels and building drains that ensure that water moves to rivers faster than it did
under natural conditions. In sum, urbanisation tends to increase susceptibility to
floods. Akin to the position held by ActionAid, the BBC (2008) believes a river is
more likely to flood when its drainage basin is in an urban area. Urban areas consist
largely of impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers
take water quickly and directly to the river channel. Houses with sloping roofs further
increase the amount of run-off.
13
14
After the devastating effects of the 1963 floods in Accra, the first Drainage Master
Plan for Accra was prepared and implemented covering certain parts of the
Metropolis. In 1991 the area covered under the Plan was extended. Currently, the
HSD is preparing another Drainage Plan for Accra West, which is now increasingly
being ravaged by floods.
Various central and local government bodies across the world in flood prone areas
have drawn up policies and strategies to at least reduce the incidence of flooding and
lower its effects on human populations living in the flood plains. The results of some
of these elaborate programmes are mixed, with some chalking successes. However in
the case of New Orleans as cited earlier, the defences were breached, calling for a
revision of the approach.
The People’s Republic of China and Mozambique in Asia and Africa respectively
16
suffer from extensive flooding. Therefore, the various governments set out to protect
their people from the perennial floods by adopting various localised policies as the
causes of flooding differ from place to place.
China adopted a much more physical intervention approach of building dams, levees
and preserving wetlands, while Mozambique opted for a stringent land use policy.
Summaries are presented from the works of Zhang and Kang (2001) and Wisner
(1979) for China and Mozambique respectively.
Beginning from the twentieth century, major rivers in China were struck by a number
of serious disastrous floods. In the 1990s big floods frequently hit southern part of
China with the 1998 flood being the most noticeable one, resulting in floods in some
major rivers as Yangtze, Songhua, pearl and Min River. The severe flood which took
place in the Yangtze River is the second biggest flood in the 20th century since 1954.
In response to the flood, China built and reinforced 245,000 km of levees to protect
33 million ha of cultivated land and over 200million people by 1997. Also, over
84,000 large, medium and small reservoirs were completed with the storage capacity
of 472 billion m3 to serve as flood retardation basins for major rivers.
The Limpopo and Zambesi with their source outside Mozambique pose the first
danger with enormous flooding but there is usually considerable warning and a lower
17
frequency. More frequent are Lurio, Nonapo, Ligonha, Messalo and Licunga rivers
that have their sources in the well-watered highlands in Mozambique receiving
rainfall between 1400 and 1800mm/year. These rivers rise fast with very little
warning, but their devastation is much smaller than the international rivers.
Considering the fact that the 2000 Mozambican floods followed five weeks of
torrential rainfall including a cyclone landfall, the floods cannot be attributed to
failure of the chosen approach as most elaborate defences may fall under such
pressure. South Africa, Botswana and Swaziland also suffered from the floods
although on a less severe scale.
Floodplains are designated by the size of the flood that will cover them. For instance,
a 10-year floodplain is the dry land that is covered by a once in 10 years flood and18
the
100-year floodplain is the land covered by a once in a 100 years flood. The likelihood
of property being flooded varies depending on how high it is above the stream.
Buildings on a 10-year floodplain can be expected to flood on the average of once
every 10 years while buildings on higher ground will be flooded less often.
Wetlands are the swampy land along the edges of some rivers. When it rains, the wet
soil and mud of a wetland acts like a sponge and stores the extra water. Anku (2006)
suggests wetlands prevent runoff from running too swiftly downstream and
overflowing, thus preventing erosion and flooding, but are under siege in Ghana.
A levee or dike is a natural or artificial slope or wall, usually earthen and often
parallels the course of a river, to control and contain its flow and protect lands beyond
it. However, levees have their drawbacks like breaches, whereby part of the levee
actually breaks away, leaving a large opening for water to flood the land protected by
the levee. Levees also fail when they are overtopped when water levels are simply
beyond the capacity of the channel lined by the levees.
The Greek Hippodamus is widely considered the father of city planning in the West,
for his design of Miletus in present day Turkey. He also planned the city of Rhodes in
Greece and the town of Thurii in Italy. He is widely known for his symmetrical and
gridiron layouts.
Land use planning seeks to achieve safety in the urban environment, with the
interplay of all land uses and land use activities. This is sometimes done with the help
of some planning tools like zoning ordinances to segregate conflicting uses while
integrating complimentary uses.
The earthquake of 1862 offered the colonial authorities the opportunity to rebuild and
reorganise the growing settlement and spurred by the transfer of the capital from Cape
Coast, the stage was set for a transformation of the old trading post into a city. 20
Grant and Yankson (2003) indicate firstly, the city was spatially organized around a
port that connected the Gold Coast economy to England. Centrally located, the docks,
warehouses and railway terminals all supported functions of trade, storage and
distribution. Most of the buildings of the colonial administration and military bases
were also located in the immediate vicinity. Slum clearance took place, and the
British attempted to impose a rectangular-style pattern on the preexisting unplanned
area.
Secondly, adjacent to the port area was a well-defined European central business
district (CBD) that served as the headquarters for foreign companies. The CBD
functioned as a commercial area for trade, banking, storage and distribution and as a
transportation center
Zoning and building codes were strictly enforced to maintain an orderly European
character and ambiance in this district. This area currently houses the Ghana
Commercial Bank, Bank of Ghana, Accra Metropolitan Assembly Offices, Barclays
Bank, and Opera Square among others.
Thirdly there was a nearby district called “native town”, where Makola No. 1 Market
was built in 1924 as a permanent market to replace the small periodic markets. The
native town assumed a crowded, cluttered and congested look with poor structures
and unhealthy conditions as a result of an apparent neglect of urban planning by
colonial authorities (Grant and Yankson, 2003). It was reported to be physically
separated from the European-styled CBD by an open green area.
Fourth, the colonial authorities enforced a rigid policy of residential segregation for
European residences near the European CBD or at retreats further away like
Cantonments. These areas have preserved their organised look till now.
By implication, land use planning has been practised since the colonial times although
not throughout the growing city, accounting for the apparent disorderly development
of certain areas, especially where there were no European interests.
Figure 2.1 shows the result of land use planning and enforcement by the colonial
21
authorities in Accra, as reported by Grant and Yankson (2003).
Figure 2.1: Spatial Organization of Colonial Accra
The Accra Metropolis grew gradually from Jamestown, Ussher Town and
Christianborg on the coast to places like Dansoman, Airport Residential, Abeka and
La by the end of the 1960s as shown in Figure 2.2. Now the sprawling city is
conurbating with Tema and Ga East Municipalities along the city’s major arterial
roads, with very little greenery separating them.
Figure 2.2: Accra-Expansion of Residential Areas (1900-1969)
22
Source: Macalaster University, 2008
Guidelines were provided for the development of specific land use categories:
residential, commercial, civic and cultural, institutional/special uses, industrial,
defense, major roads, transportation (terminals), and open space/recreation. After
agricultural/rural land uses, the largest category is residential. Plans for the various
categories of land use are detailed as follows:
Residential
The overall density of residential dwellings in the metropolitan area is approximately
8dwellings per hectare. In newly developed areas densities of less than 5
dwellings/ha are occurring. The plan expresses an interest in increasing overall
density to 10 dwellings/ha by 2010. In the inner city up to 20 dwelling/ha are
common. Mixed-use dwellings, especially in the inner city, are also encouraged.
Commercial
It is expressed that the areas of Accra and Tema should develop as distinct, self-
sufficient “towns,” with amenities such as employment, services, retail and
entertainment available to the residents of each. Additionally, there will be distinct
neighborhoods with smaller shops and vendors meeting the needs of 5,000 to 8,000
residents. The Accra Central Area should have the “highest order commercial,
entertainment and tourist center in the Metropolitan Area.” This, in addition to
financial and administrative functions, will be located in the CBD within the Ring
Road. A desire is expressed to decentralize this commerce through planning, to both
preserve residential structures and more thoroughly meet the needs of residents.
Open Space
Specific open space areas should be designated part of the Metropolitan Open Space
System and preserved, including hills and rivers to the northeast of urban areas. The
plan specifies that 11,250 ha should remain as open space.
Industrial
In 1990, industry occupied 2690 ha (6.6% of the urban area). The plan estimates that
with the labor force growing at a rate of 2% per annum (density of 120 workers), that
23
an additional 2,500 ha and 5,000 ha of land will be required by 2000 and 2010
respectively. Industrial areas are designated to be: the Ring Road West Industrial
Area, the North Industrial Area along Accra-Nsawam road, and the South Motorway
Industrial Zone.
Transportation
The existing roadway is arranged as radial spines, which the plan does not comment
on extensively.
New Development
New development is slated for the following areas: the Teshie-Nungua area south of
the motorway; extend the Mccarthy Hill-Ofankor area; and extend the Ofankor-
Oyarifa sector to the urban limits bounded by the outer ring road, up to Aburi Road.
2.9 Statutory Bodies responsible for the Built and Natural Environment
The spatial economy of any country is a very essential sector which has tremendous
influence and actually contains all the other sectors. This is because all policies,
strategies and activities manifest themselves either within the environment or serve to
modify it, but can also be catalysed by the very environment. It is for this reason that
most countries including Ghana have Ministries, Departments, Agencies and
Commissions to oversee how activities are organised within the environment with a
view to protecting it from abuse. Some of the developed European countries even
have political parties aligned to the environment, often called the Greens, which are
gradually gaining prominence in national politics.
2.11 Summary
It can therefore be concluded that floods are caused by people in built-up areas and
also by natural factors in natural environments. Although a river’s course may pass
through an urban area, flooding would not have been a consequence if people had not
settled close and in most instances in the floodplain, carrying out detrimental
activities. Available literature points to the fact that flood prevention and management
in the form of channel improvement, evacuation from floodplains, flood-proofing and
information gathering and sharing can help reduce the incidence and impact of the
floods. Further, there are statutory authorities in the Ghanaian setting that are
mandated to ensure the safety of people within the urban space, although with
apparent difficulty.
CHAPTER THREE
PROFILE OF STUDY AREA
3.1 Introduction
Accra is the capital city of Ghana and the largest city in the country. Like many cities
in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is experiencing a rapid rate of population growth, estimated
to be about 4% per annum (GSS, 2002). Indeed its rate of urbanization makes it one
of the fastest-growing cities in West Africa (United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements, 1999).
Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems, 2007
3.4 Drainage
The Accra Metropolitan Area is drained by many rivers and streams, mostly flowing
in a southerly direction towards the sea. The Metropolis is divided into four main
catchment areas. The largest is the Densu River Catchment with its source in the
Eastern Region and flows into the sea through the Lafa stream and the Sakumo
Lagoon and Panbros salt pans. The Lafa stream drains Dansoman, Kwashieman,
Awoshie and McCarthy Hill in the Ga West District. There is also some amount of
flooding within this river basin especially around the salt pans.
The Odaw River with its tributaries - Nima, Onyasia, Ado and Dakobi - flows into the
Korle and Chemu Lagoons, which forms the Korle-Chemu Catchment. These rivers
flow within the most urbanised areas of the Metropolis and drains East Legon, Airport
West, Dzorwulu, through Kwame Nkrumah Circle to Adabraka and some part of the
Central Business District. It also includes Darkuman, Alajo, Mamobi, and Nima. The
Odaw River is the main water body flowing through the metropolis and floods most
often.
The Kpeshie drainange basin covers the Military Academy at Teshie, La, Burma
Camp, Osu and Cantonments. Most streams in this area flow into the Kpeshie or
Korle Lagoon before emptying into the sea
The Songo-Mokwe catchment comprise of streams which flow into the Mokwe and
Songo Lagoons and covers communities like Teshie-Nungua. The drainage map of
the Metropolis is presented in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Drainage Map of the Accra Metropolitan District
Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (CERSGIS), 2007
3.5 Demographic Characteristics
According to the most recent census figures given by the Ghana Statistical Service
(GSS, 2002), the Accra metropolis grew at 4% per annum between 1984 and 2000.
On the eve of independence, in 1957, the population of Accra was only 190,000; it
increased quite appreciably to 1,658,937 in 2000 from under 1 million in 1984 (GSS,
2002). Assuming demographic factors do not change over time, the population of the
metropolis is projected to reach 2,044,762 by 2008. Table 3.1 presents a summary of
the population trend in the Accra Metropolis.
3.6.2 Health
Similar to the national situation and against the unrelenting fight against unsanitary
condition and mosquitoes, malaria continues to be the leading disease reported at
health facilities as shown in Table 3.3. This situation may be attributed to choked
drains that are breeding mosquitoes. Diarrhoea, a sanitation-related disease follows as
the second highest with a small percentage.
Although the predominant land use in the Accra metropolitan area in 1991 was
agricultural land occupying approximately 73% of the total land, it is quickly being
overtaken by residential use as the city grows and physically expands on a daily basis.
Commercial activities are scattered throughout residential development. In addition,
there are several commercial centres. Despite the fact that non-agricultural open space
is scarce; the largest amount of open space is between Teshie and Tema. In the eastern
parts of the city large tracts of land are reserved here for military use as shown in
Figure 3.3.
Accra is home to the National Museum, the Ghana Academy of Arts and Science, the
Ghana Central Library and National Archives, the Osu Castle (Seat of the
Presidency), the Ohene Djan Stadium, the Accra International Conference Centre, the
W.E.B. Du Bois Centre for Pan-African Culture and the Ghana-India Kofi Annan
Centre for Excellence.
Currently, under the sub-district structures, there are thirteen (13) sub-metropolitan
district councils, up from the previous five in a bid to deepen the decentralisation
process and have manageable units. The on-going decentralisation process provides
an opportunity for tackling flooding issues at the various levels based on the scope of
work to be done and financial demands.
The economically vibrant Metropolis presents an opportunity for the AMA to collect
adequate revenue to finance development in its area of control. Further, using the
right approaches, the AMA can entice some corporate entities to honour their social
responsibilities by partnering with the AMA to direct them to distressed communities
to complement the AMA’s efforts.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES
4.1 Introduction
The communities along the Odaw River seem to be particularly susceptible to
flooding mainly as a result of the habitation of the banks of the river. The Odaw and
its tributaries meander its way through various settlements until they merge near the
Boomerang Nite Club and further joined by another tributary behind the current
Hawkers’ Market at Circle. The study covered Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi, Avenor,
and Adabraka, on the lower course of the Odaw where flooding appears to be
endemic.
The expansion of the Accra Metropolis reached Adabraka by 1945 and got to the
other settlement in the late 1960s, with Dzorwulu being the most recent to be
developed. In the 1970 Census, it was not covered and was probably part of the
Achimota Forest that had been cut away by the construction of the Accra-Tema
Motorway.
Adabraka began as a separate Muslim village in 1908. Many Muslims at this time left
the overcrowded central city in order to avoid the bubonic plague, which spread
rapidly throughout the city centre. It was not until 1925, that Adabraka was
incorporated into Accra. Governor Guggisburg built the Achimota School, north of
Accra, which encouraged many people to begin building houses north of the city
centre, and eventually Adabraka was absorbed into this development (Pellow, 1977)
A variety of land use activities are present in settlements which makes them ‘livable’
communities and self sustaining. Some of these are by design incorporated into the
Physical Development Scheme (Layouts), whereas others evolve or are demand
driven. A reconnaissance survey of Alajo and Dzorwulu revealed some intriguing
aspects of the settlements that may partially explain their susceptibility to flooding.
Currently, with the exception of three houses on the Alajo Road, all residential plots
abutting the road have assumed a mixed residential-commercial outlook.
Interestingly, school sites and sanitary areas have not been encroached although the
residential sectors have been completely built. Other land uses in Alajo identified
include warehousing and light industrial. These land uses identified however has little
significance to flood, except in instance of converting stream buffers (reservations)
into residential and other uses.
There has been some level of penetration of secondary and tertiary drains, but it must
be noted that the drainage system is fraught with anomalies attributable to poor
maintenance and inadequate supervision at the construction phase of drains. Plate
4.1shows the situation in Alajo, which was also observed at Dzorwulu.
The presence of the river, coupled with the opportunity presented by the buffer zone
of the VRA high tension pylons has promoted the development of urban agriculture in
Dzorwulu East, with its problems of occasional flooding of beds and then deposition
of fertile silt to replenish the nutrient in the soil.
Of the settlements covered by the study, Dzorwulu had the highest number of
development applications (13) lodged with the AMTCPD, followed by Adabraka and
Avenor with four (4) and three (3) respectively. All were for residential developments
except that of Avenor, which was for industrial use.
Currently, properties have been marked for demolition to create a buffer and ease
manoeuvrability during the channelling of the eastern tributary. The extent of
encroachment is shown in Figure 4.0 and Plate 4.2.
Encroachment on the western tributary is light due to the creation of a buffer of a kind
(approximately 8 metres) during the channelling of the western tributary. The buffer
in Adabraka was recovered during the channelling of the river and has remained so. It
is shown in Plate 4.3
Plate 4.3 shows the current state of the recovered reservations in Adabraka and Alajo.
In the case of Adabraka, it is serving as a Parking Lot for commercial minibuses
awaiting their turn to load at the Odawna Lorry Station. It is worrying that the
Hawkers’ Market falls within the reservation, no wonder it suffers from flooding
frequently. However, if steps are not taken to secure or cordon it off, squatter
settlements at Odawna will spill over and take it up again.
With regard to Alajo, localised and regional floods occur with no apparent pattern.
The eastern part of Alajo, encroaching into the floodplain suffer from flooding with
any sustained downpour locally and upstream, whereas the central part and other
areas with clogged drains and incomplete drainage systems grapple with localised
flooding which creates pools on the carriageways and alleys cutting off access to
houses and other facilities. Table 4.0 gives a general impression of floods in the
metropolis over time.
From Table 4.0, it can be realised that over sixty-two percent (62%) of households
covered had endured the pain of having their homes flooded, of which 52.5% have
been living at their current residence up to 20 years. However, for a better
understanding of the floods and their causes, it was imperative to approach it from the
residents and stakeholders’ perspective.
Most people living in the flood-prone areas are of the opinion that the floods that
afflict the metropolis are attributable to negative human activities and attitudes. A
combination of factors were mentioned of which poor solid waste disposal practices
was believed to have resulted in the choking of secondary and tertiary drains, leading
to localised flooding. Eighty-six percent (86%) of the households covered by the
survey supported this claim with a further 9.3% also attributing the floods to natural
causes like heavy rainfall and low terrain.
After the early April 2008 floods at Odawna and North Kaneshie, the 7th April 2008
Edition of the Daily Graphic reported flood victims as attributing their predicament to
dumping of refuse by some residents into the drains and inadequate capacity of the
drains to carry the runoff. Data from the sample survey confirm their belief as about a
quarter of households engage in direct dumping as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Waste Disposal segregated by Educational Attainment
Waste Educational Attainment
Disposal Basic Secondary Tertiary None Total (%)
Public Dump 19 4 8 7 38 29.5
Door to Door 6 22 16 0 44 34.1
Direct Dumping 12 12 4 5 33 25.6
Burning 5 3 0 1 9 7.0
Burying 0 1 1 1 3 2.3
Waste Porter 0 2 0 0 2 1.5
Total 42 44 29 14 129 100.0
Source: Field Survey, April 2008
From Table 4.1, it can be seen that the direct dumping is not determined by
educational levels, but may be as a result of helplessness. For instance similar
proportions (28% and 27.3%) of respondents who have had basic education and
secondary education engage in direct dumping. It is however high among respondents
with no education, accounting for 35.7%.
All the environmental related agencies and institutions covered laid the blame on
negative human activities along the course of the rivers that flood and within
settlements that have localised flooding. They noted that natural conditions could not
be altered or modified easily, but had to be adapted to.
The Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD) attributed the floods to the
overwhelming devastating effect of solid waste on the drainage system in the
metropolis and the poor drainage of localities in low-lying areas. However, the Ghana
Meteorological Agency (GMA) and the Accra Metropolitan Waste Management
Department (AMWMD) were of the view that it was the interplay of human and
natural factors. Further, the AMWMD was of the view that the topography of Accra
in certain parts and heavy rains (natural) makes the physical region prone to floods.
Unfortunately, this situation is exacerbated by negative human activities like building
in water ways and indiscriminate littering which chokes the provided drains.
NADMO observed that the Metropolis was experiencing the floods mainly as a result
of institutional lapses by the Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning
Department (AMTCPD) and the Building Inspectors from the AMWD in enforcing
regulations related to building in waterways and reservations. The AMTCPD
attributes the floods to human and natural causes. The human factor includes the
tendency of landowners to even sell/lease out flood prone and reserved floodplains to
unsuspecting people and the weak institutions’ inability to effectively enforce laws
which results in non-conforming land uses.
It was also observed that since the completion of the Odaw Channelling Project, no
management activities have been carried out although siltation is taking place,
carrying earth from upstream (Abelenkpe, Abofu, Achimota) prior to channelling of
those portions. Although the drains were designed such that a ramp was incorporated
at the confluence near Avenor to allow for evacuation of silt and other unwanted
elements in the drains, it is clear it had never been utilised. Rather, it has become the
entry point of ruminants who feed on the grass that has grown on sediments in the
drain.
Plate 4.4 shows the current situation of the channelled Odaw river near Zeus Hotel
and Alajo Junction along the Nsawam Road.
The residents de-link their health status from the floods, though this position is
tangential to that of the Accra Metropolitan public Health Directorate (AMPHD). The
AMPHD indicates the floods coincide with the outbreak of cholera and thus quickly
move into flooded areas to provide services.
Since most households mix up economic activities with household activities, flooding
destroys inputs and sometimes carries away returns, disrupting economic activities
and possibly reducing household incomes. Further, the Alajo Street is lined up by
commercial ventures in stores and kiosks, which were also affected by the famous
1995 floods. Currently, localised floods also affect their activities although not to the
scale of the earlier one.
Of the eighty household heads who qualified to receive relief after flooding of their
homes, only twenty-four, representing thirty percent benefited. Impliedly, about two-
thirds of the flood victims received no relief at all, a situation NADMO claims was
caused by inadequate relief items. An international Non-Governmental Organisation,
World Vision International was also involved in the distribution of relief items,
especially in Kotobabi and Alajo.
In times of flooding some residents are temporarily displaced and move to higher
grounds, which in the instance of Alajo and Avenor do not exist. Alternatively refuge
is sought in nearby storey buildings as some did in the 1995 floods. In extreme
circumstances when flood waters surround homes, people climb on to rooftops and
await rescue.
From Table 4.3, it is interesting to note that a third of households that have suffered
from flooding have taken no preventive measures, a sign of resigning themselves to
fate. It was also be realised that, 17.1% of respondents have raised retaining walls and
ramps above road and drain levels to keep water out the entrances of the houses and
rooms as shown in Plate 4.5.
Constructing ramps, stairs and retaining walls serves to protect the houses from
floodwaters but also impedes ease of accessibility as shown in Plate 4.5. This
situation can be distressing to physically challenged people.
Whereas the eastern part of Dzorwulu is provided with drains, their capacity is easily
overwhelmed by the high volume of runoff from the elevated western and northern
parts resulting in flash flooding. It must be noted that flooding in Dzorwulu is
restricted to the area between the pylons and Odaw River in the eastern part.
NADMO has instituted a Rapid Response Team for floods in the Metropolis. It
comprises officials of NADMO, Ghana Health Service (GHS), Ghana Civil Aviation
Authority (GCAA), Ghana Red Cross Society (GRCS), Ghana National Fire Service
(GNFS), Ghana Police Service (GPS), Ghana Air Force and Ghana Navy.
The platform which provides this level of interaction is the Accra Metropolitan
Planning Committee (AMPC). The AMPC convenes monthly to deliberate and
approve physical development applications and other policy matters concerning
development in the Accra Metropolis. The AMPC is chaired by the Metropolitan
Chief Executive and comprises of Assembly members, Sub-Metropolitan District
Council Chairpersons and technical officers from the decentralised departments and
agencies in attendance, with no voting rights.
The AMPC is served by a Technical Sub-Committee which addresses technical issues
concerning applications like conformity of the intended development to the planning
schemes, allowance of adequate setbacks from road reservation, stream buffers and
considerations for the natural environment as well as public safety. The Technical
Sub-committee, which meets twice a month and is composed of representatives of the
EPA, HSD, Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS), AMRD, NADMO, AMPHD,
AMWD, Land Commission Secretariat, Survey Department and hosted by the
AMTCPD.
Figure 4.1 shows the working relationship between and among the institutions
covered by the study. Only the Ghana Meteorological Agency and Accra
Metropolitan Waste Management Department were not represented on the AMPC.
However the GMA is closely linked to NADMO in flood prevention activities by way
of warning of imminent storms and expected precipitation, whereas the AMWMD
also collaborates with AMRD and AMPHD in drainage management and public
education on good sanitation practices.
Table 4.5 presents the response of households to the possibility of relocating outside
their current place of abode as a result of the frequent flooding of their homes.
Deducing from Table 4.5, 40.3% of respondents have endured flooding for some time
and are contemplating on relocation to areas that are flood-free. On the other hand
about a fifth of respondents have suffered from flooding but do not intend moving
out. Some of the reasons accounting for their stance include high rent advances
demanded by house owners, lucrative businesses being run in the communities and
the fact that some are owner occupants. This phenomenon is better seen in Table 4.6.
From the table, it is clear that majority of rent-free occupants, that is owner-
occupants, free occupants and squatters are not ready to move out of their homes even
in the light of frequent flooding, whereas two-thirds of tenants are considering
relocating.
Institutionally, the HSD is in the process of finalizing the Accra Drainage Master Plan
to use as a policy guideline in determining the development and management of
drainage infrastructure in the entire Metropolis, with the AMWD set to demolish
encroachments in the floodplains.
.
CHAPTER FIVE
Secondly, negative human activities in the settlement in the form of direct dumping of
refuse into secondary and tertiary drains causes localised flooding within the
settlements, restricting movements and impinging on other socio-economic activities.
Such flooding is also responsible for increasing the incidence of malaria in the
metropolis as mosquitoes breed in the pools of water that are trapped in the choked
drains and elsewhere within the settlement. However, the situation may improve if the
skip containers are always made available and lifted regularly to control dumping.
This is because of the eighty-five (85) households that do not use door-to-door waste
disposal services; forty (40) dump their refuse at the designated places. Those
engaged in direct dumping complain of being turned away from public dump where
the skips are overflowing with refuse and therefore have no other option than to use
the drains as their refuse disposal site.
Institutional lapses have also contributed in part to the pathetic situation. This is
because strict enforcement of regulations considering physical development would
have prevented encroachment into the Odaw River floodplain. It can be safely said
that these statutory regulatory institutions have become more reactionary than
proactive. The Client Services Units have become mainly complaint stations instead
of providing a medium of education of clients and enhancing service provision. This
explains the low level of knowledge of the permitting procedure of the Assembly
exhibited by the sampled households and the general disregard of building regulations
and the local authorities. The existence of these Client Services Units can be seen as
potentials that when adequately resourced can help the institutions in information
dissemination.
In as much as the institutions are culpable by inactions, one must acknowledge the
enormous constraints that hinder their effective operations. Their inability to raise
adequate funds to support their activities is the major impediment, even as they
collaborate to prevent and manage flood disasters. However, the existence of these
institutions and their existing working relationship present an opportunity to pool their
resources for better service delivery to the populace.
The inability of the Metropolitan Assembly to pay the Solid Waste Collection
Contractors to evacuate refuse over the past two years has led to situation where
residents who are turned away from the already full skip containers dump them into
the Odaw River, clogging it and reducing its capacity to adequately carry runoff. As
the depth of the river is reduced, it widens its cross-sectional area to accommodate the
discharge. This accounts for the proximity of houses to the banks of the river in
heavily encroached areas, where erosion had eaten away the small buffer left between
the built and ‘natural’ environments.
Sedimentation of the channelled drain is on the ascendancy and discharge levels have
been observed by residents to be rising. The amount of sedimentation is so
pronounced (see Plate 4.4) a concerned resident joked about demarcating the primary
drain into plots for development.
The contribution of land uses and activities to flooding can be seen in the
unauthorised change of use from stream buffer and open space to residential and other
land uses. This is because, if enforcement of schemes had been stringent enough,
human habitation of the floodplains would have been prevented, reducing
vulnerability to flooding.
Residents at Avenor pointed out that at the point of merging of the two major
tributaries of the Odaw, the channelled one running with high velocity effectively
blocks water from the earthen one from entering, building up behind and flooding
areas upstream. However, since the presence of the AMA is not felt much on the
ground, it will be difficult to pick up such information to incorporate into future plans.
Further, as flood monitoring has been virtually absent, it is not surprising that it
continues to prevail in the light of interventions. Although well-intentioned, these
interventions may be ill-advised. Also the design and subsequent development of
some of the drains like the entry point of the Nima Stream leaves much to be desired
invoking its wrath on traders in the Hawkers’ Market at Odawna. Since the drain goes
underground at the Circle Overhead and only emerges near the market, its
maintenance, de-silting and re-engineering in this stretch is next to impossible.
5.2 Recommendations
After analyses of the existing situation and its derived problems, it is imperative to
suggest workable solutions to improve conditions if not totally remove the problems.
Nevertheless, since not all actions can be carried out considering the financial
demands of implementation and the gestation period, short and long term
recommendations have been made.
However, considering local conditions the following steps which are assigned to
various power levels are pragmatic and achievable in the long run.
Through the Public Services Commission and the Ministry of Public Sector Reforms,
the agencies and department should be strengthened institutionally, through
employment, adequate remuneration and retention of sensitive staff. This can be
complemented by providing the necessary equipment and logistics required for
effective and efficient operation of the institutions.
The Information Services Department of the AMA, with the Client Services Units of
the various Departments should embark on public education in the metropolis to
induce behavioural change. Issues to be tackled must include physical development
permitting procedure, good sanitary practices and honouring of tax obligations as
residents in the metropolis.
The AMA should explore other possible means of development financing besides the
District Assemblies Common Fund. The Assembly can partner the private sector in
some economic ventures to increase the inflow of funds so that it will be able to
service debts owed private waste collection firms to evacuate waste from the
Metropolis promptly and properly.
The AMA should extend the channelling of the Odaw River to its eastern tributary
(Onyasia stream) of the Odaw River to the confluence with the western tributary by
collaborating with the Ministry of Works, Housing and Water Resources as well as
ensuring routine maintenance of drains by AMRD to avert blockage caused by
damaged slabs and collapsed portions of the drains. The AMWMD, AMRD and HSD
should de-silt the Odaw River and its tributaries - the Nima and Onyasia Streams- and
secondary drains in flood prone areas to allow for free flow of runoff water.
The AMWD, EPA and HSD must enforce existing bye-laws and building to prevent
further development in drainage reservations and wetlands. This action should be
accompanied by clearing of encroachments where appropriate.
The AMA, through its Public Health Directorate and the Information Services
Department should encourage rainwater harvesting as a means of minimising run-off
especially as most houses and communities are not well drained with the intention of
reducing localised flooding as well as providing an additional source of water for
some household sanitation activities like washing, bathing and flushing of aqua
privies.
Under the supervision of Unit Committees and Assemblypersons, solid waste disposal
should be organised at designated points into skip containers. Indiscriminate littering
should be discouraged through sensitisation/public education and provision of litter
bins at vantage points in the settlements.
Households should be assisted by the AMWD and AMRD, with technical advice from
HSD to construct proper drains to carry run-off from houses into tertiary drains. Also,
where necessary, the erection of ramps and retaining walls should be constructed
under the supervision of the AMWD.
5.4 Conclusion
The Metropolis is a complex system with interacting related activities which ensures
the development of its constituents and demands to be managed to reap its full
benefits. Failure to effectively manage the system leads to entrenchment of
inefficiencies, poor service, high living costs, falling standards of living and
deepening of poverty. The problem of the urban economy are often hydra-headed and
requires the collaboration of all stakeholders, not only in discussing but pooling of
human and material resources to reinforce each other in finding a lasting solution.
Individually, it appears the residents of the Accra Metropolis, the institutions and the
private sector are powerless against the floods, often negating the gains made by each
other and allowing the phenomenon to go on, amidst much suffering.
It is important therefore to tackle urban flooding with zeal to extricate the urban
populace from the undesirable effects and ultimate impact of flooding (disrupting
social and economic activities) firstly by prevention and risk minimisation and finally
by preparing for the once in fifty years and once in a hundred years floods that can
hardly be forecasted. To conclude it must be noted that flood management cannot be
neglected, considering the fact even elaborate defenses are susceptible to breach.
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Implication of Population Trend Data, Accra.
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Kaiser, (1999), “Natural Hazard Mitigation; Recasting Disaster Policy
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2008, No. 150321, edited by Ransford Tetteh, Accra
“ “ (2008), “Floods destroys property in Accra”, 7th April, 2008,
edited by Ransford Tetteh, Accra.
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APPENDIX I: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2. (a) Has your household suffered from any flooding since your
habitation?
Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes, why are you still staying here?
(Give reasons)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………… (c) When was the last
flood ……………………………………………………………(month & year)
(d) How often does it flood? Once a year [ ] twice a year [ ] several times
a year [ ]
(e) What type of flooding do you experience? Gradual [ ] Flash [ ]
5. (a) Do you think the floods in your community are caused by human
activities?
Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes what are they?
Building in water courses [ ] Bad refuse Disposal [ ]
Building Designs [ ]
Hard Landscaping [ ] Lack of Drains [ ] Poor design of
Drains [ ]
Choked drains [ ] others ………………………………
6. (a) What steps has your household taken to reduce the incidence of
flooding? ………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..
(note how the house is drained)
………………………………………………………………………....................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
(b) As a community, what steps has been taken?
…………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
7. (a) Do you harvest rainwater? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) What use do you put such water?
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
8. (a) Are you aware of any activities by the Authorities (AMA) in the
area of flood prevention? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b)If Yes, what are they?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
9. (a) Has the authorities demolished or stopped any building in the
community?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) if yes, when and
where?...........................................................................................................
...................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
10.(a) Are you satisfied with the city authorities’ (AMA) handling of the
flooding situation in the community in particular? Yes [ ]
No [ ]
(b) Give reasons for your response
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
11.(a) Are you satisfied with the city authorities’ (AMA) performance in
terms of service provision in the community? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) Giver reasons for your response
……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
16.(a) Will you move out of the community in view of the flood
problem? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, where
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
APPENDIX II: INSTITUTIONAL INTERVIEW GUIDES
DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(d) If no, why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(d) If no, why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
3. (a) Do you have planning schemes for the flood prone areas of the
metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being implemented and enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such
communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….................................
Dzorwulu
Avenor
Adabraka
4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the
incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….
……………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….............................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.....
9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?
........................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….............................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [
] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
(c) how do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(d) What do you think account for this level? ………………………………..
……………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..
(e) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………
DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone
areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of
such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
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3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone
areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of
such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
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9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?
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10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level?
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(c) How do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(c) What do you think account for this level?
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(d) If No, why?
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DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone
areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding
of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
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9.Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?
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