Fracture of metallic materials

Prof. Barbara Rivolta

Course of Mechanical Metallurgy

October 2014, Lecco

Introduction

The process of fracture can be considered to be made up of two

components:
crack initiation
crack propagation

Fracture can be classified into two general categories:

ductile fracture: characterized by plastic deformation before and

during the propagation of the crack. An appreciable amount of

deformation can be observed at the fracture surface
brittle fracture: characterized by a rapid rate of crack propagation,
with
no
appreciable
deformation
and
very
little
microdeformation

Barbara Rivolta

Introduction

Ductile fracture

Brittle fracture
Barbara Rivolta

Introduction

Types of fractures observed in metals subjected to uniaxial tension

(a) Brittle fracture of single crystals and polycristals; (b) shearing fracture
in ductile single crystal; (c) completely ductile fracture in polycristals; (d)
ductile fracture in polycristals

Barbara Rivolta

Theoretical cohesive strength

The variation of the cohesive force between

two atoms as a function of the separation
between two atoms.
a0 = interatomic space in the unstrained
condition
= theoretical cohesive strength

(1)

x = a-a0 = displacement in atomic

spacing
l = wave length in a lattice

For small displacements, sin x~x, hence:

(2)
Barbara Rivolta

Theoretical cohesive strength

If we restrict consideration to a brittle elastic solid, from Hookes law:

(3)
Substituting (3) in (2):

(4)
If we make the assumptions that a0~l/2, then

high values of cohesive strength!!!

Barbara Rivolta

Theoretical cohesive strength

If the energetics of the fracture process are considered, the fracture work
done per unit area during fracture is given by:

This energy is equal to the energy required to create the two new
fracture surfaces (2gs):

Or:

Barbara Rivolta

Theoretical cohesive strength

Substituting in (4):

Example:
Estimate the theoretical fracture stress of iron if the surface energy is 1.2
J/m2
E = 200 GPa; a0 = 0.25 nm

max = ?
Experience with high strength steels shows that a fracture strength in
excess of 2 GPa is exceptional. Engineering materials typically have
fracture stresses that are 10 to 1000 times lower than the theoretical value.
This leads to the conclusion that flaws or cracks are responsible for the
lower than ideas fracture strength of engineering materials.
Barbara Rivolta

Theoretical cohesive strength

thin elliptical crack in an infinitely wide plate

the crack has a length 2c

radius of curvature at its tip r

The maximum stress at the tip of the crack is:

Equating it to the equation

We can solve for which is the nominal fracture

stress f of the material containing cracks:
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Theoretical cohesive strength

10

The sharpest possible crack is when rt = a0, so that:

Example:
Calculate the fracture stress for a brittle material with the following
properties:

E = 200 GPa; gs = 1.2 J/m2; c = 2.5 mm

f = ?

Note that the theoretical cohesive strength was 31 GPa!!!!

This means that a very small cracks produces a very great

decrease in the stress for fracture.
Barbara Rivolta

Griffith theory of brittle fracture

11

The first explanation of the discrepancy between the observed fracture

strength of crystals and the theoretical cohesive strength was proposed
by Griffith (1920).
Griffiths theory in its original form is applicable only to a perfectly brittle
material:
a population of fine cracks is present inside a brittle material
these cracks produce a stress concentration so that the theoretical
cohesive strength is reached in localized region even if the nominal
stress is lower than the theoretical value
a crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy
(released as the crack spreads) is at least equal to the energy
required to create the new crack surface

Barbara Rivolta

Microscopic fracture mechanisms

brittle fracture:
cleavage mechanism
intergranular mechanism

ductile fracture:
microvoid coalescence mechanism

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12

Cleavage fracture

13

Cleavage fracture is the most brittle form of fracture which can occur
in crystalline materials
The possibility to have cleavage fracture is increased by lower
temperature and higher strain rates
Cleavage fracture of metals occurs by direct separation along
crystallographic planes due to a simple breaking of atomic
bonds. For example, iron cleaves along the cube planes (100) of its
unit cell.

(100)

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Cleavage fracture

14

This causes the relative flatness of a cleavage crack within one grain.
The neighboring grains have different orientations, so the cleavage crack
changes direction at a grain boundary to continue propagation on the
preferred cleavage plane.

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Cleavage fracture

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Microscopically

Transgranular cleavage
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Cleavage fracture

16

Inside the grain, the fracture

crystallographic planes.

can propagate

on

two

parallel

The two parallel cracks can join by overlapping if they are on the same
plane, or by a secondary cleavage to form a step.

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Cleavage fracture

17

A number of cleavage steps may join and form a mutiple step.

Macroscopically, the merge of cleavage steps results in the so-called
river patterns because of its similarity to a river and its tributaries.
River patterns often form at the passage of a grain boundary.

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Cleavage fracture

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When the crack passes a grain boundary, two situations can occur:

if the twist angle is low, the crack propagates from a grain to the other
with continuity

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Cleavage fracture

19

if the twist angle is high (a grain with different orientation), the crack
must reinitiate on the now differently oriented cleavage plane.
It may do so at a certain number of places and spread out in the new
crystal. This gives rise to the formation of a number of cleavage steps,
which may join and form a river pattern.

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Cleavage fracture

20

The convergence of river patterns is always downstream; this gives the

possibility to determine the direction of local crack propagation in a
micrograph.

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Cleavage fracture

21

Under normal circumstances face-centered-cubic (fcc) crystal

structures do not exhibit cleavage fractures: extensive plastic
deformation will always occur in these materials before the cleavage
stress is reached.
Cleavage occurs in body-centered-cubic (bcc) and many hexagonalclose-packed (hcp) structures. It occurs particularly in iron and low
carbon steel. Tungsten, molybdenum, chromium (all bcc) and zinc,
beryllium and magnesium (all hcp) are materials capable of cleaving.

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Intergranular fracture

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It is the fracture mechanism wherein the crack prefers to follow the grain
boundaries.

The occurrence of intergranular fracture can result from a number of

processes:
nucleation and coalescence at inclusions or second-phase particles
located along grain boundaries;
grain-boundary crack and cavity formations associated with elevated
temperature stress rupture conditions;
decohesion between contiguous grains due to the presence of impurity
elements at grain boundaries and in association with aggressive
atmosphere such as gaseous hydrogen and liquid metals;
stress corrosion cracking processes associated with chemical
dissolution along grain boundaries
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Intergranular fracture

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Intergranular fracture

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Intergranular fracture

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Ductile fracture

26

A crack often origins from second phases, i.e. from particle of different
dimensions.

Three types of particles can be distinguished:

Large particles 1-20 m; visible under the light microscope. They

usually consist of complicated compounds of various alloying elements.
These particles do not contribute to strengthen the material.
Intermediate particles 50-500 nm; only visible by means of the
electron microscope. They also consist of complex compounds of
different alloying elements. They contribute to strengthen the metallic
matrix significantly.
Small particles - 5-50 nm; in certain cases visible by means of electron
microscope. They are developed by means of solution heat treatment and
ageing and they serve to give the alloy its required yield strength.
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Ductile fracture

27

The large particles are often very brittle and they cannot accomodate
the plastic deformation of the matrix. They fail early, with small
amount of plastic deformation. The do not play a role in the process of
ductile fracture itself.

The fracture is often induced by the intermediate size (sub-micron)

particles. The mechanism is the following: the dislocations have the
possibility to slip and tend to pile-up near a particle, inducing the
formation of microvoids.

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Ductile fracture

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Oval dimples

cavities
microvoids
Equiaxial and
round shape
dimples

coalescence
of microvoids

Final rupture

Fracture
by shear
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Ductile fracture

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Ductile fracture

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Schematic representation
Large voids in AISI 4340 linked by
narrow void sheets consisting of small
microvoids.
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Ductile fracture

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As the nucleation and coalescence of dimples are linked to a plastic

deformation, more deep and wide the dimples are, higher the plastic
strain energy is.
The shape of the dimples is influenced by the applied stress field:
equiaxed dimples with a tensile stress
parabolic dimples with a shear or tear stress

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Ductile fracture

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Ductile fracture

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Barbara Rivolta