Scientific Bulletin, Transactions On Modern Languages

Scientific Bulletin of the Politehnica University of Timioara
Transactions on Modern Languages

Vol. 14, Issue 1, 2015
Buletinul tiinific al Universitii Politehnica Timioara

Seria Limbi Moderne
Editor-in-chief / Redactor ef
Conf. Dr. Daniel DEJICA, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Editorial board / Colegiul de redacie

Lect. Dr. Marion COHEN-VIDA, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Lect. Dr. Maria-Dana GROSSECK, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Lect. Dr. Annamaria KILYENI, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Asist. Dr. Marcela FRCAIU, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Editorial secretary / Secretar de redacie

Asist. Dr. Claudia Elena STOIAN, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Scientific Board / Refereni tiinifici

Prof. Dr. Gyde HANSEN, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
Prof. Dr. Debra JOURNET, University of Louisville, USA
Prof. Dr. Roxana NUBERT, University of the West, Timioara
Prof. Dr. Anthony O'KEEFFE, Bellarmine University, USA
Prof. Dr. Maria ENCHEA, University of the West, Timioara
Conf. Dr. Daniel DEJICA, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Conf. Dr. Vlasta KUI, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Conf. Dr. Angelika IONA, University of the West, Timioara
Conf. Dr. Uros MOZETIC, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Conf. Dr. Mirela Cristina POP, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Conf. Dr. Ioan Lucian POPA, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacau, Romania
Conf. Dr. Loredana PUNG, University of the West, Timioara
Conf. Dr. Rodica SUPERCEANU, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
Conf. Dr. Titela VLCEANU, University of Craiova, Romania
Lect. Dr. Claudia ICOBESCU, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania

Vol. 14, Issue 1, 2015
CONTENTS
Linguistics and Communication
Simona IMON
An Overview of Speech Acts in English
Hatem EL ZEIN
The Utilised Frames by Militant Organisations in The

Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Case of Hezbollah's Military
Arm
13
Claudia Elena STOIAN
Analysing Images: A Social Semiotic Perspective
23
Andreea DOBRA
Visual Communication by Colours in Human

Computer Interface
31
Simona OLARU-POIAR
Organisationskultur unter dem Einfluss der

Globalisierung
41
Foreign Language Pedagogy

Syed Md. GOLAM FARUK
Saudi Students Flying the Nest of Knowledge:

Reality and Prospects
49
Iulia PARA
The Changing Role of the Business English Teacher

in the Business English Class
61
Roxana GHI
Teaching Collocations in a Creative Manner
71
Sebastian CHIRIMBU
Playing A Key Tool in the Process of Teaching /

Learning Foreign Languages at Pre-School Level
75
Sorina ERBNESCU
Le projet culturel comme moyen de promouvoir et

denseigner linterculturalit et les langues trangres
81
Ana-Maria DASCLUROMIAN
Die Rolle der visuellen Medien im DaF-unterricht
91
Information for Authors
104

Seria Limbi Moderne
Vol. 14, Nr. 1, 2015
CUPRINS
Linguistics and Communication
Simona IMON
Prezentare succint a actelor de vorbire din limba

englez
Hatem EL ZEIN
Cadrele informaionale utilizate de organizaiile

militante n conflictul arabo-israelian: cazul ramurei
militare Hezbollah
13
Claudia Elena STOIAN
Analiza imaginilor: o perspectiv socio-semiotic
23
Andreea DOBRA
Comunicarea vizual prin culoare n interfeele om main
31
Simona OLARU-POIAR
Cultura organizaional sub influena globalizrii
41
Foreign Language Pedagogy

Syed Md. GOLAM FARUK
Studenii din Arabia Saudit n faa "Cunoaterii":

realitate i perspective
49
Iulia PARA
Rolul n schimbare al profesorului de limba englez

pentru afaceri la cursul de limba englez pentru
afaceri
61
Roxana GHI
Predarea colocaiilor: o abordare creativ
71
Sebastian CHIRIMBU
Jocul ca instrument cheie n predarea/nvarea unei

limbi strine la nivel prescolar
75
Sorina ERBNESCU
Proiectul cultural ca mijloc de promovare i de

predare a interculturalitii i a limbilor strine
81
Ana-Maria DASCLUROMIAN
Rolul mediilor vizuale n predarea limbii germane ca

limb strin
91
Informaii pentru autori
104

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
An Overview of Speech Acts in English

Simona imon
Abstract: Last century philosophers made a great step forward in understanding the way in
which we use words in order to achieve something in the real world. They pointed to the fact
that we perform speech acts when we speak. The production of speech acts is governed by
some rules which help us understand the utterance meaning and decode the speaker meaning.
Moreover, in a discourse, the speech acts are organized linearly in sequences of micro-speech
acts, and hierarchically in macro-speech acts, which are associated with an entire piece of
discourse. As the right choice of speech acts in advertisements contribute to the achievement
of the advertisers goals, the present article selects its examples from various advertisements
placed in some English magazines.
Keywords: discourse, illocutionary act, illocutionary force indicating device, speech acts.
1. Introduction
At the beginning of the 20th century, philosophers started wondering on the
nature of our utterances. In that period a philosophical doctrine called logical
positivism appeared. This doctrine states that a sentence has to be either true or false
to the reality for which it stands, otherwise it is meaningless (Levinson 1994: 227). It
follows then that most literary, aesthetic, ethical discourses and everyday utterances
are meaningless. One of the most fervent proponents of this doctrine is Wittgenstein
(1961), who later on however underlines that meaning is use (Wittgenstein 1958:
paragraph 43) and that utterances may be explained in relation to their role in
different activities or language-games (imon 2014).
A similar stand to that of the later Wittgenstein is also adopted by Austin
who emphasises that the total speech act in the total speech situation is the only
actual phenomenon which, in the last resort, we are engaged in elucidating (Austin
Assistant Professor, Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Faculty of Communication

Sciences, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania.
1962: 147). He distinguishes between those speech acts that express some
psychological states and those that mirror the type of social interaction they are
involved in. Austin also classifies speech acts into constative and performative ones,
the former being evaluated according to truth conditions and the latter according to
felicity conditions (imon & Dejica 2015a). Furthermore, he emphasises that when
uttering a sentence, we simultaneously perform a locutionary, an illocutionary and a
perlocutionary act. Taking all this into consideration, Austins theory of speech acts is
perceived as being more comprehensive than the one proposed by logical positivism
which it soon replaced.
Searle (1994) further develops Austins speech acts theory. He emphasises
that we use speech acts in order to communicate and therefore speech acts are the
smallest units of linguistic communication. The production of speech acts is
determined by regulative and constitutive rules, which influence the illocutionary
force of an utterance. The illocutionary force is also the one on which Searle bases his
taxonomy of speech acts (imon & Dejica 2015b). His classification is thus very
helpful for the identification and description of speech acts.
Van Dijks (1992) approaches speech acts from the perspective of the theory
of actions as using speech acts in speaking implies doing actions in real life. He thus
differentiates among single speech acts, composite speech acts and sequences of
speech acts. Furthermore, he considers that each speech act should contribute to the
realisation of other speech acts, so that there might be preparatory, component,
auxiliary and consequent speech acts (imon 2008). Van Dijk contributes greatly to
the understanding of the speech acts by highlighting that they are organised linearly in
micro-speech acts, and hierarchically in global / macro-speech acts.
Taking these theories into account, the present article outlines their most
important contributions to the description of the speech acts, used independently, or
in larger pieces of discourse. The examples used to illustrate some key-concepts are
taken from advertisements that appeared in some English magazines listed at the end
of the article. The choice of speech acts in advertisements is highly important as they
contribute greatly to the success or failure of the advertisement in question.
2. Austins speech acts theory
In his lectures on speech acts, Austin (1962) clarifies that speech acts are
expressions of psychological states (e.g. embarrassment, gratitude, irritation, regrets,
etc.) or of involvement in social interaction (e.g. ordering, requesting, promising,
warning, etc.). Furthermore, he distinguishes between constative and performative
utterances. The former ones describe a state-of-affairs and have the property of being
either true or false: We put a lot in our lasagna. (Parents, September 2006). The latter
ones, though rarely encountered in written advertisements, perform an act, do

something actively (marrying, christening, apologizing, naming a ship, etc.), they do
not just say things and they are not true or false (Austin 1962: 5): We call it the
dream team (Cosmopolitan, June 2002). In order to evaluate a performative utterance,
Austin (1962: 18) proposes a set of felicity conditions, which determine whether the
utterance is felicitous, i.e. successful, or infelicitous, i.e. unsuccessful.
Austin (1962: 57) also points to the fact that sometimes it is difficult to
distinguish between constative and performative utterances as they both display the
same linguistic characteristics: declarative sentence, first person subject, verb used in
the present tense simple of the indicative mood and in the active voice. He proposes
the insertion of the adverb hereby between subject and predicate in order to check
whether the utterance is performative or not: We hereby call it the dream team.
Moreover, Austin (1962: 69) also classifies performatives into:
a. implicit or primary performatives, which are less specific and explicit: A
Sharps bedroom will help you to create a quiet place to relax. (Good
Housekeeping, May 2003) (It counts as an elliptical promise)
b. explicit performatives, which make explicit the act being performed by
the utterance: We promise that a Sharps bedroom will help you to create
a quiet place to relax.
Austin (1962: 108) also emphasises that in uttering a sentence, three kinds of
acts are simultaneously performed: a locutionary, an illocutionary and a
perlocutionary act. The locutionary act presupposes the utterance of a sentence with a
determinate sense and reference. The illocutionary act describes the direct
achievements of an utterance (the making of a request, statement, promise, offer,
asking a question, issuing an order, etc.) on account of the conventional force /
intention associated with it or with its explicit paraphrase. Finally, the perlocutionary
act presupposes the bringing about of intended and unintended effects on the
addressee(s) by uttering the sentence. These effects obviously depend on the
circumstances of the utterance (imon 2014: 139-140).
For example, in an advertisement the following line can be read: Call for a
brochure 0845 270 0355 (Good Housekeeping, September 2006). The locutionary act
consists of a sentence with the meaning pick up the phone, dial 0845 270 0355, order
a brochure. The illocutionary act performed may be a direction or an urge. The
perlocutionary act may be either persuasion or annoyance. The advertiser may
persuade the possible customer to call and order the brochure, particularly if s/he has
previously had positive experiences when ordering. However if the possible customer
has wanted to order a brochure in the past and has been harassed with plenty other
offers when s/he only wanted a brochure, s/he may feel annoyed by the line
mentioned above.
3. Searles speech acts theory

Searle (1994) defines the speech acts as the basic or minimal units of
linguistic communication (1994:16) as speaking a language is performing speech
acts (1994: 16). He considers that the production of speech acts is governed by
regulative and constitutive rules. The regulative rules, such as the rules of etiquette,
regulate the pre-existing forms of behaviour or activities, which are independent of
these rules. The constitutive rules constitute and regulate activities, such as playing
football or chess, which depend on these rules (Searle 1994: 33-34). From the
perspective of the communication process, the constitutive rules describe the sentence
/ utterance meaning, determine the illocutionary force of the utterance, and thus help
the hearer decode the speaker meaning. The illocutionary force of an utterance is
accomplished through linguistic means, such as word order, stress, intonation
contour, punctuation, verbs, especially performative verbs, adverbs, etc., which are
called Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices (IFID) (Searle 1994: 42-50; 62-71).
Taking into account the illocutionary force, Searle (1976: 1-24) also
establishes a five-class taxonomy of illocutionary acts:
a. Assertives/ Representatives commit the speaker to the truth of the
expressed proposition, e.g. stating, claiming, reporting, concluding,
confessing, confirming, etc.: There is no finer Vodka. (Cosmopolitan,
June 2002)
b. Directives are attempts made by the speaker to get the hearer to do a
volitional act, e.g. ordering, commanding, begging, challenging,
requesting, questioning, advising, recommending, etc.: Serve neat at 32
F. (Cosmopolitan, June 2002)
c. Commissives commit the speaker to some action, e.g. promising, offering,
swearing, vowing, threatening, etc.: Consolidated Credit Counselling
Services, Inc. can reduce or eliminate interest charges. (Cosmopolitan,
June 2002)
d. Expressives express the speakers psychological state with respect to the
state-of-affairs expressed by the propositional content, e.g. thanking,
apologizing, blaming, pardoning, congratulating, condoling, welcoming,
etc.: It couldnt be easier! (Good Housekeeping, September 2006)
e. Declaratives bring about changes in the reality expressed by the
propositional content, e.g. christening, resigning, dismissing, naming,
appointing, sentencing, etc.: We call it the dream team. (Cosmopolitan,
June 2002)
4. Van Dijks speech acts theory

While Austin and Searle study speech acts in isolated sentences issued in a
given context, van Dijk (1992) analyses them in sequences that occur in natural
discourses. Van Dijk (1992: 167-183) considers that speech acts should be
approached from the viewpoint of the theory of actions, which distinguishes between
acts and actions. The acts are intention-successful doings and the acts which require
further consequences in order to be purpose-successful are called actions (van Dijk
1992: 176-177). Moreover, the theory of actions establishes a taxonomy of acts:
single acts, composite acts (compound acts and complex acts) and sequences of acts.
Taking this classification into account, van Dijk (1992: 172-178; 213-218)
distinguishes among single speech acts, composite speech acts and sequences of
speech acts:
a. a single (speech) act is an act / a speech act with one intended result: In
just ten minutes roots are gone! (In Style, September 2007)
b. composite (speech) acts have no given purpose, and may be compound or
complex:
b1. a compound (speech) act consists of equally important (speech)
acts, the result of each (speech) act being a condition for the success
of the next (speech) act:
All in One looks like white bread // but has the wheatgerm and fibre
goodness of wholemeal (compound speech acts) its the easy way to
healthier eating. (major speech act) (Psychologies, September 2006)
b2. a complex (speech) act is made up of minor and major (speech)
acts; at least one (speech) act is embedded in one of the component
major (speech) acts:
As far as Im concerned (embedded speech act) // my war against
roots is over (major speech act). (In Style, September 2007)
c. sequences of (speech) acts have a given purpose, the same agent and the
acts need not be part of a definite plan; they may be interpreted as:
c1. one action if one global intention / plan can be assigned to them,
or if this action can be a condition for / consequence of other actions:
Does the idea of no preservatives in your lasagna sound good? It
sounds good to us, too. (Parents, September 2006) (the global
intention is drawing the recipients attention on the qualities of the
new product)
c2. sequences of actions in all the other cases:
STRENGTHENS GUMS by up to 73%* //
CONTAINS VITAMIN E (the first sequence of speech acts)
(...)
Its formula:
Contains anti oxidant Vitamin E //
Protects teeth against cavities //
Strengthens gums by up to 73%* //
Helps fight gum recession (the second sequence of speech

acts) (Psychologies, September 2006)
Taking into account the fact that the theory of action emphasises that acts
contribute to the realisation of other acts, speech acts are classified from the
perspective of their contribution to the realization of another speech act into
preparatory, component, auxiliary and consequent speech acts (van Dijk 1992: 172178; 213-218; Superceanu 2000: 77):
a. preparatory (speech) act: when its result is a necessary or probable
condition for another (speech) act:
When your babys ready to start feeding herself, (preparatory act) //
try Fruit Puffs & Veggie Puffs (major act). (Parents, September
2006)
b. component (speech) act: which counts as a necessary (speech) act
represented in the global intention of the major (speech) act:
() you wont believe (major act) // it lasts for hours and hours
(component act) (Psychologies, September 2006)
c. auxiliary (speech) act: when the success of its result is a sufficient
condition for the success of the major (speech) act:
For fitness and lifestyle tips visit www.lorealparis.co.uk (major act)
// BECAUSE YOURE WORTH IT (auxiliary act). (Psychologies,
September 2006)
d. consequent (speech) act: which is derived from the performance of the
major (speech) act:
New Comfort concentrates have less packaging (major act) // so you
can do your bit for the environment (consequent act). (In Style,
September 2007)
Van Dijks (1992: 232) major contribution to the study of speech acts in
discourse is that he differentiates between micro-speech acts, i.e. the individual
speech acts, and macro-speech acts / global speech acts, i.e. the global, overall
speech act of a piece of discourse. More exactly, van Dijk defines a macro-speech act
as the global speech act performed by the utterance of a whole discourse, and
executed by a sequence of possibly different speech acts (1992: 215). To put it
differently, a discourse is coherent if all the micro-speech acts of a discourse are
organized linearly in sequences and hierarchically in global speech acts. This is
particularly relevant for conventional types of discourse, such as advertisements or
10
narratives, which are rather associated with global speech acts than with component
speech acts (van Dijk 1992: 233).
5. Conclusion
The present article gave an account of the most important speech acts theories
developed by Austin, Searle, and van Dijk, who consider that speaking a language is
performing acts. Their speech acts theories complement each other so that in the end
an entire linguistic phenomenon is covered. Speech acts, the minimal units of
linguistic communication, were thus defined as expressions of psychological states or
involvement in social interaction. They have been classified into constative and
performative; locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary; assertives, directives,
commissives, expressives and declaratives. These speech acts may be evaluated
according to truth conditions or to felicity conditions, and may be described in terms
of constitutive or regulative rules. The illocutionary force of an utterance is
established by the illocutionary force indicating devices, which are linguistic means
such as verbs, intonation contour, stress, word order, etc. In a discourse, speech acts
are organised linearly in micro-speech act sequences and hierarchically in macrospeech acts, which are the global speech acts performed by entire discourses. All the
topics approached in the present article have been exemplified with speech acts
selected from English magazine advertisements in order to emphasise their important
role in achieving the advertisers goals.
References
1. Austin, J., How To Do Things With Words, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962.
2. Levinson, S.C., Pragmatics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
3. Searle, J.R., The Classification of Illocutionary Acts, in Language in Society, 5, 1976, 124.
4. Searle, J.R., Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994.
5. Superceanu, R., Elements of Discourse and Discourse Analysis: A linguistic approach.
Timioara: Editura Orizonturi Universitare, 2000.
6. imon, S., The Pragmatic Structure of Written Advertisements, in Superceanu, R. & D.
Dejica, (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Professional
Communication and Translation Studies, vol. 1, Timioara: Editura Politehnica, 2008, 5158, http://www.cls.upt.ro/files/conferinte/proceedings/2008/08_Simon.pdf.
7. imon, S., The Persuasive Function of Written Advertisements. Cluj-Napoca: Casa Crii
de tiin, Timioara: Ed. Orizonturi Universitare, 2014.
8. imon, S., & D. Dejica-Cari, Speech Acts in Written Advertisements: Identification,
Classification and Analysis, in Rahimi, A., (ed.), Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, vol. 192, Elsevier, 2015a, 234-239,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042815035041.
11
9. imon, S., & D. Dejica-Cari, Analysis and Classification of Directions in Written

Advertisements, in Rahimi, A., (ed.), Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol.
192, Elsevier, 2015b, 240-243,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042815035053.
10. van Dijk, T.A., Text and Context: Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of
Discourse. London: Longman, 1992.
11. Wittgenstein, L., Philosophical Investigations, Oxford: Blackwell, 1958.
12. Wittgenstein, L., Tractus Logico-Philosophicus, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961.
Sources of advertisements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cosmopolitan, June 2002.

Good Housekeeping, May 2003.
Good Housekeeping, September 2006.
In Style, September 2007.
Parents, September 2006.
Psychologies, September 2006.
12

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
The Utilised Frames by Militant Organisations in the

Arab-Israeli Conflict:
Case of Hezbollah's Military Arm
Hatem El Zein*
Abstract: The new communication technologies provide militant organisations in the Middle
East a medium to transmit their messages. Generally, the purpose of broadcasting is informing
and/or manipulating propaganda. In the context of Arab-Israeli conflict, organisations, such as
Hezbollah's military arm, "The Islamic Resistance", embed their media discourses with
frames. Although the current studies have uncovered the ideology of Hezbollah, it seems there
is a dearth in research about the utilised linguistic frames in the media discourse of its military
arm. However, this paper aims to bridge this gap. It identifies the frames, classifies them and
interprets their denotations.
Keywords: conflict, framing, Hezbollah, Israel, Middle East, "The Islamic Resistance".
1. Introduction
Militant organisations in the Middle East in the context of conflict with Israel
utilise linguistic terminologies in their media statements to frame 'the self' and 'the
other.' Suleiman (2004) argues that, "one of the most important aspects of the ArabIsraeli conflict is the manipulation of terminology to create a linguistic map that
conditions people's perceptions of the facts on the ground" (138).
In this context, Hezbollah's military arm, "The Islamic Resistance", in
Lebanon has established a military media unit in the mid-1980s and one of its
missions is to issue statements about the war with Israel. The messages of this unit
contain frames to represent the identity of Hezbollah's military arm and to reframe
other identities.
Understanding the frames is significant, because they "represent
interpretative schemata that combine cognitive tools and language that allow people
to make sense of everyday experiences and events, and are more likely to resonate
*
PhD student in Communication and Media Studies, Central Queensland University, Australia.
13
with the intended recipients when they draw on shared cultural themes and cultural
memory in specific historical contexts" (Matar 2010: 150).
To identify the embedded frames in the media discourse of Hezbollah's
military arm and provide an insight about their meaning, this paper review the
existing literature and analysing the relevant data.
2. Literature Review
Hezbollah formed unofficially in Lebanon after the Israeli invasion to Beirut
in 1982 (Hamzeh 2004). This religious party faced the Israeli army through its
military wing "The Islamic Resistance" (Harb 2011). In its war, this military arm
established in 1984 a "Military Media Unit", translated also into "War Information
Unit", to broadcast various outputs, such as to document the attacks against the Israeli
army, issue media statements, archive the fighters' testaments and film the military
operations against Israel (Osipova 2011).
In an attempt to identify the media discourse of Hezbollah's military arm, El
Zein (2014) points out that "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse constitutes of
the outputs of "The Military Media Unit" and the resistant speeches of its leader the
Secretary-General of Hezbollah who is now Sayyed Hassan Nasrullah.
There are studies about Hezbollah's history, policy and ideology (Alagha
2006). Also, there studies about some outputs of "The Military Media Unit",
particularly the military operations' videos (Harb 2011; El Houri 2012). However,
Karagiannis (2009) endeavoured to identify and classify the frames in Hezbollahs
ideology, policy and excerpts from Nasrullahs speeches. However, he did not
identify the frames in The Military Media Unit of The Islamic Resistance.
Furthermore, the author did not delve in the meanings of the sketched frames.
In this regard, it seems there is a dearth in studies about the embedded frames
in the media discourse of Hezbollah's military arm. However, the question is: what
are the embedded frames in "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse and their
meaning? Thus, this paper sheds light on the basic utilised frames and their meanings.
3. Methodology
Under the umbrella of critical discourse analysis discipline, framing can be
utilised as a theory to interpret the meaning (Darwish 2009). However, the discourse
refers to a language in an identified domain, such as media discourse (Fairclough
1995). Generally, discourse can be considered a mass noun, or a count noun (El-daly
2010). However, the powerful discourse is based "on a socio-historical grounding
embedded in the wider terrain of a culture of communication, what Foucault calls
episteme, rather than remaining as restricted, isolated and disordered political signs"
(Matar 2010: 143).
This paper considers the identified discourse as a mass noun, because it
includes the outputs' genres that constitute "The Islamic Resistance's" media
discourse.
14
Framing, as a media theory, means how media presents an issue or name

presented to the public from a certain perspective or perspectives (Chong &
Druckman 2007).
In this respect, the discourse is shaped by the ideas of the author or group that
formed it (Scheufele & Tewksbury 2007; Weaver 2007).
David Snow (cited in McAdam et al. 1996) defines framing, The conscious
strategic efforts by groups of people to fashion shared understandings of the world
and of themselves that legitimate and motivate collective action (6).
The language is crucial in identifying the frames (Vreese 2005). Thus, the
frame can be traced through language, because it is "a marker of identity. In this
function, language assumes greater importance than usual in situations of conflict.
Language bonds its speakers internally and bounds them externally. In this respect, it
acts as a boundary-setter between the in-group and out-group" (Suleiman 2004: 13).
In this vein, this paper classifies the frames and pays attention in analysing
them to their origins to understand how "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse is
shaped.
4. Data Collection
To collect the relevant data, this paper traces "The Islamic Resistance's"
media discourse to choose the issued statements of its military media unit,
particularly during July War in 2006 with Israel. However, the data obtained from AlAhed newspaper archives and the official website of "The Islamic Resistance"
(www.moqawama.org).
5. Limitations
There are limitations in this paper. Firstly, the data does not represent all the
outputs that constitute "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse and it focuses on
the frames that require analysis to know their roots and meanings. Thus, this paper
provides an insight about the used frames. Secondly, the original language of the data
is Arabic. Thus, some translation may not be matched exactly with the aim of the
organisation. Thirdly, this paper does not include the religious frames, because they
require an independent research about the ideological context of "The Islamic
Resistance's" media discourse.
6. Data Analysis
To analyse the used frames in "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse
from the collected data sample, this paper classifies the frames into the terminologies
that present "the self" and the terminologies that label "the other." Under each section,
there are identifying and analysing the relevant extracted frames.
15
6.1 The Frames of 'The Self'

As shown from its name, the military arm of Hezbollah called "The Islamic
Resistance." The name includes two words identify the identity of this military wing:
'Islamic' and 'Resistance.' The first term reflects its ideology. However, the second
term underlines the aim of this military arm as a resistance movement to liberate the
occupied Lebanese territories from Israeli occupation. In tracing its Arabic lexical
meaning, the term 'moqawama' (resistance) is derived from the verb 'qawam' (resist)
and it may signify an igniting war from a group against another one (Manzur 2003).
Except the religious frames, the extracted frames, which reflect 'the self', can
be classified into two categories: the frames that identify the fighters and their
actions.
6.1.1 The Fighters
The fighters of "The Islamic Resistance" are described in its media statements
with labels, such as heroes, mujahedeen, defenders and liberators of Lebanese
occupied territories. In addition to these frames, they are called 'Allah's Men' or 'the
Men of Allah.' This frame, which signifies masculinity in Arabic culture, requires
deep interpretation, because it emerged during July War in 2006, as shown in the
collected data for analysis.
During July War in 2006, the popular Syrian poet Omar Al-Farra praised the
military actions of "The Islamic Resistance" and its fighters, composing a poem
'Haol Hom Rijalo-llah' (Those are the Men of Allah) (Daabol 2006). Notably, this
poem aired via Al-Manar by Al-Farra's voice during and after the war.
Al-Farra's term 'the Men of Allah' invaded the media discourse of "The
Islamic Resistance", because it was utilised by its leader and "The Military Media
Unit." However, the same term used also by the Lebanese poet, Ghassan Matar, who
was inspired by Nasrullah's reply to the fighters during the war. Matar's poem
'Ahibaii' (My Beloved Ones), which was sung by Julia Boutros (Juliaboutros 2006),
included this term 'the Men of Allah' to show how "The Islamic Resistance's" leader
addresses his fighters.
The meaning of this frame can be traced from two sources. Based on the
notion of intertextuality, 'the Men of Allah' has its root in a number of verses in Quran
to indicate to the true believers, such as in the verse, Among the believers are men
who are true to the covenant they made with Allah (33: 23). However, the second
interpretation of this frame is based on Arabic semantic or grammar. As "The Islamic
Resistance's" fighters belong to Hezbollah, this implies that they are the men of
Hezbollah or Hezbollah's men (Rijalo Hezb-llah). In Arabic language, it is
permissible to omit an adjunct or an annexed (Modaf) if it is as well a governed noun
of a genitive construction (Modaf Ilaih), because the following governed noun of a
genitive construction may refer to the omitted word without affecting the meaning.
As a result of this semantic process, the omitted Arabic word from the men of
Hezbollah or Hezbollah's men (Rijalo Hezb-llah) is the adjunct and the genitive Hezb
16
(which means the party). Thus, the new term is 'Rijalo-llah' (the men of Allah or
Allah's men) can signify the men of Hezbollah or Hezbollah's men (Rijalo Hezb-llah).
Whatever the implication of 'Allah's Men' or 'the Men of Allah', this term has
turned into a frame and has become a brand, or an indicator to "The Islamic
Resistance's" fighters, because it has emerged during July War 2006 and maintained
since then as a marker to their identity.
6.1.2 "The Islamic Resistance's" Actions
"The Islamic Resistance" presents its military actions in the context of
defending Lebanon from Israeli army assaults, liberating the occupied Lebanese
territories and Lebanese prisoners from Israeli jails. Thus, "The Islamic Resistance"
frames the actions of its fighters as responding or replying to Israel attacks and
violation.
The utilisation of this label in the media discourse of "The Islamic
Resistance" to frame the actions of 'the self' implies that this military arm has a
nuance understanding to the importance of choosing self-defensive words in
addressing the public, particularly foreign audience, to change their perception about
the nature of the conflict and entice a sort of legitimacy.
In his comments on the description of the Israeli military actions in some
Western press, Suleiman (2004) points out that the "military actions by the Israelis
are always a 'response' to something, even when they strike first. If they haven't
actually been attacked, it's a 'response' to a security threat. 'Response' is a very useful
word. It provides a ready-made reason for the Israelis' actions and neatly brushes off
demands for further explanation. It says: 'Don't ask why we did it, ask the other side'"
(138).
Similarly to Israel and its sympathisers or allies, the utilisation of this frame
about its actions seems to have significance in "The Islamic Resistance's" media war,
because it legalises 'the self' actions.
6.2 The Frames of 'the Other'
In the context of Arab-Israeli conflict, framing is characterised by the process
of naming, particularly to the actions and the places. It entails cultural and political
dentation by the both parties in the Arab-Israeli conflict. In this regard, the Palestinian
scholar "[Rashid] Khalidi comments on the oppositional sets of names for the city and
some of its most important landmarks between the Palestinians and the Israeli Jews:
Bayt al- Maqdis (house of sanctity) and al-Quds al-Sharif (noble/holy sanctuary)
versus Yerushalaim (city of peace); al-Haram al-Sharif (noble sanctuary) versus
Temple Mount; al-Buraq Wall versus the Wailing or Western Wall. This conflict
extends to names Filastin (Palestine) versus Israel as designations for the country
which each group sees as its homeland" (Suleiman 2004: 176).
The Palestinian cause shaped the perception of Hezbollah and consequently
its military arm, since their inceptions, towards the conflict with Israel (Matar &
Dakhlallah 2006). As observed in its media statements, "The Islamic Resistance"
17
employs certain frames to describe Israel, its places, its army and its actions. It denies
the right of Israel to exist and describe its army as an occupation army. Thus, there is
no Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) or Israel ministry (and minister) of defence in its
discourse. Instead, the organisation replaces the term 'defence' by 'war' and IDF by
'occupation army.'
This section provides an insight on how "The Islamic Resistance" reframes
Israel, its actions and places in its discourse. It shows the origin of the utilised frames
by "The Islamic Resistance" in language and culture. These frames can be another
form of war ignited by the organisation against Israel.
6.2.1 Reframing Israel's Name
In its media statements, "The Islamic Resistance" refers generally to Israel
and its army as Zionists who occupy Palestine.
In obtaining the meaning of "The Zionist Entity", which is utilised by "The
Islamic Resistance" to name Israel, it is crucial to illuminate on the denotations of
Zionism and entity. Massad (2006) points out that Zionism in its early days was nonJewish, because the main idea of European colonialists in the nineteenth century,
particularly British and French colonialists, was establishing a Jewish state in
Palestine to allow the European Jews to migrate to this new state. In this context, the
establishment of Israel reflects the intersection of interests between European
colonialists and European Jews, who suffered from anti-Semitism and accepted the
idea to settle in Palestine and have their own state. Thus, Massad (2006) argues that
"Zionism and anti-Semitism had a unified goal-the removal of Jews from Europewhich became the basis for their shared imperial vision" (15).
In contrast to the term Zion, which can be found in the Old Testament and
may refer to a hummock in Jerusalem, Zionism appeared in an article published by
the Jewish Austrian Journalist Nathan Birnbaum in his newspaper "SelbstEmancipation" in 1886 and utilised later by Herzl to in political context (Shoufani
1996).
In reviewing its analysed media statements, "The Islamic Resistance" did not
choose religious or cultural names to name the State of Israel, such as "The Jewish
State" or "The Hebrew State." Instead of these terms, which may not be considered
abusive and may align with the description of Israel to its state, "The Islamic
Resistance" names Israel "The Zionist Entity" (al-Kayn al-suhyn). In Arabic, the
term 'Kayn' (entity) signifies an occurrence, or a new created thing. However, the
lexical roots of this Arabic term 'Kayn' derives from the verb 'Kan' which generally
means a defective verb in Arabic grammar (Manzur 2003). Notably, the term "The
Zionist Entity" is employed by Arab media to describe Israel "as an artificial state that
lacked the geographic, demographic and economic strengths necessary for long-term
survival" (Suleiman 2011: 131). Thus, the use of the term 'entity' seems to ossify the
notion that the existence of Israel is deficient, and thus Israel cannot be considered a
state.
18
In a similar vein, "The Islamic Resistance" utilises in its media discourse the
term "The Rapist Entity" to describe Israel. The utilisation of this term, as Suleiman
(2011: 131) argues, is:
a continuation of the post-1948 rhetoric, the Arab political discourse represented the
occupation of Arab land in 1967 in sexual terms, describing it as an act of rape
(ightisb). This rape was all the more devastating to the victim because it was
perpetrated by what was regarded as the weaker party in the conflict, against the
stronger and numerically most dominant one regionally, which, since then, has
suffered chronic political and military impotence. This act of rape penetrated deep
into the Arab psyche, because in carrying it out, the perpetrator used the latest
Western technology, which the Arabs had so much desired but were constantly
denied.
The adoption of this frame by "The Islamic Resistance" from Arab media
discourse seems reflecting the political landscape of this military arm and the
significance of utilising this frame to address Arab audiences, including those who do
not hold the same religious belief with the organisation, but they may support the war
against Israel.
6.2.2 Reframing The Israeli Places
"The Islamic Resistance" calls the Israeli villages and cities colonies and
occasionally calls them settlements. For "The Islamic Resistance", all Palestine is
occupied by Israel. Thus, "The Islamic Resistance", which was reviving Al-Quds' day
with a military parade, considers Al-Quds an Islamic holy city and should be liberated
from Israeli occupation (Attal 2010).
El Houri (2012) points out that the notions occupation and colonialism
prevailed after establishing the State of Israel in 1948 over the Palestinian territories.
Thus, occupation "is one of the defining elements of modern Arab identity, notably in
Palestine but also elsewhere with the legacy of the colonial and post-colonial
experiences. As a category, occupation is coupled with and cannot be dissociated
from resistance as the struggle to end occupation" (El Houri 2012: 174-175). In this
vein, and as El Houri (2012) argues, "The notion of liberation cannot be dissociated
from the experience of occupation and the attachment to the land as the physical
space on which the conflict is fought. Liberation becomes a re-occupation of land that
had been lost a re-appropriation of the formerly occupied space" (175).
Occupation, which is used to describe the legal status quo of the territories in
West Bank, east Jerusalem and previously Gaza Strip, is a term utilised by the
Security Council of the United Nations to name the occupied Arab lands by Israel in
June 1967 (Suleiman 2004). Thus, the term Occupied Territories "derives from the
UN resolution 242, is used once only in spite of the fact that it is the only term that
defines the legal status of the so-called 'Administered Territories'. The term
'Occupied' is used once and then only as a gloss for term 'Administered', thus
favouring the latter term over its former counterpart" (Suleiman 2004: 166). The same
author claims that the "academic discourse on the use of names for the settlements in
19
the Occupied Territories is not immune from this injection of ideology. By censoring
the word 'Occupied' in the name Occupied territories, Israel social science takes the
occupation out of Occupation. And when this happens in publications in Englishmedium journals, as it does all too often, the impact is no longer localised" (Suleiman
2011: 205).
To provide an example and verify his argument, Suleiman (2011) points out
that David Aberbach "instead of referring to Palestine under the British mandate by
that name, the author describes it as 'pre-State Israel' [...]. In this case, Palestine is
written out of history in the same way that the Israeli occupation is written out of the
occupation of the West Bank and Gaza" (205).
In retrospect, the term 'colonies' and its derivative, such as 'colonists', may
not be abusive, because they signify "how some leading Zionists, particularly those
working in the culture domain, conceptualised themselves and their activity"
(Suleiman 2004: 188). Thus, this term was "used by the Zionist movement to
designate the new Jewish 'settlement' in Palestine" (Suleiman 2011: 208).
On the other hand, the term settlements, in Arabic, "mustawtant, from
istawtana, implies the act of an outsider to settle down in a location that does not
originally belong to him or to which he is a stranger" (ibid).
Poole (Quoted in Suleiman 2011) "explains that the term settlement in
English 'conjures an idea of a virgin, unpopulated territory: an image of building log
cabins in the wilderness,' as well as carrying the 'secondary sense of agreement,'
neither of which is true. Israeli settlements were built 'in heavily populated
Palestinian areas' and have been declared illegal by UN Security Council and the
international court of Justice. The Hebrew term for settlements is hitnakhlut, 'a word
of biblical origin which means roughly settling on one's patrimony'" (208).
Suleiman (2004) points out that "Sharjah TV in the United Arab Emirates
calls the Israeli settlement[s] in the Occupied Territories mughtasabt, not
mustawtant, which is the prevalent term in the Arab media. The former term is
derived from the root ghasaba, the meaning of which incorporates the ideas of taking
away by force, extortion, coercion, abduction and rape. This range of meanings is
closer to how the Arabs conceptualise the Israeli settlements, and is closer to the
status of the settlements in international law than the normal Arabic term" (188). As
shown earlier, the use of this term aligns with how "The Islamic Resistance's" media
describes Israel by "The Rapist Entity."
7. Findings
Apart from 'the self' religious frames, Hezbollah's military arm utilises the
same linguistic terminologies set by Arab media in the context of their war with
Israel. In this regard, the organisation asserts on the notion that its actions are selfdefensive and aim to liberate the occupied Lebanese territories by Israel. Thus, the
culture behind this discourse represented by utilising certain frames is connected to
Arab societies to present 'the self' and 'the other', or by other words Israel. As noted
20
earlier, the frame can be considered as a tool of representation, because it works in

the production of knowledge (Watson 2007). Hence, "representation connects
meaning and language to culture" (Hall 2013: 1).
In its discourse, which aims to contend the western hegemony about its
narration of the Arab-Israeli conflict (Khoury & Da'na 2009), "The Islamic
Resistance" is aware of the significance of providing the audiences its version of the
story about the war with Israel (Harb 2011).
Similarly to addressing non-Arabs, Hezbollah's military arm aims to entrench
the perception of the Arab audiences of positive label of the Resistance and negative
of Israel. In this regard, the organisation has utilised all the frames that present 'the
self' as liberator and defender and present Israel, its places and army as an occupier
and illegal.
By and large, the process of naming may entail with the notion of power
(Massad 2006). In this vein, it seems that Hezbollah's military arm intertwines
between the military and media powers to ensure the continuity of igniting the war
against Israel by weapons and discourse.
8. Conclusion
This paper has identified frames of "The Islamic Resistance's" media
discourse and interpreted their meanings. In this regard, the paper has shown that the
Arab-Israeli conflict has an impact on "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse,
because it was emerged in its context. Except the religious frames, which are not
identified and analysed in this paper, "The Islamic Resistance" reflects the vision of
many Arabs, including Palestinians, towards the conflict with Israel. Thus, it utilised
a number of the same frames to name Israel and its actions.
Through showing their origins, this paper has provided an insight on the
utilised frames in "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse. This insight is crucial,
because it glimpses on the objectives of Hezbollah's military arm.
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22

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Analysing Images:
A Social Semiotic Perspective
Claudia E. Stoian
Abstract: The present paper introduces briefly one of the most important theories and models
of visual social semiotics, namely Kress and van Leeuwens grammar of visual design. An
image, advertising honeymoon packages, is used to illustrate to the reader the points presented
by the theory. The conclusion includes practical implications of the theory, pointing out
several areas where visual social semiotic analysis can be applied.
Keywords: visual communication, social semiotics, visual analysis, systemic-functional
metafunctions.
1. Introduction
Visual communication conveys information and ideas visually by visual
means. Along with its various types, it has been studied from various perspectives,
such as: content analysis (Bell 2001); cultural dimensions (Stoian 2015);
anthropological studies (Collier & Collier 1986); psychoanalysis (Diem-Ville 2001);
film and television (Price 2015) or social semiotics (Jewitt & Oyama 2001), to
mention just a few. Social semiotics, the perspective dealt with in this paper, is said to
involve the description of semiotic resources, what can be said and done with images
(and other visual means of communication) and how the things people say and do
with images can be interpreted (Jewitt & Oyama 2001: 134). Visual resources are,
thus, considered from a functionalist approach; like any semiotic resource, they
perform several metafunctions simultaneously in order to convey meaning.
This paper presents briefly one of the most important theories and models of
visual social semiotics, i.e. Kress and van Leeuwens grammar of visual design
(1996; 2006). It uses an image that advertises honeymoon packages from a tour
Assisstant, PhD, Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Faculty of Communication

Sciences, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania.
23
operators website to illustrate to the readers the points presented by the theory. The
image is included in the Appendix. Finally, the paper points out some of the fields
where visual analysis can be applied.
2. Visual design
Visual social semiotics follows Hallidays theory of metafunctions (1994;
2004; Halliday & Matthiessen 2004), which postulates that language fulfils three
metafunctions simultaneously, namely ideational, interpersonal and textual. The same
metafunctions have been extended to visual social semiotic resources by Kress and
van Leeuwen (1996; 2006) and renamed as representational, interactive and
compositional. They consider that the visual, like all semiotic modes, has to serve
several communicational (and representational) requirements, in order to function as a
full system of communication (2006: 41).
2.1. Representational metafunction
The first metafunction has to do with the patterns of representation, in other
words, the way experience is encoded visually. The visual encoding is carried on
either by narrative and/or conceptual structures. Narrative structures present
unfolding actions and events, processes of change and transitory spatial arrangements.
They always include a depicted element which forms an oblique line and indicates
directionality, called vector (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 59). For example, in the
image used here for illustration, there are two vectors, one indicated by the couples
arms and the other by the direction of their look. There are several kinds of narrative
processes: action, reactional, speech, mental, and conversion, depending on the types
of vectors and participants included. Action processes contain a vector formed by a
depicted element or an arrow, departing from a participant, i.e. Actor. There are two
types of actions: non-transactional (only the Actor) and transactional (Actor and
Goal). In this case, Goal is the participant towards which the vector is directed.
Transactional processes can be bidirectional, meaning that each participant plays now
the role of Actor now the role of Goal, as Interactors (63-66). Applying this to the
image, the couple act as Interactors in a transactional bidirectional action, since they
appear hugging each other, as indicated by the vector formed by their arms. In the
case of reactional processes, the vector is formed by the direction of the glance of one
or more participants, i.e. Reacters. Also these structures can be non-transactional (the
glance is directed towards something outside the picture frame) and transactional (the
glance is directed towards another participant, the Phenomenon) (Kress & van
Leeuwen 2006: 67-68). For example, the represented participants in the image from
the Appendix are involved in a transactional reactional process as Reacters looking
directly at something outside the picture that can be identified as the viewer. Turning
to speech processes, these present dialogue balloons in order to link speakers, called
Sayers, to their speech, called Utterance. The same is applicable to mental processes,
just that dialogue, speakers and speech are replaced by thought balloons, thinkers
24
(Sensers) and thought (Phenomenon). The last type of processes, conversion, depict a
chain of transactional processes, where a third participant called Relay is Goal for one
participant and Actor for another (68-70). These three last processes have not been
identified in the image considered.
Narrative structures contain also secondary participants, called
Circumstances. They are connected to the main participants by other ways than
vectors. Moreover, they can be left out without changing the narrative pattern, but this
would cause loss of information. The circumstances expressed by visual language are
of several types: Locative (relate participants to the Setting), Means (present the tools
used in action processes) and Accompaniment (depict two participants, who are not
linked by a vector) (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 72). The image here shows how the
encoding of reality is made more detailed by using circumstances of location (the
setting against which the couple is placed) and means (the couples hands).
As for conceptual structures, they represent participants in terms of their
class, structure or meaning (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 59). These are divided into
classificational, analytical and symbolical. Classificational processes relate
participants to each other; there is always a Subordinate for a Superordinate. They are
further classified into overt and covert taxonomies, depending whether the
Superordinate is shown or not (79-87). This type is not found in the image presented
here. Furthermore, analytical processes connect participants in terms of part-whole
structures; the parts/Possessive Attributes belong to the whole/Carrier. Also, these
processes can be of several types: unstructured (no Carrier); temporal (realized by
times lines); exhaustive (Possessive Attributes presented exhaustively); inclusive
(much of the Carrier unaccounted); topographical (physical spatial relations);
topological (logical relations between participants); and spatio-temporal (applied to
charts) (87-104). In the image discussed, the represented non-human participants are
depicted belonging to the surrounding of the couple. The bushes, trees and sky are
part, as Possessive Attributes, of the landscape, as Carrier. However, the way they fit
together as a whole is omitted, indicating an unstructured analytical process. Finally,
symbolic processes depict what a participant is or means. They can be attributive or
symbolic. In the former case, two participants are involved: a Carrier, the part whose
meaning or identity is established in the relation, and a Symbolic Attribute, the part
which represents the meaning or identity itself. In turn, in the last case, there is only
the Carrier, whose meaning and identity is not being conferred, but is coming from its
own qualities (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 105-107). The image here uses a
symbolic attributive process to picture the couple (Symbolic Attribute) as doing
nothing but posing for the viewer, displaying their example of just married happy
people on honeymoon (Carrier).
Narrative and conceptual structures can appear individually or together, the
same as simple or complex sentences in language. When they appear together,
embedding takes places. The distinction between major and minor processes in
visuals is determined by the relative size and conspicuousness of the elements
(Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 107). The image used in the honeymoon advertisement
25
represents reality through several processes, forming a complex pattern of

representation. The reactional process is the main one and embeds the other
processes, action and analytical.
2.2. Interactive metafunction
The interactive metafunction is represented by the patterns of interactions
between participants. Several types of participants are involved in visual
communication, namely represented (depicted) and interactive (real). They can lead
to various relations within the same types and between the different types (Kress &
van Leeuwen 2006: 114).
The interactive meaning of images has three dimensions: image act, social
distance and point of view. The image act is related to the gaze direction of the
represented participants, which can be directed at the viewer (demand) or not (offer).
Demands are considered to establish an imaginary relation with the viewer since they
address her/him directly. The act can also be emphasized by facial expressions and
gestures (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 116-118). The image analysed here establishes
an imaginary relation between the represented couple and the real one by using a
demand act. They look directly at the viewer, creating, thus, a visual form of direct
address. The couples gaze and smile seem to demand the viewer to enter into a
relation of social affinity and identification. To continue, offers, on the other hand,
address the viewer indirectly, as there is no gaze contact between participants. They
depict the represented participants impersonally as items of information or objects for
contemplation (119). It is important to highlight that the choice of image act can
suggest different relations between participants, such as engagement or detachment
(116-120).
As far as social distance is concerned, it is influenced by different sizes of
frame, namely close-up, medium or long. These sizes apply not only to humans, but
also to objects, buildings or landscapes. They can lead to different relations between
represented participants and viewers (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 124-129). The size
of frame in the focused image is a close-up shot, which leads to a close social distance
and involves the participants in an informal relation typical between friends.
The last dimension of the interactive function is point of view or perspective.
There are two types of images: subjective, presenting everything from a particular
perspective, dictated by the image-producer, and objective, depicting all there is to
know about the subject (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 143). Participants can be
depicted from various angles, each indicating a different relation. For example, the
horizontal angle can be frontal and indicate involvement or oblique and show
detachment. As for the vertical angle, this can be high and assign power to interactive
participants, low and make represented participants more powerful, or eye level and
maintain equal relations (133-143). The image of the couple is subjective, as they are
presented just partly. They are photographed from frontal and eye level angles, angles
that indicate involvement and equality between participants.
26
Kress and van Leeuwen include in their model of visual design also the
concept of modality. As in language, this is related to the reliability of the message,
since visuals can represent people, places and things as though they actually exist in
this way or as though they do not (as imaginary) (2006: 156). Modality is
constructed by a complex interplay of markers, such as colour saturation,
differentiation or modulation; contextualization; representation; depth; illumination
and brightness (see Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 160-163 for more details). The
interplay of the markers of modality in the image from the online advertisement turns
it into certain. High and medium modality is suggested by the following visual clues:
median colour saturation and modulation, several different colours, incomplete
articulated and detailed setting, median represented details, central perspective and
median degrees of brightness.
2.3. Compositional metafunction
The last metafunction refers to the meaning of composition, being related to
the way in which representations and communicative acts cohere into the kind of
meaningful whole we call text (Kress & van Leeuwen 1996: 181). Meaning is built
by three interrelated systems: information value, salience and framing. In addition,
these systems are not restricted to single pictures, but they apply also to composite
visuals, i.e. visuals, which combine text, image and/or other graphic elements, and
their layouts.
Information value is associated to three main visual areas: left and right; top
and bottom; and centre and margin. In the case of left and right, the composition is
structured along the horizontal axis. The left side is related to given information,
which is assumed to be familiar and accepted as a point of departure for the message
by the viewer. As opposed, the right side is reserved to new information, to something
unknown or requiring special attention (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 179-185). The
image discussed here is composed on a horizontal axis, placing the couple as given
information and the landscape as new. This can mean that marriage has become
known information and the couple should focus on the landscape or surroundings,
implying, thus, the destination of their honeymoon. To continue, information can be
structured also along a vertical axis. On one hand, the information placed at top is
presented as essential or ideal, illustrating a promise. On the other hand, the bottom
depicts the product itself, by real or more specific and practical information (186194). Placing the image considered into its context, namely the webpage of the tour
operators website, the layout of the webpage makes use of the vertical axis,
presenting the image in the upper part and the text in the lower one. Thus, the image
is considered ideal information, its essence, which presents the promise of the
advertisement. In contrast, the text represents the real, specific and practical
information. Furthermore, different values are attributed to the information following
a centre-margin alignment. The centre is reserved for the nucleus of information,
whereas the margins are similar and subservient to the centre (194-200). These
information values have not been found in the image provided here as an example.
27
Another important system in the composition of visual meaning is salience.

This makes a difference among elements, as some are presented as more important or
attractive than others. The visual clues indicating salience are: size, sharpness of
focus, tonal and colour contrast, placement in the visual field, perspective and specific
cultural factors (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 201-203). The image here contains
salient elements, such as the couple, placed left in the visual field, foregrounded and
overlapping the bushes and trees in the background and whose pale faces contrast
with the green of the trees; and the word Honeymoon, which is the only text within
the picture and is written in white on a coloured background.
To conclude this description of Kress and van Leeuwens grammar of visual
design (1996; 2006), framing is another system that connects the representational
meaning to the interactive one. The elements in an image or page can be either
connected or disconnected by frame lines, discontinuity of shape or empty space
between elements. Moreover, connection can be emphasized by vectors (2006: 203204). The image illustrated contains no framing itself. Considering it, however, in its
context, the image is framed by thick borders, which can signify individuality and
differentiation. This means that the image is presented as a separate information unit
from the text, fact in accordance with the vertical arrangement of ideal versus real.
3. Interpretation of visual analysis
As briefly described and pointed out above, Kress and van Leeuwen (1996;
2006) have provided, apart from a grammar of visual design, several analytical tools
for interpreting visual language. Their descriptive framework leads to results that
have a visual meaning and can be interpreted. Considering the findings encountered
in the image from the online advertisement on honeymoon used here, it can be
concluded that this presents the model of a just married happy couple on holiday as
a display object of contemplation for the viewer. The couple is placed on a natural
background, surrounded by the sky and trees. The represented participants are looking
straight at the viewer. By their gaze and smile, the couple ask the viewer to enter into
a relation of likeness, agreement and resemblance with them. In other words, they
want to establish a close and informal relationship with the viewer, desire also
emphasized by the frontal and eye level angles of the shot. In addition, the picture is
presented as certain, as something that will happen, through the combination of
several modality markers. This promise of the future is suggested also by the vertical
alignment of the page layout, where the image occupies the position of the ideal. The
image is further emphasized by saliency and framing. Therefore, the advertisement as
a whole seems to want to persuade the possible client visually, mainly with the help
of the image, which depicts a promised certain to happen future.
28
4. Conclusion
To summarise, Kress and van Leeuwen (1996; 2006) have provided a
grammar of visual design, presenting the theory and vocabulary needed to talk about
and read images. They have extended Hallidays metafunctions to visual
communication and called them representational, interactive and compositional. The
types of structure, process, participant and circumstance; the types of image act,
social distance, perspective, point of view, modality; and the types of information
value, salience and framing can indicate the reality encoded; the interaction and
relation established between participants; and the meaning composed, all of them
visually. These meaning-making metafunctions and visual resources can, not only be
described and observed, but also interpreted. The complexity created by the
description and interpretation of images and/or any other type of visuals raises
interest in various fields where visual communication is thoroughly used. To
conclude, the model proposed by Kress and van Leeuwen is applicable to domains,
such as promotion, websites, teaching material, paintings, fairy tales, spatial
arrangements of buildings, tourism and/or cultural aspects of non-verbal
communication, to mention just a few. It can help, on one side, students and
researchers understand better visual communication and, on the other, professionals
make a more adequate use of visual communication in order to convey information
and persuade more successfully.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Bell, P., Content Analysis of Visual Images, in van Leeuwen, T., & C. Jewitt (eds),
Handbook of Visual Analysis, London: Sage Publications, 2001, 10-34.
Collier, J., & M. Collier, Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method.
Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1986.
Diem-Ville, G., A Therapeutic Perspective: The Use of Drawings in Child
Psychoanalysis and Social Science, in van Leeuwen, T., and C. Jewitt (eds), Handbook
of Visual Analysis, London: Sage Publications, 2001, 119-133.
Halliday, M.A.K., An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold,
1985, 1994.
Halliday, M.A.K., & C. Matthiessen, An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd ed),
London: Hodder Arnold, 2004.
Jewitt, C., & R. Oyama, Visual Meaning: A Social Semiotic Approach, in van Leeuwen
T., and C. Jewitt (eds), Handbook of Visual Analysis, London: Sage Publications, 2001,
134-156.
Kress, G., & T. van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. London:
Routledge, 1996, 2006.
Price, D., Surveyors and Surveyed: Photography out and about in L. Wells (ed),
Photography. A Critical Introduction (5th ed), London: Routledge, 2015, 75-133.
Stoian, C., The Discourse of Tourism and National Heritage: A Contrastive Study from a
Cultural Perspective, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015.
29
10. ***,
Paquete
de
Luna
de
Miel,
CostaRican
http://www.costaricantrails.com/espanol/romance/romanc00.html, 2009.
Appendix
Image used for illustration
Source: Costa Rican trails (2009)
30
Trails,

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Visual Communication by Colours in Human

Computer Interface
Andreea Dobra
Abstract: In Human Computer Interface, graphics, icons, images and colours (screen) can be a
powerful communication and attention getting technique. To understand how colours should
be used in order to obtain the desired target on a screen, it is important to know about: user
eye, how to choose the colours for categories of information, what the common meanings are,
how to locate the colours on the screen, which the physical impressions are when the usability
is verified. The order of colours, the foregrounds and the backgrounds, the number of colours,
are all communication tools.
Keywords: Human Computer Interface, colour, visual communication, usability.
1. Introduction
By analysing the title, the following directions are traced: human computer
interface, visual communication and colour.
2. Visual communication
Visual communication is the communication through a visual aid and it is
described as the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or
looked at.
Visual communication as a part or as a whole relies on vision (Sless
1981:187-190) and it is primarily presented or expressed with two dimensional
images (signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, industrial design,
advertising, animation, colour) and electronic resources.
Assistant Professor, PhD, Department of Mechatronics, Faculty Mechanical Engineering, Politehnica

University of Timioara, Romania.
31
We also explore the idea that a visual message (Smith 2005: 123-125)
accompanying a text has a great power to inform, to educate, or to persuade a person
or audience (Visual communication, 2015).
Visual
communication
is
based
on
several
theories
(http://mtsujournalism.org). Some of them are: the semiotics (science of sign and
symbols), the gestalt (the sum is greater than its part, the humans are capable to
assembly mentally separate objects into new logical wholes), the constructivism
(humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their
experiences and their ideas / observations), the ecological (people interprets what they
see through spatial properties: light and scale), the cognitive (perception involves
mental processes) (Loubere 2015).
3. Colour
The colour gives realism to screen usability. It attracts the users eye
emphasizes the logical information, facilitates the difference of screen components,
makes display more attractive, only if it is chosen properly.
The colour derives from the spectrum of light (wavelength) interacting in the
eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors.
Light is made of electromagnetic waves. Different colours have different
wavelengths. Table 1 shows the colour of the visible light spectrum (Bohren 2006:
216-220).
Colour
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Cyan
Blue
violet
Wavelengths interval [ nm]

~ 700 635
~ 635 590
~ 590 560
~ 560 520
~ 520 490
~ 490 450
~ 450 400
Frequency interval [THz]

~ 430 480
~ 480 510
~ 510 540
~ 540 580
~ 580 610
~ 610 670
~ 670 750
Table 1. Wavelengths and frequency interval
3.1. Colours space
Figure 1. Colour space / models (Colour Models, 2015)
32
Colours in human computer interface are defined by one of the colour space
or model: RGB, HSL and HSV (HSB). (Figure 1)
3.1.1. RGB (Red Green Blue)
RGB uses additive colour mixing, because it describes what kind of light
needs to be emitted to produce a given colour. It defines a colour space in terms of
three components:
Red, which ranges from 0-255
Green, which ranges from 0-255
Blue, which ranges from 0-255
The RGB colour model is an additive one. Red, Green and Blue values
(known as the three primary colours) are combined to reproduce other colours.
Maximum numbers of colours is 16.7 million.
3.1.2. HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) / HSB (Hue, Saturation, Brightness)
colour space
Often, it is easier to think about a colour in terms of hue and saturation rather
than in terms of additive or subtractive colour components.
HSB / HSV is a nonlinear transformation of the RGB colour space (colour is
not defined as a simple combination addition / subtraction of primary colours but as a
mathematical transformation).
The HSB / HSV colour model defines a colour space in terms of three
constituent components:
Hue: the colour type (such as red, blue, or yellow). It ranges from 0
to 360 in most applications. (Each value corresponds to one colour:
0 is red, 45 is a shade of orange and 55 is a shade of yellow).
Saturation: the intensity of the colour. It ranges from 0 to 100% (0
means no colour, that is a shade of grey between black and white;
100 means intense colour).
Brightness (or Value): the brightness of the colour. It ranges from 0
to 100% (0 is always black; depending on the saturation, 100 may be
white or a more or less saturated colour).
3.1.3. HSL colour space
HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness / Luminance), also known as HSI (Hue,
Saturation, Intensity) is quite similar to HSV.
Hue: the colour type (such as red, blue, or yellow). It ranges from 0
to 360 in most applications (to each value corresponds one colour).
Saturation: variation of the colour depending on the lightness. It
ranges from 0 to 100% (from the centre of the black & white axis).
Lightness (also Luminance or Luminosity or Intensity). It ranges
from 0 to 100% (from black to white).
33
HSL is similar to HSB. The main difference is that HSL is symmetrical to

lightness and darkness. This means that:
- in HSL, the Saturation component always goes from a fully saturated
colour to the equivalent grey (in HSB, with B at maximum, it goes
from saturated colour to white).
- in HSL, the Lightness always spans the entire range from black
through the chosen hue to white (in HSB, the B component only goes
half that way, from black to the chosen hue).
HSL offers a more accurate (even if it is not an absolute one) colour
approximation than HSB.
3.2. Dithering
If the pixels of colours (on display) are placed next to each other, the tremor
of eyes combines the two colours and the user sees a third one. These phenomena can
create an optical illusion on a screen.
3.3. Colour uses
Figure 2 shows some direction of colour usage for visual communication on
screen.
Figure 2. Colour usage
The colours in screen formatting are used to grouping or to separating

elements / information and highlighting / calling attention to some of them.
Displaying grouping of information in different colours can enhance the
differentiation of the groupings. Spatially separated but related fields can be tied up
together through a colour scheme (Galitz 2002: 625-628). Colour is used in
formatting because it is much more flexible than other techniques through a number
of available colours.
34
Properly selected colour-coding schemes allow identifying and focussing on

relevant information without reading its contents first. The remaining information is
excluded from the users attention.
3.3.1 Colour viewing
Forms of colour blindness are:
Deuteranopia - to green (6.39%)
Protanopia - to red (2.04%)
Tritanopia (very rare 0.003%) - to blue
Table 2 shows an example of colour viewing analyser and how users with
insensivity see a colour (Galitz 2002:627; Mazzocato 2014; The 28 best tools for
choosing a colour scheme, 2015).
Table 2. Colour defective vision example
3.3.2. Colour connotation

Humans have different reactions to colour. They may make colour
associations learned in childhood or associations on how colour are applied to objects
in environment. Table 3 and figure 3 show some of the more frequent colour
connotations.
Figure 3. A Spectrum of Colour Meaning (Bortoli 2015)
35
Table 3. Common colour connotations (Cultural Contexts of Color, 2015)
3.3.3. Cultural colour associations

Figure 4 refers to an interesting study about colours in different cultures:
36
Figure 4. Cultural colour association table and diagram (Pantone 2014; Bortoli 2015)
3.3.4. Colours schemes

Figure 5 presents classical colour schemes.
Figure 6 shows an example of triadic scheme and two variants of screen: light
and dark (The 28 best tools for choosing a colour scheme, 2015).
Figure 5. Classic Colour Schemes (Color Wheel Pro, 2015)

37
Figure 6. Example of triadic Colour Schemes
3.3.5. Location on screen

The recommendations for usability of human interface are (Galitz 2002: 636):
- in the centre of the visual field: red, green
- in the peripheral areas: blue, yellow, black, and white.
3.3.6. Foreground and background colours
For choosing a display colour it is recommended to select first a background
and then an acceptable foreground colours (The 28 best tools for choosing a colour
scheme, 2015).
Many studies were made to analyse the best combinations (Galitz 2002: 636).
Some applications are very useful in selecting a desired foreground for
chosen background (Colour Scheme 2014; The 28 best tools for choosing a colour
scheme, 2015).
3.3.7. Physical impression
Colours yield different physical impression:
- Bright, saturated colours convey a feeling of largeness and closeness
- Dark, saturated colours convey a feeling of heaviness and farness
- Desaturated light colours indicate a light weight and height
- Desaturated dark colours indicate smallness
Figure 7 shows some of the most used impressions and colours physical
impression.
38
Figure 7. The physical impression of the colours
4. Human computer interface

User Interface Design is the process of crafting a visual language and
hierarchy that allows someone to use and engage an application.
Designing a computer interface (user interface) implies:
- gaining users understanding and his tasks;
- involving the users in design of interface from the beginning
- using of rapid prototyping and testing
- iterating or modifying the design to obtain the desired solution
- integrating the obtained design for all system components.
In each step of the interface design, colour usage can change a range of
usability.
The main principles in user interface design are:
- simplicity: depends on the context of use, what the user wants to do,
etc.
- structure: interface is clearly laid out, well organized and controls are
easily identifiable. Elements must be grouped together. The same
task implies the same look.
- visibility: interface controls that need to be accessed by the user are
visible.
- consistency: People see what they expect to see. Recognition is
preferable over recall.
39
tolerance - with users errors: a tolerant user interface allows the

users to recover after the mistakes they have made.
feedback: how the user interface communicates with the user after he
/ she has carried out an interaction. The feedback can be visual,
auditory or haptic.
5. Conclusion
Colour in user interface is more than an aesthetical element. It is a powerful
tool of communication.
A good communication needs to be properly sent and received, without
noise. The feedback in visual communication by colours in human computer interface
is difficult to measure. For this reason, colour is used to be closer to the users needs,
in order to understand and to help the development of the activity.
There are some usage of colours on interface that should be avoided: too
many colours at one time, colours with equal brightness, lack of contrast, usage of
colour in unexpected ways (e.g. use green for stop or danger), etc.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Bohren C. F., Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation: An Introduction with 400

Problems. Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Bortoli M., Maroto J., Colours Across Cultures: Translating Colours in Interactive
Marketing Communication, available at
http://globalpropaganda.com/articles/TranslatingColours.pdf [Mars 2015]
Galitz W., The Essential Guide To User Interface Design, Willey Computer Publishing,
2002.
Loubere P., Visual Communication, available at
http://mtsujournalism.org/vcom_materials /design/vcom.6_theories.pdf [January 2015]
Mazzocato G., Accesibility Color Wheel, version 2.5, available at
http://gmazzocato.altervista. org/colourwheel/wheel.php [Mars 2014]
Pantone, Color Matters, available at http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations
/colours-in-cultures/ [October 2014]
Sless D., Learning and visual communication, London: CroomHelm, Ltd., Published in
the United States and Canada by Halsted Press, 1981.
Smith K. L., Handbook of visual communication: theory, methods, and media, 2005.
***, Color Wheel Pro, available at http://www.colour-wheel-pro.com/colourschemes.html [February 2015]
***, Colour Models, available at http://colourizer.org/ [Mars 2015]
***, Colour Scheme, available at http://colourschemedesigner.com/csd-3.5/# [Mars
2014]
***, Cultural Contexts of Color, available at
http://openhighschoolcourses.org/mod/book/tool/ print/index.php?id=10941 [Mars 2015]
***, The 28 best tools for choosing a colour scheme, available at http://www.creativebloq
.com/colour/tools-colour-schemes-12121430 [Mars 2015]
***, Visual communication, available at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_communication [February 2015]
40

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Organisationskultur unter dem Einfluss der

Globalisierung
Simona Olaru-Poiar*
Zusammenfassung: Das Ziel dieses Artikels ist zunchst einmal eine Definition und ein klares
Verstndnis von dem was Kultur ist zu geben und darber hinaus, sich auf dem Verstndnis
der Organisationskultur zu konzentrieren: was es ist, wie es sich entwickelt und seine
Bedeutung als strkste Determinante des Verhaltens der Organisation. Um ein klares
Verstndnis zu entwerfen von dem was durch Organisationskultur gemeint wird, ist es
hilfreich, zunchst darber zu berichten, wie Kultur im gesellschaftlichen Kontext und in einer
engen Beziehung mit der Globalisierung wahrgenommen wird.
Schlsselworte: Globalisierung, Kultur, Organisationskultur, Verhalten, Multikulturalitt
1. Einfhrung
Kultur kann als materiell in Form von architektonisches Design, Maschinen
usw. wahrgenommen werden; und als subjektiv wie zum Beispiel Einstellungen,
berzeugungen, Werte und stillschweigende Normen. Obwohl Kultur nicht Religion,
Geschlecht, Rasse oder Nationalitt ist, interagieren sie untereinander. Die Geschichte
zeigt, dass die materiellen und subjektiven Elemente einer Kultur sich in der Zeit
verndern, indem die wissenschaftliche Innovation und der geistige Fortschritt alte
Konstruktionen, Einstellungen, Werte und berzeugungen versetzt. Die Kulturen
finden sich neu auf und ihre Sprachen werden komplexer; sie entwickeln sich stndig
weiter.
Die Kultur wird dadurch definiert, dass sie ein System von gemeinsamen
Werten und berzeugungen ist, was die angemessene Verhaltensweisen anbelangt,
was wichtig zu sein scheint und was die Gefhle und die Beziehungen uerlich und
innerlich betrifft. Werte und Kulturen mssen bedeutsam fr die Organisation sein,
weit verbreitet und in der tglichen Praxis reflektiert sein und relevant fr die Zwecke
der Hochschule und Hochschullehrplne sein.
Organisationskultur ist die Sammlung von relativ gleichmigen und
*
Assistant, PhD, Victor Babe University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timioara, Romania.
41
dauerhaften Werte, berzeugungen, Bruche, Traditionen und Praktiken, die von den
Mitgliedern einer Organisation gemeinsam ausgebt werden, von neuen Trainer
gelernt werden und von einer Generation zur nchsten bertragen. Neu ist die
Individualitt der verschiedenen Generationen von Studenten, vor allem in den
Universitten, wo unterschiedliche Kulturen zusammenstoen, wo verschiedene
Religionen und Backgrounds zusammen kommen und sich mit einem verschiedenen
Trainingsystem auseinandersetzen ein anderes Niveau und mit einer anderen
Lehrplne, Trainer usw. Um klar zu verstehen was mit Organisationskultur bedeutet,
wre es hilfreich, zunchst einen Bericht zur Verfgung zu stellen darber, wie Kultur
in dem gesellschaftlichen Kontext und in einer engen Beziehung mit der
Globalisierung wahrgenommen wird.
Ein weiterer Aspekt der Kultur ist die kulturelle Globalisierung: die kulturelle
Globalisierung bezieht sich auf die bertragung von Ideen, Bedeutungen und Werte
in der ganzen Welt in einer solchen Weise, damit die soziale Beziehungen intensiver
zu werden. Dieser Prozess wird durch den gemeinsamen Konsum von Kulturen, die
durch das Internet, der populren Kultur, Medien und der internationalen Reisen
gestreut wurden, gekennzeichnet. Dies hat zum Prozessen der Warenaustausch und
Kolonisation beigefgt, der eine lngere Geschichte der Durchfhrung kultureller
Bedeutung in der ganzen Welt zugegeben hat.
Das Zirkullieren der Kulturen ermglicht den Menschen in erweiterte soziale
Beziehungen, die nationale und regionale Grenzen berschreiten, teilzunehmen. Der
Auf- und Ausbau solcher sozialen Beziehungen ist nicht nur auf materieller Ebene zu
beobachten. Die kulturelle Globalisierung beinhaltet die Bildung von gemeinsamen
Normen und Wissen, womit Menschen ihre individuellen und kollektiven, kulturellen
Identitten verknpfen. Es bringt wachsende Vernetzung zwischen den verschiedenen
Bevlkerungen und Kulturen.
2. Die Begriffe Kultur und Globalisierung
In 1871 der Antrophologe Edward Tylor hat die Kultur als Wissen, Glauben,
Kunst, Moral, Recht, Sitte und alle anderen Fhigkeiten und Gewohnheiten durch
Mitgliedschaft in der Gesellschaft erworben. Der Begriff beschreibt die unterschiede
zwischen zwei Gesellschaften.
In diesem Kontext, entsprechend zu Giddens:
[...]eine Kultur ist ein System von berzeugungen und Verhaltensweisen sozial
bertragen. Genauer gesagt, es besteht aus den Stzen und Regeln, die von einer
Gesellschaft gehalten werden. (Giddens 1989: 30)
Die Werte werden von jungen Menschen verinnerlicht in dem sie lernen was gut und
was wnschenswert ist. Sie definieren fr uns, was wichtig und erstrebenswert ist.
Werte stellen die grundlegende berzeugung dar, dass in einer persnlichen oder
sozialen Kontext eine spezifische Verhaltensweise vor einer anderen vorzieht.
Globalisierung ist ein Prozess der Interaktion und Integration zwischen den
Menschen, Unternehmen und Regierungen verschiedener Nationen, ein Prozess durch
internationalen
Handel
und
Investitionen
angetrieben
und
durch
Informationstechnologie untersttzt. Dieses Verfahren hat Auswirkungen auf die
42
Umwelt, auf Kultur, auf politische Systeme, auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und
den Wohlstand, und auf das Wohlbefinden der Menschen in der ganzen Welt.
Peter Ludwig Berger, ein sterreichischer Soziologe der fr seine Arbeit in
der Religionssoziologie und der Wissenssoziologie bekannt ist, gibt eine der besten
Zitate auf die Globalisierung und deren Auswirkungen: Wir haben auch ein
kulturelles Phnomen: die Entstehung einer globalen Kultur, oder eine kulturelle
Globalisierung. (Berger 1977: 56)
Technologie wurde die Haupttreiber der Globalisierung. Fortschritte in der
Informationstechnologie haben das Wirtschaftsleben dramatisch verndert.
Informationstechnologien haben alle Arten von einzelnen WirtschaftsakteureVerbraucher, Investoren, Unternehmen-wertvolle neue Werkzeuge fr die
Identifizierung und Verfolgung wirtschaftlicher gegeben.
Die Globalisierung ist zutiefst umstritten. Die Befrworter der Globalisierung
argumentieren, dass es ermglicht armen Lnder und ihre Brger sich wirtschaftlich
zu entwickeln und ihren Lebensstandard zu heben, whrend die
Globalisierungsgegner behaupten, dass die Schaffung eines ungehinderten
internationalen freien Markt hat multinationale Konzerne in der westlichen Welt auf
Kosten der lokalen Unternehmen profitiert. Widerstand gegen die Globalisierung hat
sich daher Form auf Regierungsebene getroffen, wie Menschen und Regierungen
versuchen, den Fluss von Kapital, Arbeit, Gter zu verwalten.
3. Das Verhltnis zwischen den Werten und Normen
Der Zusammenhang zwischen Werten und Normen wird deutlich, wenn ein
Versto gegen die Normen trotzt Werte der Gruppe aufkommt; die Einrichtung von
Verhaltensnormen spiegelt seine Werte. Dieses Konzept erstreckt sich ber die
Gruppe, in greren Gruppen und hinaus in die ganze Gesellschaft selbst: zum
Beispiel die Art, wie Menschen einander begegnen, und wie sie sich in der
ffentlichkeit fhren. Die Menschen kleiden sich nach dem, was von ihnen im
beruflichen Umfeld erwartet wird aber anders als in ihrer Freizeit. Alle solchen
Situationen verlangen bestimmte Kleidung und insbesondere Verhaltensweisen.
Daher durch seine Systeme von Normen und Werten untersucht, ist die Kultur
nach Linton (1945: 78) einer Gesellschaft die Lebensweise ihrer Mitglieder; die
Sammlung von Ideen und Gewohnheiten, die sie lernen, zu teilen und bertragen von
Generation zu Generation".
Bei der Geburt sind die Kinder vllig hilflos und abhngig von anderen, fr
ihre Bedrfnisse zu sorgen. Um langfristig zu berleben, Kinder mssen Kenntnisse
und Fhigkeiten entwickeln und mssen lernen, wie Menschen um sie herum
berleben. Mit anderen Worten, mssen die Kinder die Kultur der Gesellschaft, in die
sie geboren wurden zu lernen.
Kultur muss also gelernt werden, und damit eine Gesellschaft, um effektiv zu
arbeiten, muss ihre Leitlinien von seinen Mitgliedern durch ihr Verhalten geteilt
werden. Lernen und die gemeinsame Nutzung einer Kultur ist weitgehend ohne
bewusste Kontrolle erreicht. Es passiert einfach, wie Menschen sich entwickeln und
sozialisiern, und auch wenn es richtet ihr Handeln und Denken und legt ihre
Einstellung zum Leben. Die meisten Mitglieder einer Gesellschaft nehmen ihre
43
Kultur als selbstverstndlich. Menschen merken kaum ihre Kultur, auch wenn ihre
Annahme seiner Werte und die bereinstimmung mit ihren Normen zeigen, ein
gemeinsames Verstndnis von dem, was ist und was nicht akzeptabel ist.
Als eine der wichtigsten stabilen Faktoren, spielt die Kultur eine
entscheidende Rolle in den tglichen Operationen der Organisation . Obwohl sich die
kulturelle Literatur manchmal auf der Kultur einer Organisation, als gemeinsame
Grundvoraussetzung, oder als Metaphern in Organisationen konzentriert hat ,ist es
nicht genug,damit man versucht sie zu verstehen und zu beurteilen. Dieser Beitrag
untersucht die Organisationskultur in allgemeinen, einige Definitionen und
Auswirkungen der Organisationskultur aus unterschiedlichen Perspektiven zu
besprechen, kulturelle web und andere aktuelle Themen zu verstehen.
4. Organisationskultur
Historisch gesehen gibt es unzhlige Definitionen ber Organisationskultur,
die in viele Arten in der Literatur definiert sind. Vielleicht die hufigste bentzte
Definition ist die Art, wie wir Dinge hier tun. Die Organisationskultur manifestiert
sich in den typischen Merkmale der Organisation, in anderen Worten, die
Organisationskulter sollte als die richtige Weise indem, Dinge getan sind oder
Probleme verstanden sind in der Organisation, angesehen werden. Es ist weithin
anerkannt, dass die Organisationskultur, als tief verwurzelte Werte und
berzeugungen, die das Personal aus der Organisation hat, definiert wird.
Unternehmenskulturen sind die Ergebnisse der Verflechtung eines
Individuums in einer Gemeinschaft und die kollektive Programmierung des
Verstandes, die, die Mitglieder unterscheidet. Die Werte, Normen, berzeugungen
und Bruche, die eine Person gemeinsam mit anderen Mitgliedern einer sozialen
Einheit oder Gruppe hat, unterscheidet eine von einander.
Eine andere Meinung von der Unternehmenskultur, die als ein System mit
gemeinsamen Werten (was ist Wichtig) und berzeugungen (wie die Dinge
funktionieren) gesehen ist, spricht ber Menschen einer Organisation,
Organisationsstrukturen und Kontroll Systeme, um Verhaltensnormen zu produzieren,
zu bilden (die Art, wie wir die Dinge hier tun), zu betrachten.
In einer anderen Perspektive, kann die Kultur als Software in einer
Organisation betrachtet werden, da es Software ist, so, sollten die Managers
sorgflltig studieren und versuchen die Funktion jedes Elementes zu finden auf der
Grundlage von Hardware (nur in Bezug auf einer Organisation als Betriebs
Hardware).
In Allgemeinen ist die Organisationskultur die Mengenlehre von wichtigen
Werte, berzeugungen und Verstndnisse, die, die Mitglieder gemeinsam haben. Die
Kultur bietet bessere (oder die besten) Denkweisen, Gefhle und Reagierungen, die
Managern helfen knnten, um Entscheidigung zu treffen und Aktivitten in der
Organisation arrangieren.
Eine erfolgreiche Organisation sollte starke Kulturen, die die Leute anzieht,
haltet, und belohnt, haben,fr die Durchfhrung von Aufgaben und Ziele ,
wohingegen starke Kulturen gewhnlich , durch die Hingabe und Zusammenarbeit in
den Dienst der gemeinsamen Werte gekennzeichnet sind. Also, wie viel ist ein
44
Mitarbeiter einbeziehen fr eine Organisation an seinem besten, sollte deutlich

erkannt werden.
Brown (1995: 78) hat die Definition der Unternehmenskultur in seinem Buch
Organisationskultur angegeben, wie es folgt:
Organisationskultur bezieht sich auf die Muster von berzeugungen, Werte und
lernte Formen des Umgangs mit der Erfahrung, die sich im Verlauf der Geschichte
einer Organisation entwickelt haben, und die streiben um in die Materialanordnungen
und in den Verhaltensweisen ihrer Mitglieder, manifestiert zu werden.
Im Gegensatz dazu, andere Autoren wie Schein (1985) haben vorgeschlagen,

dass die Kultur am besten, als eine Reihe von psychologischen Prdispositionen (die
er Grundvoraussetzung nennt), dass die Mitglieder einer Organisation besitzen, und
die sie dazu fhrt, um in einer gewisser Weise zu denken und benehmen, betrachtet
wird. So man bietet einen weiteren Ansatz zum Verstndnis des Konzepts der
Unternehmenskultur. Fr ihn ist es ein Muster der gemeinsamen Grundvoraussetzung,
dass eine Gruppe lernt,whrend es seine Probleme externer Anpassung und interner
Integration lst, die gut genug funktioniert hat, damit es gltig angesehen wird und
daher zu neuen Mitglieder als die richtige Weise, wie man diejenige Probleme
verstehen, denken und fhlen muss, gelehrt wird.
Wohingegen Hofstede (1997: 123) ber die Bedeutung des Begriffs
Unternehmenskultur geschrieben hat, als die kollektive Programmierung des
Verstandes, die die Mitglieder einer Gruppe von anderen unterscheidet, die eine
interessante Weise scheint um das Begriff zu verstehen, und trotz er entdeckt vier
Bereiche der arbeitsbezogenen Wertdifferenzen zu dieser Zeit (Machtdistanz;
Unsicherheitsvermeidung;
Individualismus/
Kollektivismus;
Mnnlichkeit/
Weiblichkeit), aber im dem selben Jahr verwendet Hofstede den Begriff Verfahren
damit er sich auf soziale und kulturelle Phnomenen bezieht, und in Hofstedes Sicht,
ist es ganz wichtig, um die tief verwurzelten Werte der Organisationsmitglieder im
Zentrum von der Unternehmenskultur lokalisieren. In Wirklichkeit ,glauben einige
Mitglieder in diese Werte obsessiv, und knnen nichts anderes mehr akzeptieren.
Aber, wie wir whlen die Kultur zu definieren, hat eine starke Verbindung mit
unseren Versuch sie zu untersuchen und studieren, verschiedene Kenner aus der
Literatur haben unterschiedliche Interpretationen eingefhrt.
5. Die Themen der Organisationskultur
In der Literatur, wurden vier Hauptthemen ber Unternehmskultur
identifiziert wie es folgt:
Zuerst,ist die Kultur etwas was man lernt. Grundstzlich ,kann die Kultur als
die Weise, indem wir Dinge hier machen oder die Weise, indem wir hier denken
definiert werden (Williams 2000: 28-33). In allgemeinen, nachdem die Managers die
Definitionen der Kultur studieren, sollten sie den allgemeinen Trend, wie die
Angestellten denken und sich benehmen, vorhersagen oder begreifen, weil sich die
Definitionen der Kultur, in erster Reihe mit der Weise, indem sie sich benehmen und
denken, beziehen.
Das Hauptmerkmal dieses Thema ist, dass die Kultur, als die richtige Weise
45
fr neue Angestellte sich zu benehmen, bentzt wird, dabei, kann die Kultur das
berleben und Wachstum der Organisation verewigen.
Zweitens, ist die Kultur als ein Glaubenssystem angesehen, das Muster der
gemeinsamen berzeugungen und Werte, die den Mitglieden einer Institution Sinn
und Regeln, wie sie sich in der Organisation benehmen mssen.
Um den Sinn der kulturellen Themen besser zu verstehen, haben drei
englische Schriftsteller die Organisationskultur in fundamentle und tgliche
berzeugungen geteilt.Und sie befrwortern, dass die wichtigsten berzeugungen
den Kontext fr die praktischen berzeugungen jedes Tages versorgen, das heisst,
dass sie Anweisungen fr tgliche berzeugungen geben. Als grundstzlicher Prinzip,
ndern sich die wichtigste berzeugungen selten, da sie im Bereich der universellen
Wahrheit sind. Auf der anderen Seite, sind tgliche berzeugungen auch ein Teil der
Unternehmenskultur und knnen als Regeln und Gefhle fr das Alltagsverhalten,
beschrieben werden. Diese sind jedoch dynamisch und situationsbezogen; sie mssen
sich ndern, um im Kontext zu entsprechen.
Drittens, ist Kultur als eine Strategie gesehen. Nach den Abschluss einer weit
reichenden Analyse, wiederspricht Bates (1995: 267-288) die Unterscheidung
zwischen Strategie und Kultur, und glaubt, dass [...] Kultur ist ein strategisches
Phnomen:. Strategie ist ein Kulturphnomen. Das heit, es gibt zweierlei
Auswirkungen
solcher
berzeugungen:
Erstens
ist
jede Art
von
Strategieformulierung eine kulturelle Aktivitt, beispielsweise die Entwicklung der
Strategie ist nur eine kulturelle Entwicklung; zweitens sollten alle kulturelle
Vernderungen als strategische Vernderungen gesehen werden.
In Wirklichkeit ist jeder Kulturprogramm in einer Organisation nicht
voneinander getrennt, weil jede Vernderung des Kulturprogramms immer innerhalb
formellen und informellen strategischen Planungsprozesse stattfindet. Die vierte
Perspektive ist die Kultur ,als mentale Programmierung anzusehen. Einer der
wichtigsten Vertreter dieser Perspektive ist Hofstede (1997), nach Hofstede, ist Kultur
die kollektive Programmierung des Verstandes, die die Mitglieder aus einer
Kategorie von Menschen von einer anderen unterscheidet. Hofstede hat auch die
Kultur in vier Gruppen (oder vier Hauptelemente) unterteilt: Symbole, Helden,
Rituale und Werte.Eine weitreichende Untersuchung an den vier Gruppen ist
entscheidend fr die organisatorischen Managers, weil es Unternehmen oder Betrieb,
in unterschiedlichen Grad und Weise, beeintrchtigt.
6. Organisationsentwicklung und die Notwendigkeit einer Vernderung
Organisationsentwicklung (OE) ist ein Begriff das verwendet wird, um einen
Prozess zu beschreiben, durch den, mit den Prinzipien und Praktiken der
Verhaltungswissenschaften ein Verderungs-Programm in der Organisation, oft auf
eine unternehmensweite Basis angewendet wird. OE hat als letztendliches Zweck die
Schaffung einer effektiven Organisation durch Vernderung der Struktur und eine
Besserung in was einige der ausgebildenden berzeugungen , Einstellungen und
Werte anbelangen.Es befasst sich nicht mit dem, was gemacht wird , sondern , wie die
Dinge gemacht werden und mit dem Erstellen einer neuen Kultur der Zusammenhalt,
gegenseitige Abhngigkeit und gegenseitigem Vertrauen .
46
French und Bell definierten OE als:

eine geplantes systematisches Verfahren, in dem verhaltenswissenschaftlichen
Prinzipien und Praktiken in einer laufenden Organisation angewendet werden um
eine wirksame organisatorische Verbesserungen, grere organisatorische
Kompetenz und eine grere Effektivitt der Organisation zu erreichen. (French und
Bell 1990: 34)
Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf Organisationshochschulen und deren

Verbesserung, oder um es anders auszudrcken, eine Gesamntnderung des Systems.
Die Orientierung ist auf aktionserreichende gewnschten Ergebnisse als Folge der
geplanten Aktivitten. Sobald die Bereiche und Aspekte, die nderung erfordern
identifiziert worden sind, ist der nchste Schritt, die Ideen den Studenten vorzustellen.
Studenten unterscheiden sich in ihrer Haltung gegenber signifikante Vernderung.
Im generell ltere Studenten, neigen mehr der Vernderung zu widerstehen, als
Studenten im ersten Jahr, die es als eine interessante Herausforderung sehen.
Fr die Letzten, eine neue Art der Ausbildung, neue Ausbildung oder
Organisationsmethoden sind interessant und treffen nicht den gleichen
Widerstandsfaktor als der, den von Studenten in ihrem letzten Studienjahren, gesetzt
wird.
Aus der Analyse der aktuellen Kultur, wurde etwas was als Schwingung
definiert wurde, erhalten:
Leistung: leistungsbezogene oder kompetenz bezogene Systeme, LeistungManagement-Prozesse,
Fhrungstraining, Kompetenzentwicklung
Engagement: Kommunikation, Beteiligung und Einbeziehung Programme ,
die Entwicklung eines Klimas der Zusammenarbeit und Vertrauen;
Klrung des psychologischen Vertrags
Trainingsprogramme: klren minutis die Ausbildung
Teamwork: Teambuilding, Teamleistung, Teambelohnungen, Gruppenmotivation
Organisationslernen: die Entwicklung einer lernenden Organisation durch
welchen Schritte um den intellektuellen Kapital zu verbessern gemacht
werden
Werte: Verstndnis zu gewinnen, Akzeptanz und das Engagement durch
Beteiligung an der Definition Werte, Schulungleistungsprogramme,
Entwicklungsmanahmen der Ausbilder
Whrend der Arbeit an der Vernnderung, sollten die positiven Aspekte der
traditionellen Kultur betont werden und bekrftigt, whrend die neuen Werte klar
und hufig festgestellt werden sollen . Das Verhalten der Schler, das leitfhig fr
den Erfolg ist, sollte wegen fr motivierende Grnde belohnt. Wenn eine geeignete
Kultur vorhanden ist, sollten Manahmen ergriffen werden, um sicherzustellen, dass
sie eingebettet ist, oder da sie mindestens notwendig bleibt.
Wir haben versucht die fnf "Mechanismen" fr die Einbettung und Strkung
der Kultur zu nennen:
was Ausbilder aufmerksam machen und kontrollieren
die Reaktionen der Ausbilder zu kritischen Ereignissen und Krisen
47
Absichtliche Rollenmodellierung und Lehre durch Fhrungskrfte

Kriterien fr die Vergabe von Prmien und Titel
Kriterien fr die Zulassung innerhalb der Universitt, Auswahl,
Frderung und Entwicklung
7. Schlussfolgerungen
Kulturelle Globalisierung ist die Intensivierung und den Ausbau der
kulturellen Strmungen rund um den Globus. Kultur ist ein sehr weit gefasster Begriff
und hat viele Facetten, aber in der Diskussion ber Globalisierung, Steger behauptet
es bezieht sich auf "die symbolische Konstruktion, Artikulation, und die Verbreitung
von Bedeutung." Themen in dieser Rubrik zhlen Diskussion ber die Entwicklung
einer globalen Kultur oder dessen Mangel, die Rolle der Medien. Jede Organisation
hat ihre eigene einzigartige Kultur oder eingestelltes Wert, und verschiedene
Organisationen knnen ihre eigene Bedeutung der Kultur haben. Die Kultur der
Organisation ist in der Regel unbewusst erstellt, basierend auf den Werten des
Grnders der Organisation. Um eine erfolgreiche Kultur zu erreichen, sollten
Ausbildende, die Organisationskultur und ihre Themen nicht ignorieren, denn Kultur
kann Vorteil whren der Entwicklung verwendet und eine festgesetzte Kultur (eine in
der berzeugungen und Werte weit verbreitete und tiefverwurzelt sind) sehr viele
Vorteile bieten, wie Zusammenarbeit, Steuerung, Kommunikation und Engagement.
Inzwischen, wchst die Bedeutung der Organisationskultur als Ergebnis mehreren
aktuellen Entwicklungen, und die kulturellen Themen knnen stndig benutzt werden,
um die Einfluss der Organisation bei der Gestaltung unserer Identitten und
Begierden zu messen, sowie auch ihre Rolle in der Globalisierung der Sprachen.
Litteraturverzeichnis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Bates, R.A. and Holton, E.F. Computerized performance monitoring: a review of

human resource issues. In Human resource management Review. Winter. SS. 267288
Berger, P. E.. Einladung zur Soziologie, Mnchen: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag,
1977, SS. 45-56
Brown, R. Prejudice: its social psychology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995 S. 78
French, W.L. and Bell, C.H.. Organizational development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1990, S. 34
Giddens, A. Sociology, Oxford: Polity Press, S. 30
Hofstede, G. Culture and Organisations: Software of the Mind: Intercultural
Cooperation and its importance for Survival. McGraw-Hill, 1997, S. 123
Linton, R. Present world conditions in cultural perspective. In: R. Linton (ed), The
science of man in world crisis. New York: Columbia University Press
Schein, E.H., How Culture Forms, Develops and Changes. San Francisco, Calif.:
Jossey Bass, 1985 S. 17-43.
Williams, M. Transfixed assets. In People Management. 3 August. SS. 28-33
48

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Saudi Students Flying the Nest of Knowledge:

Reality and Prospects
Syed Md Golam Faruk*
Abstract: The paper investigates Saudi university students traditional and predominant learning
strategies of remembering and the prospects of persuading them to adopt higher learning
strategies like understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, and create. The study was
conducted with 33 fourth year students of the Department of English of King Khalid University,
Saudi Arabia, who were never formally trained for critical thinking. The researcher tried to instil
critical thinking skills in one of their courses for one semester (42 contact hours) by adopting
heuristic teaching method and challenging students cognitive skills in the tests. Statistical data
analysis of their final examination scores confirms the widely acknowledged view that they are
very good in memorization. However, after completing the course, they were found to be able
to reduce their dependence on remembering as they had developed their learning domains of
understand, apply and analyse if not those of evaluate and create. The paper
concludes that if the students critical thinking skills can be developed to this extent in a standalone course in such a short time, a combined and synchronized effort of all the course teachers
throughout the students academic career would be able to develop all higher order cognitive
skills, including evaluate and create, in a much better way.
Keywords: Saudi Arabia, knowledge, cognitive skills, revised Blooms Taxonomy.
1. Introduction
In the golden age of its economic prosperity, when Saudi Arabia is trying to
lift its dependence on oil and reform its education system to develop a knowledgebased economy (The Ministry of Planning and National Economy 2006)an essential
precondition to move towards the centre of Wallersteins capitalist modern world
system (Wallerstein 2006)Saudi universities are instructed to incorporate critical
thinking skills in their education programs (National Qualifications 2009: 4-5). To this
end, National Qualifications Framework for Higher Education in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia (NQF) (National Qualifications 2009) has been designed to produce the
*
Professor, PhD, Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University
of Saudi Arabia.
49
graduates of high international standard who among many other things should have a
wide range of thinking and problem solving skills (Ennis 1989, 1990, 1993, 1997;
Siegel 1988; McPeck 1990; Paul 1992; 1995; 2008; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo
1992; Swartz & Parks 1994; Halpern 1998; Fisher 2001; Elder 2002; 2005). However,
apparently, NQFs expectation of developing the students ability and commitment to
engage in lifelong learning, capacity for effective communication, and the ability to
take initiative in individual and group activities (National Qualifications 2009: 3) is
improbable, if not impossible, to realize in the shadow of current and past Saudi
educational practices where critical thinking skills are discouraged (Elyas 2008; AlEssa 2009; Al-Miziny 2010; Al Ghamdi, Amani, & Philline 2013).
Saudi education has two lineagestraditional and formal. The curriculum of
traditional Quranic school was meant to develop remember and understand (terms
are explained in Table 1). In this type of school, the key method of learning was
memorization for two reasons: firstly, memorization of the Holy Book is glorified in
Hadith (Al Bukhari n.d.: 93: 489), and secondly, the transmission of the Quran from
one generation to another could be achieved only orally in the past. On the other hand,
formal education has been organized into two types of schoolingthe kuttab and
madrassa (Tibi 1998). For many years kuttab was the only type of formal education in
Saudi Arabia and its curriculum was centred around religion, the Arabic language and
basic arithmetic. In the twentieth century, although the modern elementary school
(madrassa) replaced kuttab but it still continued the legacy of the old syllabus and
method of instruction (where the teacher acted like a preacher). In the 1970s,
Szyliowicz (1973) observed that Saudi public schools and universities followed the
same instruction methods:
The following method of instruction prevailed in medieval Islam through [sic]
adaptations were [sic] made to meet the needs of different levels of instruction. Formal
delivery of lecture with the lecturer squatting on a platform against a pillar and one or
two circles of students seated before him was the prevailing method in higher levels of
instruction. The teacher read from a prepared manuscript or from a text, explaining the
material, and allowed questions and discussion to follow the lecture.
Baker (1997: 246) observed the same instruction method in Saudi Arabia
where the students were the poor third component in classroom after teacher and
textbooks and so did John Goodlad (1984) in an extensive research in secondary
schools. Goodlad found that Saudi textbooks were often a substitute for pedagogy and
that teaching methods tended to be mechanistic and engaging, and that memorization
and rote learning were favoured consistently over critical thinking and creativity.
In a similar vein, in the twenty first century, Elyas and Picard (2010: 138)
observe that the preacher-like teacher-centred Saudi classroom resembles Halgaha
religious gathering at a mosque where the imam preaches and the passive audience
listens attentively and exclusively to him. However, sometimes, the preacher-like
powerful teachers provide some latitude for interactions to the students with some strict
parametersthe students are not free to ask questions on all the topics and assumptions
50
(Jamjoon 2009: 7-8). Over and above, many other scholars (Elyas 2008; Al-Essa 2009;
Al-Souk 2009; Al-Miziny 2010; Al Ghamdi, Amani, & Philline 2013) agree that
present Saudi education still revolves around teacher and textbook centeredness where
the students are not encouraged to participate in classroom activities, ask questions, and
think critically and creatively. Allamnakhrah (2013) argues that four factors are
responsible for this seemingly unchangeable teaching/learning methods: a) teachers, b)
society, c) students, and d) education system. Among these factors, the researcher
observes that although the teachers are supposed to take initiative and influence the
other factors in order to change the traditional teaching/learning methods, they cannot
or do not do these because most of them:
1. do not have clear idea about what critical thinking is.
2. are not trained to teach critical thinking skills.
3. were never taught critical thinking skills.
4. think that teaching critical thinking skills is difficult.
5. cannot withstand the students resistance.
6. apprehend students mass-failing in the exams.
7. are afraid of job termination (particularly the expatriate teachers) for
students failure.
It is to be noted here that 14,915 (Mohammed 2014) out of 41,927 university
teachers (Ministry of Education 2013) are expatriates. However, any teacher teaching
cognitive skills might feel like swimming against the stream in Saudi Arabia where the
culture is predominantly one of uncritical submission to authority (Al-Essa 2009; AlMiziny 2010; Allamnakhrah 2013: 8).
Thus, Saudi tertiary education lacks a focus on critical thinking and problem
solving activitiesmemorization is given more importance than inquiry based
learning. (Al Ghamdi, Amani, & Philline 2013) and this instrumentalized pedagogy
indoctrinates the students to become superficial learners and nothing more, always
caring more about the grade than about real, authentic learning.
In this context, the paper investigates whether it is possible to develop the
students higher domains of learning with two research questions:
1. Is it possible to motivate the students to come out of the secured domain of
learningknowledge?
2. Is it possible to develop the students capability of critical thinking?
2. NQFs Learning Outcomes and Blooms Taxonomy
In NQF (National Qualifications Framework 2009), there are five domains of
learning outcomesknowledge, cognitive skills, interpersonal skills and
responsibility, communication, information technology and numerical skills, and
psychomotor skills. As it is discussed above, the students are not even ready to develop
their cognitive skills let alone the higher domains like interpersonal skills and
responsibility or communication. Hence this study is concerned with an attempt to
raise students learning domain from knowledge to cognitive skills (see Table 1)
51
which correspond to Revised Blooms Taxonomy (Anderson et. al. 2001) (see Table
2).
NQF Domains
Knowledge
Cognitive skills
Learning Outcomes
Ability to recall, understand, and present information, including: knowledge of
specific facts, knowledge of concepts, principles and theories, and knowledge
of procedures.
Ability to apply conceptual understanding of concepts, principles, theories
Ability to apply procedures involved in critical thinking and creative problem
solving, both when asked to do so, and when faced with unanticipated new
situations
Ability to investigate issues and problems in a field of study using a range of
sources and draw valid conclusions.
Table 1. NQF domains and learning outcomes
In order to understand NQFs first two learning domainsknowledge and

cognitive skillsit is better to see them from RBT point of view because these domains
are in fact nothing but the rephrasing of Revised Blooms Taxonomy (RBT). NQFs
knowledge includes remember and understand of RBT which were named as
knowledge and comprehension in original Blooms Taxonomy (BT) (Bloom et al.,
1956). The second domain in NQFs hierarchy is Cognitive skills which corresponds
to apply, analyse, evaluate, and create of RBT termed as application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation in BT.
NQF domains
Knowledge
Cognitive skills
RBT categories
RememberRetrieving relevant knowledge
from long-term memory.
UnderstandDetermining the meaning of
instructional messages, including oral,
written, and graphic communication.
ApplyCarrying out or using a procedure

in a given situation.
AnalyseBreaking material into its
constituent parts and detecting how the
parts relate to one another and to an overall
structure or purpose.
EvaluateMaking judgments based on
criteria and standards.
CreatePutting elements together to form
a novel, coherent whole or make an original
product.
RBT subcategories
Recognizing, Recalling
Interpreting,
Exemplifying,
Classifying,
Summarizing, Inferring,
Comparing, Explaining
Executing,
Implementing
Differentiating,
Organizing, Attributing
Checking, Critiquing
Generating, Planning,
Producing
Table 2. NQF and RBT
The cognitive skills as described above in Tables 1 and 2 are not innate and
cannot be acquired independently by the students (Lundquist 1999; Rippen, et. al.
2002; Landsman & Gorski 2007), and as the teachers are not dealing with them in
52
classrooms (mentioned above), it can be inferred that Saudi students are not aware of
critical thinking, which Scriven & Paul (2007) describe as a systematic and procedural
approach to the process of thinking.
3. Method
The study was conducted in English department in King Khalid University,
Saudi Arabia. As the researcher has been teaching in the department for the last seven
years, he is well aware of the students learning strategies, the method of instruction by
which they were taught in their schools and university, and about the types of question,
they usually answer in quizzes, assignments, and examinations.
Participants
Thirty three fourth year students of English department of King Khalid
University, Saudi Arabia participated in the study. The graduating students were
selected as the sample of the study because they were supposed to have the required
linguistic competence to express their critical thinking on the one hand, and, on the
other, their performance may be considered to be one of the major indicators which
shows whether critical thinking skills is practiced in the lower levels or not. The young
adults (aged 2023) were studying a course named Applied Linguistics 1 in the first
semester of the academic year 2014-2015. The course was based on the basic
introductory concepts of Applied Linguistics.
Material
The students studied a textbook covering the topics like definition and areas of
Applied Linguistics, major theoretical approaches, non-linguistic factors which affect
language learning, and learning strategies.
Procedure
As students are motivated to perform well on examinations, and as the exam
questions can strongly influence their study strategies (Entwistle & Entwistle, 1992;
Gardiner 1994; Scouller 1998), at the beginning of the course, the researcher told them
that the final exam would challenge their knowledge as well as cognitive skills.
Accordingly, the researcher focused on the domains of knowledge and cognitive
skills while teaching the students (for 42 contact hours) and giving them tests (first
and second mid-terms for 40 marks) and 13 assignments (10 marks) for three months
and 15 days (September 2014mid-December 2014). As it was not possible and
necessary to deal with remember in a 45 minutes classroom, the researcher focused
only on one category of the domain of knowledge understand and three
categories of the domain of cognitive skillsapply, analyse, and evaluate. As
mentioned above, 42 hours were allocated for the course and out of these hours the
researcher tried to give 10 hours for each category. Out of 10 hours, two hours (20% of
the allocated time for each category) were spent for lecturing and eight hours (80% of
the allocated time) were spent for classroom activities. The instructional design was
based on the following principles:
1. Classrooms were student-centred.
53
2. Students were taught how to think rather than what to think.

3. Conceptualization was given more importance than facts.
4. Students silence was tolerated for processing and formulating their
response as human beings need at least eight to 12 seconds for preparing
their answers in critical thinking situations (Schafersman 1991).
5. After each test, questions were reviewed and the correct answers were
explained by modelling the critical thinking process.
Test
At the end of the course, the researcher framed 15 short questions in order to
test the students knowledge and cognitive skillsthree questions for each of the
five categories of RBT: remember, understand, apply, analyse, and evaluate
(see Table 3) which correspond to NQFs first two domainsknowledge (remember
and understand) and cognitive skills (apply, analyse, and evaluate). The highest
category of both RBT and NQFs cognitive skillscreate was not included here
for the lack of adequate time. However, each question was for two marks and so the
whole test was for 30 marks.
NQF
domains
Knowledge
Cognitive
skills
RBT
categories
Remember
Subcategories
Understand
Explaining
Apply
Recalling
Questions
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
Executing/
a.
Implementing
b.
c.
Analyse
Differentiatinga.
b.
Evaluate
Attributing
a.
Critiquing
a.
b.
c.
What is Error Analysis?

What is Contrastive Analysis?
Define Applied Linguistics.
Why are learners errors important?
Why should a teacher lower his students
anxiety?
How does age affect language learning?
How should you collect your students errors for
Error Analysis?
How did you develop your Englishby
learning or by acquisition? Justify your
answer.
What kind of motivation, according to you, do
most of the Saudi English language learners
have? Why?
Describe the similarities and differences between
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis.
How is Applied Linguistics different from
Linguistics?
Which language learning strategies do you like to
use while learning English? Why do you prefer
those particular strategies?
Do you believe that language learning is nothing
but habit formation? Justify your answer.
Critique Error Analysis.
An extrovert learner is better than an introvert
learner in speaking. Do you agree or disagree
with this statement? Give reasons in support of
your answer.
Table 3. Questions in terms of NQF domains and RBT categories

54
In order to test the students knowledge and all the skills of all the learning
domains except create, the researcher found it useful to take one particular topic like
Error Analysis and developed a series of increasingly challenging questions for the
five hierarchical levels. It is to be noted here that the answers to the cognitive skills
questions were not previously provided through classroom instruction because if the
students got the answers before and memorized them, the high order cognitive skills
questions would only require recall (Allen & Tanner 2002).
Data Analysis
Marking the papers. Two independent raters marked the students answers for
assessing their knowledge and cognitive skills ignoring the grammatical mistakes.
The raters assessed the answers to the cognitive skills questions on the following basis:
1) Clarity and accuracy of thinking.
2) Depth and breadth of thinking.
3) The number of alternatives considered.
4) Do the students know why they think the way they do?
Interrater reliability for marking the papers. The marks given to the students
answers by two independent raters were analysed through the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient Test. The correlation coefficient (r) between the two sets of marks was .78,
p < .01, which was considered to be consistent enough to proceed with further statistical
analysis.
Statistical analysis. The participants scores were analysed by using paired
sample t test and post-hoc LSD (least significant difference). Cohens d was also used
to calculate the effect size.
4. Results and Discussion
The results are illustrated in Tables 4 and 5. As can be seen, differences exist
between students scores for different questions, but the mean differences are not
always significant. The students scores are less in cognitive skills questions than in
knowledge questions. In a similar vein, the students did better in lower category
cognitive skill questions than higher category cognitive skill questions.
NQF Domains
Knowledge
Cognitive skills
RBT categories
Remember
Understand
Total
Apply
Analyse
Evaluate
Total
N
99
99
198
99
99
99
297
Mean
1.369
1.354
1.361
1.101
1.091
.955
1.049
Table 4. Mean scores for different category questions
55
SD
.758
.753
.754
.799
.784
.773
.785
Conditions
Remember vs. Understand
Knowledge
(remember+understand) vs.
Apply
Knowledge vs. Analyse
Knowledge vs. Evaluate
Knowledge vs. Cognitive
skills
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Mean
Difference
.015
.268
df
Cohens d
Effect size
.862
.0016**
.173
3.24
98
98
.013
.335
.006
.165
.278
.414
.265
.0010**
.0001**
.0001**
3.40
4.51
4.389
98
98
197
.352
.772
.624
.173
.360
.297
Table 5. Comparison of the mean scores of categories and domains
As can be seen in Table 5, the difference between the scores of evaluate

(M=.95) and knowledge (M=1.36) has considerable effect size (d=.77) and so has the
mean difference between the two domains (d=.62)knowledge (M=1.36) and
cognitive skills (M=1.04). In other cases, the mean differences are small and
statistically insignificant. The smallest mean difference is in between the two categories
of knowledge domainremember (M=1.36) and understand (M=1.35) with
insignificant effect size (d= .01). Therefore, the domain of knowledge as a whole is
compared with the components of the domain of cognitive skills separately.
Discussion
The present study aimed to investigate whether Saudi university students
domains of knowledge and cognitive skills can be developed in line with NQFs
guidelines a part of which (domains of knowledge and cognitive skills) is designed on
the basis of the RBT. The small mean difference between the scores for the two
categories of the domain of knowledgeremember and understand suggest that if
they are taught properly, the students will be able to understand what they memorize.
The high mean scores of remember and understand also prove the widely
acknowledged view that Saudi students most common strategy of learning is
memorization.
However, the statistics illustrate that the students can also do good in the first
two categories of the domain of cognitive skillsapply and analyseif they are
focused in classroom/quizzes/assignments/tests. The students scores in these
categories are as good as those in the categories of the domain of knowledge
remember and understand. In contrast, the mean scores of the third category of the
domain of cognitive skills is much lower than that of the domain of knowledge
which indicates that it is not easy to develop the students capability to evaluate by a
single teacher in a single course. Therefore, though the highest category of cognitive
skills is not included in the study, it can be inferred that it needs the concerted and
simultaneous effort of all the teachers to develop the students capability to evaluate
and create.
With regard to the first research questionIs it possible to motivate the
students to come out of the secured domain of learningknowledge? the results
56
confirmed that though the students resist at the beginning, it is possible to motivate
most of the students to develop their domain of cognitive skills. The answer to the
first research question is in fact the partial answer to the second research questionIs
it possible to develop the students capability of critical thinking?. Statistical analysis
of their scores shows that at least the two lowest categories of cognitive skills can be
developed in a stand-alone course. Therefore, if a synchronized and concerted effort by
all the teachers of a department is aimed at embedding and integrating critical thinking
throughout the students academic career, they would score much better results in all
the categories of cognitive skills.
5. Conclusion and Implications
Two conclusions, with some caveats described below, can be drawn from this
study. Firstly, if the teachers persuade and train the students to fly their nests of
knowledge, in order to undertake investigations, comprehend and evaluate new
information, concepts and evidence from a range of sources, and apply conclusions to
a wide range of issues and problems with limited guidance (National Qualifications,
2009: 19), the students would realize their own innate potential and be encouraged
to ascend the higher categories of cognitive skills. Secondly, in order to ensure the
students instrumental motivationhe has to make it very clear at the outset of a course
that without developing their cognitive skills they would not be able to pass the exam.
This study is not without limitations. Firstly, this study was conducted in a very
short period of timethree months and 15 days to be exact, and hence the highest
category of the domain of cognitive skillscreatecould not be included.
Secondly, the number of participants could not be increased while controlling the
teacher variable and so the sample was small. A larger sample could tolerate
individual variations better in statistical analysis. Lastly, for the lack of qualitative data
regarding students attitudes and experience, their opinions and beliefs remained
unexplored.
Despite these limitations, the results of this study have important pedagogical
implications. Given the fact that the students did considerably good in at least two
lowest categories of the domain of cognitive skills in a matter of three and a half
months, the teachers can tap into the students latent capability of achieving all the
cognitive skills suggested by NQF and unlock them without fearing students failing
and their own job termination.
In short, it is true that Saudi students are still heavily dependent on
memorization and they are unwilling to fly the nest of knowledge in order to soar
towards the higher level cognitive skills. However, it is not difficult to change their
mindset which seems to be fixed and unchangeable, if the higher domains of learning
can be integrated or embedded throughout the undergraduate students' academic career,
not just in one, stand-alone course.
57
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60

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
The Changing Role of the Business English Teacher in

the Business English Class
Iulia Para
Abstract: Our paper will insist upon the changing role and methods employed by the teachers
of Business English, so as to match the students needs and wants. Some authors have used
metaphors to describe what teachers should be actors - they are always on a stage; orchestral
conductor - direct conversation and set the pace and the tone; gardeners - plant the seeds of
knowledge and watch them grow. As times have changed, the teaching methods must change
too, the teacher is no longer a guru, but a facilitator, the one who fosters learner autonomy,
and is no longer a transmitter of knowledge.
Keywords: ESP, teacher, Business English, lingua franca, facilitator.
1. Introduction
Most authors, who wrote about English, English language teaching, see
Business English in the larger context of ESP, as it shares the important
characteristics of needs analysis, syllabus design, course design, and material writing,
which are common to all fields of work in ESP. Similar to other varieties of ESP,
Business English implies a special language corpus and emphasis on specific types of
communication, in a specific context. According to Ellis & Johnson (1994), Business
English is different from other varieties of ESP, due to its mix of specific content and
general content. Therefore, the challenges Business English teachers face in their
activity should be the following: the main focus; specialised vocabulary;
communication skills in a business related context; needs analysis related to the
Business English they need in their future careers; the role of the teacher and the
techniques most appropriate to be used for Business English students.
Assistant Professor, PhD, Department of Marketing and International Relations, Faculty of Economics
and Business Administration, University of Timisoara, Romania.
61
2. Business English as a Lingua Franca

2.1. What is BELF
There is so much literature about this topic, that one cannot read a fraction of
it in ones career. The concept of BELF has appeared, according to the Chinese, i.e.
BELF (Business English as a Lingua Franca), after the founding of the Peoples
Republic of China, and it refers mainly to the teaching of English in China, and not
only. Although Chinese is the most spoken language as L1, due to Chinas population
of over 1.355 billion, the largest of any country in the world (according to World
Bank Statistics about the Population Growth in China, 2001 2011), there is a strong
need for English, as China has developed a lot and it needs to communicate with the
rest of the world, especially in terms of trade. China produces almost everything and
that almost everything needs to be exported. What is taught in China is called
BELF, and it is aimed at teaching students both the English language and the way of
conducting business. Content based courses were offered in English in Chinese
universities, such as management, marketing and international relations. It was
believed that by providing students with an English language environment they could
learn both language and business knowledge naturally. In their view, BELF has a
wider application than Business English in international business communications.
However, many authors see BELF as having much in common with BE, the former
differs from the latter in some aspects BELF is deeply rooted in the growth of the
domestic economy and influenced by the process of globalisation.
The same concept of BELF has been a focus in Europe for the past two
decades. Scholars such as Nickerson and Bargiela-Chiamppini (2002) have
contributed a great deal in this line of research by examining the effect of English as
business or corporate language in international business context.
2.2. Characteristics
In their book "Teaching Business English" (1994: 7-13), Mark Ellis and
Christine Johnson have defined the characteristics of BE from five aspects:
"Much of the language needed by business people (apart from social
language) will be transactional."
"Social contacts are often highly ritualized."
Clear information should be conveyed within a short time.
The language used in business "will be neither as rich in vocabulary
and expression nor as culture-bound, as that used by native speakers,
but will be based on a core of the most useful and basic structures and
vocabulary."
Business English courses differ greatly in some aspects like needs
analysis, assessment of level, syllabus, course objectives, etc.
There are numerous definitions of BE, but no universally accepted one. While
there is some overlap with BE, BELF covers a wide variety of English usage in many
areas of interest, such as finance, economics, business law, foreign trade, tourism,
advertising, and it mainly characterises the Chinese way of teaching and motivation
for learning English. Taking this into account, BELF falls into two main categories:
62
ELFGBP (English Lingua Franca for General Business Purposes) defined in

accordance with the main characteristics of BE, and ELFSBP (English Lingua Franca
for Specific Business Purposes), defined in accordance with the varieties in levels of
language as well as the specific context English language in use.
2.3. BELF in the world
Starting from China the need for English does not characterise China only.
After implementing the China Open Door Policies in 1978, and especially after
China's successfully entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO), there has been
an increasing demand for efficient English language users with business expertise.
A similar fact happened in Romania, after the events of 1989, the study of
foreign languages, and especially the study of English revived the Romanian
educational system and the entire society. The reason for this revival of English was
the need for employees with good English skills on the Romanian job market, and
more and more multinational companies are now operating here.
Everywhere ESP is needed by people in their business activities. ESP is a
term often used to describe language that is inaccessible to people who are not
members of a particular language community (Frendo 2012: 6) and Business
English is an umbrella-term for a mixture of general everyday English, general
Business English and ESP (Frendo 2012: 7). Business is about buying and selling,
and it uses the language of commerce, finance, industry, of providing goods and
services. It is about cooperation, negotiation and compromise. It is about persuading
and understanding, power and control, explaining and finding solutions to problems.
In short, Business English is communication with other people within a specific
context (Frendo 2012: 1). Business English is not only about language, but about
language use (Frendo 2012: 8). Language learners need to be able to use the
language in real life situations, and according to Frendo (2012), Business English
teachers need to focus on three key-components in particular: linguistic competence
(the use of basic elements that go together to form a language, such as vocabulary,
grammar, etc.), discourse competence (deals with elements of language at a basic
level and tends to focus on language out of context), intercultural competence (it
refers to attitudes, behaviours, beliefs and values from different cultures and the way
to behave in such situations).
So most reasons why people want to study English are that it is a necessary
part of their job; it is an investment which brings status and financial reward, among
others. Here are some of the most encountered reasons for learning English:
English is the lingua franca used in all business contexts therefore it
is a must for our business students and their future career.
All important companies have subsidiaries all over the world and the
employees need to communicate in English (KPMG, Deloitte,
Alcatel, Draxelmaier, Continental Automotive, etc.).
All banks deal on a daily basis with foreigners, or foreign investors;
all banking documents are issued in English and the bank personnel
needs to communicate with the clients, hence they should have a
medium level of English.
63
Any import-export company has employees travelling for business

purposes, so they will need to use English for business and socially.
Foreign managers need to be in frequent contact with the
headquarters and also to handle negotiations with foreign customers.
When a merger takes place, and the companies belong to different
countries, usually English is preferred as a joined company language.
(adapted from Ellis & Johnson 2009: 17)
3. Students needs and motivation

The main thing to remember is when considering what Business English is,
relates to the students expectations. Students expect a training course, which relates
to occupational or professional language needs. Investigating, analysing and
fulfilling Business English students needs is, in fact, so important for the success of
any Business English course, that a great deal of attention should be paid to these
processes (Sylvie 2008: 2).
The purpose of teaching Business English is to fulfil students work related
needs. Usually, these needs are very specific and cover a wide range of language. Any
decision is governed by students needs. In order to reach our goals in teaching, we
need to make our objectives clear; decision-making and objective-setting can be
passed on to students, who are often used to making decisions, setting objectives and
respecting dead-lines in their day-to-day work. Our teaching objectives are concerned
with what we are teaching, activities and techniques focused on how we do it;
they must be selected and used with sensitivity according to our goals and students
response.
Students and teachers should work in partnership, to build a constructive
learning environment, which is appropriate to individual students professional and
personal situations. The teacher is a partner and the student, besides being a learner, is
also a provider of information and material as s/he may know more in their area of
interest.
It is generally accepted that there is no success without people being
motivated people have to want to do something to succeed at it. Without
motivation, any action is doomed to fail and therefore motivation is a key element to
success that is why we need to clarify what it means, where it comes from and how it
can be sustained. Motivation is in a way an internal drive which pushes someone to
do things in order to achieve something. The strength of motivation will depend on
how much value the individual places on the outcome s/he wishes to achieve. In
discussion of motivation, an accepted distinction is made between extrinsic (coming
from outside) and intrinsic (coming from inside) motivation (Harmer 2008: 98).
Other authors such as Gardner and Lambert (1972), distinguish between two forms of
motivation: instrumental (the reflection of an external need) and integrative (derives
from the desire of the learners to be members of the speech community that uses a
particular language).
External / extrinsic sources of motivation:
The goal (a source of motivation if the students perceive the goal of
their study);
64
The society we live in (attitudes to language learning and to English

in particular, i.e. how important is the study of English for the society
we live in);
People around us ( the attitudes of parents, older siblings, and other
close friends if they approve of language learning or if they think
mathematics or sciences in general are what count);
Curiosity (every student has a natural curiosity, which is a kind of
initial motivation, they want to see what it is like).
However, learners need to renew their motivation and their priorities if they
want to continue, or stay motivated over a long period, even if the progress might be
slow. It is the teachers task to encourage them to reflect on what they have done in
the past and what they want to focus on in the future so as to become autonomous
from the teacher.
4. The Business English Teacher
Autonomy allows for students to take increasing charge of their own learning.
Our students still rely on the teacher and do not make any efforts on their own. Maybe
this attitude was inherited from high schools, where most of the teachers are a kind of
transmitters of knowledge and testers. They did not teach the children how to learn,
how to plan their studies, how to manage their time, and to reflect on the process and
products of learning.
Many ESP teachers have ESP courses and they have simply adapted from
general ELT teaching. Many teachers and universities divide their time and resources
between the two types of work: ESP and ELT. Although some of the different skills
required by the ESP teachers have been identified (both terms have already been
defined), British Council organizes in Romania from time to time special training
courses. Year ago, when the British Council was more involved in the Romanian
teaching, they also offered ESP courses in Great Britain for a period of three months,
or even more.
Shifting from ELT to ESP is not easy and the teachers should, according to
Kennedy and Bolitho (1991), there are some requirements from the ESP teacher.
The teacher might be expected (with or without support) to carry out
and interpret a needs analysis for a group of students.
On the basis of this analysis, the teacher might be expected to design
a syllabus for his/her classes.
As nowadays there are a lot of published materials on ESP, the
teacher might be expected to select and adapt teaching materials for
his/her classes.
If there are no materials suitable or adaptable to the needs of a
particular class, the teacher will have to select and adapt suitable
texts, device appropriate activities.
The teacher may have to prepare course outlines.
The teacher may have to develop a working knowledge of his/her
students subject. No English teacher can be expected to become
65
acquainted with a specialist subject over night, in this situation s/he

may be advised to team-teach with a subject specialist, or ask for
advice. The match between language and subject content will be
much more apparent to the student, resulting in a rise in the level of
motivation.
Of course more requirements could be added to the above ones, however it
is clear that the demands on an ESP teacher can be considerable and that s/he may
have to be very persistent to achieve a measure of success in his/her task. ESP has
raised learner expectations, and ultimately it is the teacher who has to live up to
them (Kennedy & Bolitho 1991: 141).
However, in Romanian schools and universities, many teachers have been
influenced by the teaching that they were exposed to in their own school days.
Weather we acknowledge it or not, much of our view of what a teacher is and what a
teacher should do can often be traced back to the years when we were students
ourselves. Disappointingly enough, a lot of the teaching that has left a deep
impression on us was old, traditional, non-stimulating teaching. As well as some
excellent teachers, most of us have probably seen examples of teachers who were
boring, unkind, incompetent, sarcastic, or inapt (Scrivener 2009: 15). From this
quotation we understand that such unprofessional and undedicated teachers are to be
found everywhere, not only in our schools.
4.1. The concept of traditional teaching
Traditional teaching is often characterised by an emphasis on chalk and
talk, in other words the teacher spend quite a lot of class time using the white board
and explaining things, i.e. transmitting knowledge to the class with occasional
questioning. After these explanations, the students will often do some practice
exercises to test whether they have understood what they have been told. Throughout
the lesson, the teacher keeps control of the subject matter, makes decisions and tells
the students what to do. In this type of class the teacher probably does most of the
talking and is by far the most active person. The students role is primarily to listen,
pay attention, take notes and stay still, not to bother the others.
This view of the role of the teacher is relatively widespread and in Romania it
still represents the predominant mode of education, although most of the teachers do
not admit it. Students will expect that a teacher will teach in this way, and fellow
teachers may be disapproving and judgmental of teachers who do not. However it is
important to remember that a teachers choice of methodology is about what is
appropriate in a particular case, with particular people.
The process by which traditional teaching is imaged as working is sometimes
characterised as jug and mug (Scrivener 2009: 17), the knowledge being poured
from one container into an empty one. It is often based on an assumption that the
teacher has the task of passing over knowledge to his/her students, and that having
something explained or demonstrated to students, will lead to learning. If it does not,
it is because the teacher has done his job badly, or the student is lazy or incompetent.
In other words, teaching does not necessarily lead to learning and even if the teacher
is a good explainer, a teaching approach based mainly on this technique can be
problematic and the traditional role of the teacher has not the expected results.
66
A teachers most important job is perhaps to create the best conditions in

which learning can take place, i.e. the skills of creating and managing a successful
class may be the key to the whole success of a module. An important part of this has
to do with the teachers attitude, intentions and personality and most importantly
his/her relationships with the students. The teacher also needs certain organization
skills and techniques, which are often called classroom management, therefore, first
of all, the teacher should be a good manager.
4.2. The teacher as manager
A modern teacher should be a good manager; one of the most important tasks
that teachers have to perform is that of organizing students to do various activities.
The teacher should adapt the classroom format to his/her activities, then tell the
students how they are going to perform the activity in charge, by putting them in pairs
or groups. The first thing the teacher needs to do when organizing something is to get
the students involved, engaged and ready. Any activity should have a purpose and the
students should be given clear instructions so they understand why and what they
have to do. Finally, when the activity is over, it is vital to organize a kind of feedback,
which in some cases may be a detailed discussion of what has taken place.
4.3. The teacher as trainer
In the world of business, trainers are common, as they should re-motivate the
employees and bring up to date their knowledge area, and inform them on the latest
progress connected to their jobs. The teacher is also a trainer, as s/he has to educate
the students so they have more chance at succeeding in life. A teachers objectives
may be to some extent more general, and is person-oriented, not job-oriented. The
teacher tries to help a student to learn a language for a variety of business purposes
that may be relevant for the students career.
4.4. The teacher as consultant
Generally we see consultants as experts who are supposed to teach in an
organization, because they have the skills and know-how, which are not available
there. In Business English, this expertise can cover a wide area it may include
communication skills and needs, negotiations, business manners, socialising, business
etiquette, etc. By using simulations within a business context, the teacher is supposed
to teach his/her students all these things to a certain extent.
4.5. The teacher as coach
A coach is usually a person who can help the students take advantage of the
learning opportunities in their own working environment. It involves helping the
students to better understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and plan
accordingly. It is related to the concept of learner autonomy, which is, in other words,
the learners take full responsibility for their learning, one of the key concepts in the
communication approach, as a way of teaching foreign languages.
67
4.6. The teacher as controller

Some teachers act as controllers and are in charge of the class and of the
activity taking place, and are often leading from the front. Controllers check the
attendance, give instructions, organise drills, read aloud, and in various other ways
exemplify the qualities of a teacher-fronted classroom. This kind of teachers sees their
job as the transmission of knowledge from themselves to their students and is very
comfortable with the image of themselves as controllers. Many teachers fail to go
beyond it, since controlling is the role they are used to and are most comfortable with.
Yet, this is a pity, because by sticking to one mode of behaviour, we deny ourselves
and the students many other possibilities and modes of learning, which are not good
for learning itself, but also for our students enjoyment of that learning. (Harmer
2008: 109)
4.7. The teacher as prompter
A teacher is usually a prompter when the students are involved in a role-play
activity and are lost for words. Some teachers would hold back and let them work
things out for themselves, while others would try to help them in a discrete and
supportive way, i.e. adopting some kind of a prompting role. Teachers want to
encourage the students to think creatively and be more spontaneous, therefore the
teacher can occasionally suggest words or phrases to avoid the use of their mothertongue.
4.8. The teacher as participant
Frequently teachers are not involved in students discussions, role-plays, or
decision-making activities, letting the students get on with it and be inventive and
productive. Still, there are also times when teachers might want to join in an activity
not as a teacher, but also as a participant. It means that the teacher can see things from
the insight instead of always have to prompt or organise from outside the group.
Participating is often more enjoyable than acting as a resource, but the teacher should
not dominate the proceedings and act like any other member of the team.
4.9. The teacher as resource
This role is better suited when the students are involved in group-writing, or
if they are preparing for a presentation. In such cases, the students may need their
teacher as a resource, they might need to ask how to say or write something, or ask
what a word or phrase means. In this case the teacher becomes a kind of walking
dictionary and acts as a resource, but at the same time, s/he has to resist the
temptation to over-assist the students, so that they become over-reliant on resource
and not use their heads.
4.10. The teacher as tutor
This is the role of the teacher when students have to prepare projects or
dissertations, or prepare for a talk or debate. They can be organised as individuals or
small groups, and the teacher will guide them; in such situations the teacher combines
the roles of prompter and resource in other words, acting like a tutor. It is essential
for teachers to act as tutors from time to time as in this more personal contact, the
68
students have a real chance to feel supported and helped, while the general feeling is
that they are supported and encouraged in their effort. There are times when teachers
need to act as a prompter; on other occasion it would be more appropriate to act as a
resource, and it is up to the teacher to know how to switch between the various roles
above mentioned, judging when it is appropriate to use one or other of them. When
the teacher has made a decision, however consciously or sub-consciously it is done,
we need to be aware of how we carry that role, how we perform (Harmer 2008:
111).
4.11. The teacher as actor / entertainer
ESP texts have a reputation of being boring and not very interesting ones, due
to their subject-matter content. It is the teachers task to make them as interesting as
possible, by making use of various activities, such as: pre-reading questions, while
reading questions, and avoid dead time. Materials must be selected and good
materials should, therefore, provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will
guide teacher and learner through various activities in such a way as to maximise the
chances of learning. It should help the teacher in his/her activity and encourage in the
students a sense of progress and achievements. The teacher should not use a
monotonous text and pattern of lesson to avoid dullness in the classroom, this type of
teaching if it doesnt send you to sleep [...] it will certainly send your learners to
sleep (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 107). The teacher should do his/her best so as to
entertain and involve the students in all the activities, make any lesson interesting and
approach it with enthusiasm, and avoid the assembly-line approach which makes each
unit look the same, with the same type of text, the same type and number of exercises
a materials model must be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for
creativity and variety (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 107). The teacher should
therefore create a friendly atmosphere, present each unit in a very interesting way, as
if it were some kind of show, so as to attract as many students as possible to take part
in the whole happening. The teacher should employ all his/her talent so as to find the
best way to the students hart.
We have mentioned a few of the roles of the teacher, mentioned in the
literature of methodology and we have also added some of our considerations, which
are, in a way, the result of our teaching experience. In order to do ones best and be
very efficient at it, ESP teachers need to arm themselves with a sound knowledge of
both theoretical and practical developments in ELP, in order to be able to make the
range of decisions they are called upon to make. (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 160).
5. Conclusions
In the present paper we have tried to underline the changing role of the
modern ESP teacher and go through various roles mentioned in the literature of
teaching. We have underlined the positive aspects of each of these roles, but
eventually teachers must remember that for efficient results s/he must combine all
these roles adapted to the students s/he is teaching, i.e. to the class.
This type of modern teacher is supposed to master both English language and
be familiar with the business subjects of the students. If teachers are not able to
69
operate highly specialised texts effectively, they should not be used. The teachers
competence is an essential ingredient in the teaching learning process and must,
therefore, be able to discuss almost any business topic.
There should be meaningful communication in the classroom, it is essential
that there is a common fund of knowledge and interest between teacher and learner.
This implies, inevitably, that the ESP teacher must know a lot about the world of
business. The teacher should be much more sensitive to the needs of his/her students.
The teacher should know how to handle each group of students and adapt to
their needs, wants and linguistic level. S/He must always remember that teaching
does not equal learning. It is quite possible for a teacher to be putting great effort
into his/her teaching and no learning to be taking place; similarly, a teacher could
apparently be doing nothing, but the students learn a great deal. (Scrivener 2009:
17).
In order to achieve his/her goals, the teacher should be a mix of manager,
trainer, consultant, coach, controller, prompter, participant, tutor, actor and adapt
himself/herself to the group of students s/he is teaching. The teachers degree of
flexibility is the key to success. All ESP teachers are in effect pioneers who are
helping to shape the world of ESP (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 160).
This work was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme
Human
Resources
Development
2007-2013,
project
number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of Humanities
and Socio-Economic Sciences. A Multi-regional Research Network.
Aceast lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional
Sectorial
pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 2013, Cod Contract:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Cercetori competitivi pe plan european n domeniul tiinelor
umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE).
References
1. Bargiela-Chiappini, F., & C. Nickerson, Business Discourse: Old Concepts, New
Horizons, in International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 40(4),
2002, 273286.
2. Ellis, M., & C. Johnson, Teaching Business English, Oxford: OUP, 1994, 2009.
3. Frendo, E,, How To Teach Business English, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2012.
4. Gardner, R.C. & V.E. Lambert, Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning,
Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972.
5. Harmer, J., The Practice of English Language Teaching, Edinburgh: Pearson Longman,
2008.
6. Hutchinson T., Waters A., English for Specific Purposes, Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
7. Kennedy, C., & R. Bolitho, English for Specific Purposes, London: MacMillan, 1991.
8. Scrivener, J., Learning Teaching, Oxford: MacMillan, 2009.
9. Sylvie, D., Teach Business English, Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
10. ***. Statistics about the Population Growth in China, 20012011, World Bank, July
2012. Retrieved 10 April 2013. ( http://www.statista.com/statistics/270129/populationgrowth-in-china/ )
70

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Teaching Collocations in a Creative Manner

Roxana Ghi
Abstract: Collocations are one of the most elusive aspect of the lexical system, thus one the
hardest for learners to acquire. Even the slightest adjustment to the collocations by substituting
one of its components for a synonym might turn the text into non-standard English. Teaching
collocations is an essential part of teaching vocabulary, as they provide students with the most
natural way of saying something, they can offer alternative ways of expressing an idea,
helping avoid repetitions and they can improve the students style in writing, giving a text
more variety. The aim of this paper is to present several creative ways of teaching
collocations, which make both the teaching and the learning process more entertaining and
enjoyable, and provide students with sources of authentic and varied language.
Keywords: collocations, flashcards, videos, pelmanism, dictogloss.
1. Introduction
All languages emerge first as words, both historically and in terms of the way
each of us learned our first and subsequent languages. Neither the coining, nor the
acquisition of new words ever stops and we are continually learning new words or
new meanings for old words. Learning the vocabulary of a second language presents
the learner with numerous challenges, and in order to meet them, the learner has to
acquire a critical mass of words for use in both understanding and producing a
language and to develop strategies to remember words over time, and be able to recall
them readily. In a text, word choice is heavily constrained by what comes before and
after. This is probably the most elusive aspect of the lexical system, thus the hardest
for learners to acquire. Even the slightest adjustment to the collocations by
substituting one of its components for a synonym might turn the text into nonstandard English. As Scott Thornbury points out, the ability to deploy a wide range
of lexical chunks both accurately and appropriately is probably what most
distinguishes advanced learners from intermediate ones (Thornbury 2002: 116).
PhD,
Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Faculty of Communication Sciences,

Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania.
71
2. The importance of teaching collocations

A collocation is a pair or group of words that are often used together: two
words are collocates if they occur together with more than chance frequency, such
that, when we see one, we can make a fairly safe bet that the other is in the
neighbourhood, according to Thornbury (2002: 7). As Michael McCarthy points out,
these combinations sound natural to native speakers, but students of English have to
make a special effort to learn them because they are often difficult to guess (2008:
6). Some combinations simply do not sound right for native speakers. For example,
the adjective fast collocates with car, but not with glance.
Learning collocations is a very important part of learning the vocabulary of a
language. There are two types of collocations:
1. fixed collocations, or very strong ones, for example, to take a
photo, where no other word collocates with photo, or to make an
effort
2. open collocations, where several different words may be used to give
a similar meaning, for example, to keep/stick to the rules
As far as their grammatical form is concerned, collocations can be formed by
the following parts of speech:
1. adjective + noun: strong wind, formative years
2. adverb + adjective: hopelessly addicted, completely useless
3. verb + noun: make progress, do business
4. adverb + verb: strongly suggest, honestly believe
5. adjective + preposition: ashamed of, blamed for
Learning collocations is an essential part of learning vocabulary because they
can provide one with the most natural way of saying something (e.g. smoking is
strictly forbidden sounds more natural than smoking is strongly forbidden), they
can offer alternative ways of saying something, which can be more expressive or can
help one avoid repetitions (e.g. instead of it was very cold and very dark, one can
say it was bitterly cold and pitch dark). Moreover, they can improve the style in
writing, giving the text more variety, for example if one uses a substantial meal
instead of a big meal.
Teachers must raise learners' awareness of collocation as early as possible.
Students who meet words initially with their common collocates use them far more
naturally, pronounce them better and have a greater amount of ready-made language
at their disposal to aid fluency, allowing more time to focus on the message. Learning
lexical strings first seems to enable students to extract the grammar themselves as
they begin analysing acquired language (in Lewis 2000).
For advanced learners, especially if new to the concept, teachers need to use
activities highlighting collocations. They should also stress the importance of learners
actively seeking an increasingly large amount of exposure to primarily written but
also spoken language outside the classroom, and noticing collocations within that
material.
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3. Creative ways of teaching collocations

3.1. Online flashcards sets
Flashcards can be used in a variety of ways both in the classroom and by
students at home. Quizlet is a web tool where you can make flashcard sets of the
collocations a teacher is preparing for the students. It saves time, and one can use sets
that have already been created, such as the one on make/do
(https://quizlet.com/63160248/makedo-business-collocations-flash-cards/). There are
several ways one can use these flashcard sets, as Quizlet has two games that can be
played with any flashcard set, Scatter and Space Race, which are great for revising
vocabulary. The former involves matching corresponding words/definitions in the
quickest time possible. The class can be split into small groups and compete against
each other.
3.2. Videos
Videos are a fantastic way of teaching and revising verb-noun collocations as
they contain natural everyday actions. They make the language learning process more
entertaining and enjoyable and provide a source of authentic and varied language,
exposing students to natural expressions and the natural flow of speech. Videos are
especially good for teaching common phrasal verbs like take out, pick up, put
down etc. Tim Robbio Warre shared on his blog an example of a lesson plan where a
short video with the famous Mr. Bean can be used for teaching and practising
collocations in a fun way (http://freeenglishlessonplans.com/2014/11/21/mr-beanpacking-his-suitcase/).
3.3. Pelmanism
This is a memory game which involves matching. Word pairs (or pictureword matches) are printed on individual cards which are placed face down in a
random distribution. Players take turns to pick up a card and then search for its
partner. If they locate the partner correctly, they keep the pair, and have another turn.
If not, they lay the cards face down where they found them, and the next player has a
turn. The player with the most pairs at the end of the game is the winner (in
Thornbury 2002: 97).
3.4. Dictogloss
The teacher is reading a story to the students and while they are listening,
they must focus on the collocations in the story and write them down. After listening
twice, students must reconstruct the story in pairs. The teacher gives the students the
original story with part of the collocation missing. Below is an example available
online at http://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/fun-ways-teach-englishcollocations:
I met my ex-husband in 1995; we fell in love at first sight. We had a fantastic relationship for
three happy years. Then, on our third anniversary, he proposed and we got married six months
later. At first, everything was perfect; we both did the housework together; I did the washingup and made the beds and he did the cooking and the shopping. He always made a mess when
he did the cooking, but I didnt mind because the dinners were always delicious.
Everything changed after a few years when he got a new job in Manchester; we made the
decision to move there, so he wouldnt have to take the train to work every day. He started
73
working later and paying less attention to me. He stopped doing the housework, so I had to do
everything. He made a lot of promises but then he would break them. He was very stressed and
he started to go bald, he got very depressed about this and started getting drunk after work. I
was getting very worried about him. He would always come home drunk and make a mess.
Then, one day, while I was cleaning his clothes, something caught my attention. It was a
lipstick stain on his shirt. I got very angry; he was keeping a secret from me! That night when
he came home, I confronted him and he broke the news to me: he had been having an affair. It
broke my heart. I kicked him out of the house and we got divorced two weeks later.
Text with gaps:

I met my ex-husband in 1995; we ____ in love at first sight. We ___ a fantastic relationship for
three happy years. Then, on our third anniversary, he proposed and we ___ married six months
later. At first, everything was perfect; we both ___ the housework together; I ___ the washingup and ____ the beds and he ___ the cooking and the _______. He always ____ a mess when
he ___ the cooking, but I didnt mind because the dinners were always delicious.
Everything changed after a few years when he ___ a new job in Manchester; we ____ the
decision to move there, so he wouldnt have to ____ the train to work every day. He started
working later and ______ less attention to me. He stopped _____ the housework, so I had to __
everything. He ____ a lot of ______ but then he would _____ them. He was very stressed and
he started to ___ bald, he ___ very depressed about this and started ______ drunk after work. I
was ______ very worried about him. He would always come home drunk and ____ a mess.
Then, one day, while I was cleaning his clothes, something ______ my attention. It was a
lipstick stain on his shirt. I ___ very angry; he was _____ a secret from me! That night when
he ____ home, I confronted him and he _____ the news to me: he had been ______ an affair. It
_____ my heart. I kicked him out of the house and we ___ divorced two weeks later.
4. Conclusion
Rosamund Moon calls just looking at words "dangerously isolationist" (1997:
40), and goes on to say that "words are again and again shown not to operate as
independent and interchangeable parts of the lexicon, but as parts of a lexical system"
(ibid: 42). An understanding of collocation is vital for all learners, and for those on
advanced level courses, it is essential that they are not only aware of the variety and
sheer density of this feature of the language but that they actively acquire more and
more collocations both within and outside the formal teaching situation.
References
1. McCarthy, M., & F. ODell, English Collocations in Use, New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2008.
2. Moon, R., Vocabulary connections: multi-word items in English, in Schmitt, N. & M.
McCarthy (eds), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy, New York: Cambridge
3. Lewis, M., Teaching Collocation, Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications, 2000.
5. Thornbury, S., How to Teach Vocabulary, Harlow, Essex: Longman, 2002.
Webography
1.
2.
3.
Fun Ways to Teach English Collocations, available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/voicesmagazine/fun-ways-teach-english-collocations [October 2015]

Make/Do Business Collocations, available at https://quizlet.com/63160248/makedo-businesscollocations-flash-cards/ [October 2015]
Video Lesson: Mr. Bean, available at http://freeenglishlessonplans.com/2014/11/21/mr-beanpacking-his-suitcase/ [October 2015]
74

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Playing A Key Tool in the Process of Teaching /

Learning Foreign Languages at Pre-School Level
Sebastian Chirimbu
Abstract: More than ever, education has as a fundamental goal to prepare the child for life, for
concrete, real, existing world challenges and future work-related, social and cultural life. The
Romanian educational ideal aims to form an autonomous and creative personality able to
anticipate the future, to transform it towards its previously anticipated direction, to discover
and resolve situations together with others. Creativity continues to be an issue of research not
because the efforts of the concerned academic community have been sterile, but because the
creative potential is one of the most complex processes of the human mind, and educating it in
order to trigger creative behaviors is one of the most daring and highest objectives. Using it in
the very process of teaching might lead to reaching two important goals of education: teaching
creativity itself and teaching other staff efficiently and effectively. Our paper uses as a case
study the use of creativity within the foreign languages class for pre-school children, for which
the process of speaking competences formation develops in parallel with foreign languages
learning.
Keywords: creativity, foreign language learning, creative teaching, speaking competence,
speaking competence formation.
1. Introduction
Whereas the contemporary world, and even more the world of tomorrow, is
characterized by complexity, globalization, acceleration and generalization of
changes, education endows the future adult for the complexity and change and
develops abilities to discover and eliminate malfunctions, the ability to master them,
to demonstrate liability for personal acts and independence for interaction and
changes of ideas. All of these converging traits can be merged into what we call
creativity. The educational ideal of Romanian school is aimed at the formation of the
autonomous and creative personality, which is able to anticipate the future, to
Associate Professor, PhD, Department of Letters - Centre of Multicultural and Interlinguistic Studies,
Spiru Haret University / Department of Research, Wales University, Bucharest, Romania
75
transform present into its previously anticipated direction, to discover and resolve
situations together with others.
2. Analysing creativity as an attribute of thinking.
There is a growing number of recent psycho-pedagogical investigations
calling upon creativity, based on the following arguments: the creative potential is
one of the most complex and mysterious assets of the human being, and educating it
in order to obtain manifestations of creative behaviours is one of the most daring and
highest objectives; the creative potential differs from one individual to another, being
higher or lower; the tasks facing the man during his life multiply, are amplified and
diversified, requiring creativity, acting directly upon determining factors of creativity;
everyone is requested to contribute to his/ her workplace in a creative manner;
creativity can be assessed and educated at each human subject (for this purpose the
process of instruction from kindergarten and school education can contribute in
particular); the company, which will invest more in children's creativity, will win, in
time, the world competition with other countries (on condition that such a country
shall preserve inside the creative values available).
In these circumstances it is obvious that the investigation of creativity is not
triggered by scientific, but by theoretical rationale, especially by needs of practical
application.
Analysing creativity J. Dewey (1921) starts from its significance of attribute
of thinking; G.W. Allport and P.E. Vernon (1933, 1937) highlights that the act of
creation involves skills and even mental processes. Thus, these scientists use
interpretations which go beyond unilateral images that reduce creativity to
"endowment", "skill", "talent". For a long time it was considered that the possibility
to produce the new, the exceptional is a quality and a precious gift possessed only by
a small number of "chosen individuals" of providence. It was considered that this
quality has the force of self-development that is achieved by itself. There was a
widespread opinion that the creative potential can be developed, but only within the
limits of a given genetic endowment; education can only refine latent forces
determined by hereditary endowment.
On this background, J. Dewey and G.W. Allport suggested another vision of
creativity - the human being has a certain potential, and the duty of education is to
discover and develop it.
More than ever, education has as a fundamental goal to prepare the child for
life, for concrete, real, existing world challenges and future work-related, social and
cultural life. The Romanian educational ideal aims to form an autonomous and
creative personality able to anticipate the future, to transform it towards its previously
anticipated direction, to discover and resolve situations together with others. The
issue has preoccupied many researchers in the field of creativity, psychologists,
practitioners in the field of education, impressed by the amount of capacity that
envelops the person and the behaviour of some individuals creators. Creativity
continues to be an issue of research not because the efforts of the concerned academic
community have been sterile, but because the creative potential is one of the most
76
complex processes of the human mind, and educating it in order to trigger creative
behaviours is one of the most daring and highest objectives. Thus, the vast majority of
specialists consider creativity as a defining feature for individual existence and for the
evolution of society. Each human being has, among other potentials, a creative
potential. The issue of turning it into a personality trait is still controversial. There are
some theorists who see the creative potential as a self-contained force, while others
considered that the level of creativity depends only on the quality of creative actions.
Starting from the bi-factorial model of creativity developed by P. P. Neveanu
(1996), who interprets creativity as creative interaction of vectors (motivation,
emotional experiences, creative attitude) with operational systems (logical, heuristic,
imaginative creative processes, attitudes), researchers in the field of education have
come to reveal the fact that the duty of the educator is to endow a child with the
adequate tool storage starting as early as possible, with generative operations, but also
to stimulate development needs, cognitive motivation, aspirations, and, why not, the
practical non-conformism. However, the creative forces of pre-school children are
formed and developed only in the ludic climate, hence the importance of play in
preschool child creativity development.
3. The game as the fundamental activity of the child
The game is the main activity during which children manifest and exercise
their creative potential, it is also the most favourable psychological climate of the
preschool child to form harmonious abilities and competences. Through the game, the
child has the opportunity to enhance the knowledge of the self, to fully establish the
relationship between him / herself and the environment. The game is the fundamental
activity of the child, an expression of the activity carried out spontaneously, for fun,
loaded with rewards.
Our documentation, experimental and reflection efforts had the following
objectives:
- Revealing the role of the development needs (present at the preschool age) in enabling and stimulating creative potential;
- Stimulating the creative potential of children through various
activities and educational games ever since kindergarten level;
- Highlighting the role of the adult in stimulating or hindering original
behaviour in pre-school children;
- Developing a training program for creative development for
preschool age children.
4. Reviewing the specialized literature on games and creativity
"What is the game and why do children play?"-are questions that scientists
started asking themselves more than a century ago. In this respect, the Romanian
psycho-pedagogical literature (Nicola 1981, Roca 1981, Stoica 1983, Oprescu 1991,
77
Petru 1995, Popescu-Neveanu 1996) features numerous works dedicated to the

concept and activity of playing.
According to the Romanian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, the concept of
"playing" has multiple meanings. The word "playing / play" may have meanings
related to fun, amusement, a figurative sense such as "playing with fire" can signify
one thing out of the ordinary, "the game", or something casual, random such as "game
of destiny". The term "play / playing" has certain peculiarities for each nation. Thus,
for the ancient Greeks, the word "playing" refers to childrens specific activities, to
the characteristics of their activities. In Hebrew, the word "playing" corresponds to
the concept of joke and fun, while for the Romans, "ludo" denotes the joy, enjoyment.
In Sanskrit "kleada" means game, glee, while for the Germans, the old "spiln"
denotes an easy, smooth, wave-like movement causing a great satisfaction. In the
contemporary era, the word "playing" began to spread over a wide sphere of human
action, which on the one hand, does not involve a lot of hard work, and on the other
hand gives people joy and satisfaction. "The activity of playing as free and as ongoing
individual pleasure, constitutes one of the essential ways of manifestation of the
human spirit.
Maria Montessori believed that the game is child labour, attracting attention
to the great effort that the child makes in the activity of playing. J. Piaget has done a
thorough and extensive analysis with rich comments on the activity of playing. He
believed that when a child is playing, he/ she sets in motion all his / her ability to rule
and influence reality. E. Erikson considered the game as a tool through which
children act out hidden feelings and ideas. Certain unpleasant or traumatic
experiences, felt by children can be thus overcome.
The theoretical approaches regarding the activity of playing, are presented by
Edouard Claparedes theories in child psychology and experimental pedagogy, meant
to explain the essence and causality of what formed the basis of the game.
The activity of playing is supposed to generate within the child not instincts
as in animals - but movement or mental functions; child activity is expressed through
the game. What is of interest (in relation to theory) is the way children manage to
exercise movement and mental functions through activities similar to those of an
adult, although they are still unable to know, to be conscious of the nature of the
needs of adults. How and from where do children copy / imitate forms of playing
games when no pre-forms or in-born instinct, no current necessity generates them?
Claparede tries to answer considering that the type of game is determined on the one
hand by the needs of the child, on the other hand, by the degree of his / her organic
development and considers the activity of playing as an agent of development,
expansion of the personality in the making.
5. Teaching foreign languages to pre-school children
Teaching foreign languages to pre-school children is one of the most
challenging tasks of a foreign languages teacher. On the one hand, there are obvious
78
difficulties, as such young children are not able to read or write, therefore the only
approach is the oral one. On the other hand, at this age the acquisition of
pronunciation is characterized by a high level of accuracy.
As the world of the young learner aged 4-6 years is self centred (Peter &
Chirimbu 2015: 28), the teaching-learning process can start from four fundamental
structures related to the self, around which an imaginative teacher can build rich
vocabulary clusters. The four main grammar structures that can be used in the
teaching of foreign languages to young children are I am, I have, I can, I like, which,
approached in a creative manner can lead to the acquisition of a rich vocabulary and
high capacity of generating new content.
The first structure traces a delimitation between the childs self and the rest of
the world around him / her. Sub-structures such as I am + noun (predicative
expression), I am + adjective (predicative expression), I am + place adverbial ca be
taught at this age by means of images, drawings, cards, at an older age (over 6) the
capacity of reproducing being doubled by the capacity of building ones own models.
I can is the other structure developing the idea of self-description. At very
young ages the total physical response can successfully be used to teach vocabulary
collocating with this modal structure (I can run / I can jump / I can draw / I can swim
/ I can climb / I can write / I can speak English, etc.).
Figure 1. Content of speaking competence formation

79
As early as BE structures are taught, HAVE structures can be introduced as

well, to which the vocabulary related to toys, objects related to the childs close
universe (his / her house and room), animals is attached.
The fourth structure is recommended to be the last to be taught as the
speaking competences of the child need to be fully developed in order not only to
reproduce correct positive and negative statements of the I LIKE type but also to
generate new content.
We strongly believe that in its early stages, the teaching a foreign languages
should closely follow the formation of the childs speaking competences and more
than that, act as a catalyst, an instrument enriching the child communicative
experiences from the classes taught in his / her mother tongue.
6. Conclusion
The foreign languages teacher can integrate the speaking competences
formation methodology among the most valuable tools to be used during the foreign
languages class for young children in order to enhance creative teaching.
The use of speaking formation strategies are fundamental in the process of
teaching foreign languages to young children in a creative manner and one of the
main goals set by the instructor should be the enrichment and improvement of
creative capacities in learners as a life-long learning process, from pre-school to
tertiary levels (Dejica-Cartis, A. & D. Dejica-Cartis, 2013).
References
1. Allport, G.W., Personality. A Psychological Interpretation, New York: Holt, 1937.
2. Allport, G.W., & P.E. Vernon, Studies in Expressive Movement, New York: Macmillan,
1933.
3. Dejica-Cartis, A. & D. Dejica-Cartis, Tentative suggestions regarding the development of
foreign language oral communication skills in students at universities of applied sciences.
In Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 84, 9 July 2013. ELSEVIER. 2013.
Pp. 934-938.
4. Dewey, J., Aims and Ideals of Education, in Watson, F. (ed), Encyclopedia and
Dictionary of Education, vol I., London, 1921.
5. Nicola, Gr. (coord), Stimularea creativitii elevilor n procesul de nvmnt, Bucureti:
EDP, 1981.
6. Oprescu, V., Aptitudini i atitudini, Bucureti: Editura tiinific, 1991.
7. Peter, K.M, & S. Chirimbu, O abordare interdisciplinar a dificultilor de nvare la
copii, in Chirimbu, S. (coord.), The International conference on education, culture and
identity in the European context: conference proceedings, Piteti: Tiparg, 2015.
8. Petru, I., Educaie i creaie, Bucureti: EDP, 1995.
9. Popescu-Neveanu, P., Zlate, M., Creu, T., Psihologie, Bucureti: EDP, R.A., 1996.
10. Roca, Al., General and Specific Creativity, Bucharest: Academy Press, 1981.
11. Stoica, A., Creativitatea elevilor posibiliti de cunoatere i de educare, Bucureti:
EDP, 1983.
80

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Le projet culturel comme moyen de promouvoir et

denseigner linterculturalit et les langues trangres
Sorina erbnescu
Rsum: LUnion Europenne soutient lapprentissage des langues trangres, vu quelles sont
les vecteurs et les moyens dexpression de la diversit culturelle. Les langues trangres
peuvent tre apprises individuellement, par les dmarches personnelles des apprenants, dans
un cadre institutionnel spcialis (coles, universits) ou travers certains projets culturels
collectifs, entrepris au niveau dune communaut ou mme dun pays. Ce dernier type
dapprentissage, plus complexe et plus enrichissant, relve galement de lducation la
communication interculturelle. Le prsent ouvrage se propose une rflexion autour de la
philosophie, des dmarches, des modalits et des instruments de mise en uvre dun projet
porte multiculturelle, aussi bien quautour de son suivi et ses valences de porteur dides et
dexpertise, censs de donner naissance et contribuer limplantation dautres futurs projets
similaires.
Mots-cls: enseignement des langues trangres, ducation au multiculturalisme et
linterculturalit, le management du projet culturel.
"Presque tout ce qui caractrise l'humanit se rsume par le mot culture."

(Jean Baudrillard, philosophe)
1. Prmisses de recherche
Nous avons constat qu lordre du jour sur les agendas culturels de
diffrentes institutions, publiques ou non profitables, centrales ou locales, se trouvent
des projets culturels destins amliorer le climat culturel des diffrentes
communauts. Ces projets sont proposs et poursuivis par diffrents acteurs
institutionnels ou appartenant des associations et/ou des ONG qui sont plus ou
Assistant Professor, PhD, Department of Marketing and International Economic Relations, Faculty of
Economics and Business Administration, West University of Timioara, Romania.
81
moins qualifis, voire comptents et expriments, dans le management culturel ou,

plus que a, dans la gestion dun projet porte interculturelle.
Les auteurs de projets culturels savent, ou lont appris par la suite, quon ne
peut pas avoir une garantie de russir la mise en uvre dun projet multi/culturel en
absence dune formation pralable tant dans lenseignement des langues, cultures et
civilisations trangres que dans la gestion des projets - et de lexprience dans la
manire daborder les phnomnes culturels selon une approche transversale, voire
pluridisciplinaire. En effet, le montage dun projet culturel tient la fois des domaines
culturel, management du projet, psychologie sociale, langues et cultures, histoire,
architecture, conservation du patrimoine, etc.
Nous avons trouv, dans ce sens, que lexistence dtudes qui expliquent,
dune manire complte, les tapes de la conception jusqu la mise en place dun
projet culturel est plutt lacunaire.
Dans la lumire de notre propre exprience, nous nous proposons dans cet
ouvrage de partager nos connaissances, pas pas, en nous appuyant sur les
explications thoriques aussi bien que sur le cas concret dun projet multiculturel
fiable, qui a t mis en uvre et continue vivre et se dvelopper.
Bien sr, nous sommes loin de considrer cet ouvrage comme un "manuel"
qui jalonne et puise la prsentation des thories ou mthodologies du management
culturel ou qui dise le dernier mot dans un domaine qui na pas encore t circonscrit
avec prcision. Il nen est quun vade-mecum qui pourra tre, et il le sera sans doute,
constamment enrichi.
2. Quelques repres conceptuels pour le management dun projet
culturel
2.1. Pourquoi a-t-on besoin de projets culturels ? Caractristiques et
importance de la Culture pour la socit humaine
"La culture est l'ensemble des valeurs, des savoirs et des modes de pense,
des techniques, et des modes d'action, des modes d'expression et de communication
qui sont communment partags par une collectivit ou une population." (Fournier &
Nicodme s.a.: 7-8). Elle est, donc, forge au sein et sous linfluence de la
communaut o est n et/ou vit lindividu, qui peut aussi lenrichir par sa propre
contribution et qui la transmet, son tour, ses successeurs (enfants, disciples, etc.).
La culture est, en mme temps, un modle de vie, de cration et de
comportement, un rservoir de connaissances, de coutumes et dexprience, aussi
bien quune attitude ouverte vers le monde et sa diversit. Elle "englobe, outre les arts
et les lettres, les modes de vie, les droits fondamentaux de l'tre humain, les systmes
de valeurs, les traditions et les croyances" (UNESCO 1982), qui se constituent dans
un corpus "dattitudes, de valeurs, de buts et pratiques" caractrisant un groupe, une
communaut, une nation, une organisation ou entreprise.
82
La culture est, donc, "//un ensemble social hrit et transmis de conduites et de

symboles porteurs des significations, un systme de reprsentations et un systme de
langage qui sexprime sous des formes symboliques, un moyen par lequel les
hommes communiquent, perptuent et dveloppent leurs connaissances et leurs
attitudes envers la vie." (Dasen 1999: 85; notre traduction du roumain en franais).
En effet, la culture est un moyen de connatre le monde, tant travers les

informations reues de lenvironnement social matriciel que par la propre
participation des individus ou des communauts, lesquels retransmettront aux
successeurs, leur tour, les nouvelles connaissances et expriences acquises: la
culture est un
" //modle de prmices lmentaires inventes, dcouvertes ou labores par un
groupe donn, au fur et mesure quil apprend faire face ses propres problmes
dadaptation lextrieur et dintgration au niveau interne qui a fonctionn
suffisamment bien pour tre considr comme valable et, par la suite, pour tre
assimil par les nouveaux membres du groupe en tant que modalit correcte de
percevoir, de penser et de sentir concernant les problmes respectifs." (Schein 2004:
38).
Dans son ouvrage "Managementul structurilor multiculturale. Software-ul

gndirii" ("Le Management des structures multuculturelles. Le logiciel de la pense":
notre traduction en franais), Hofstede a identifi un modle commun, utilis par le
cerveau humain pour ordonner sa raison travers certaines structures de sentir,
rflchir et agir, quil a appel "software of the mind" ("le logiciel de la pense"). Ces
structures mentales, personnelles et innes et, la fois, hrites, puisent leurs sources
dans les environnements sociaux (la famille, lcole, la communaut), tant slectes
par chaque individu qui les acquit et les dveloppe dans le temps, selon ses propres
capacits intellectuelles, travers des activits diversifies et continues d(auto)
apprentissage. (Hofstede 1996).
On retient de la thorie de Hofstede que la culture et spcifique pour les
membres dun groupe, dune collectivit; elle est acquise grce lapport commun,
de tous les membres du groupe; la culture assure, donc, la transmission : des
connaissances et des pratiques acquises par le groupe, de lapptit de tout tre humain
de (se) connatre - ou "co-natre" (nous lappellerions "co-(n)natre") avec le monde
(comme le disait Paul Claudel) en tant que prdisposition inne qui est dveloppe
par lducation , de la capacit cratrice de lhomme, appele "nisus formativus" par
Lucian Blaga (Blaga 1944 : p. 63), et du besoin de communiquer/de socialiser avec
les autres membres du groupe : "Tout homme - seul - est si peu, quon ne peut mme
pas lappeler homme. Seulement tous les hommes, ensemble, puissent en faire un.
Les hommes, a nexiste mme pas; ce nest quun seul tre et celui-l cest nous
tous." (Lucian Blaga, http://www.citatepedia.ro).
La culture de chaque communaut a sa propre identit, se trouve dans une
relation dchange et dinteraction avec les autres cultures, et contribue ct des
autres cultures ses gaux la constitution du patrimoine culturel universel. Les
83
productions et les biens culturels sont la fois les faonneurs et les tmoins des
cultures et des identits, tant collectives quindividuelles. En tant que rservoirs dun
hritage commun de lhumanit, les cultures sont, en mme temps, lors de leurs
interactions, des vecteurs de cohsion sociale entre les peuples ou les communauts.
La culture est un organisme dynamique qui volue avec le progrs des
socits du monde. Le XXIe sicle a renforc et statu le caractre vivant des cultures,
leur diversit et leur galit en ce qui concerne leurs droits, tels "la libert de pense,
dexpression et dinformation." (ONU 2005). Les desseins majeurs de la culture, tels
quils ont t formuls lors de la Convention de lONU de 2005, circonscrivent les
aspects fondamentaux que les politiques culturelles, tous les niveaux, doivent
respecter. Ces objectifs sont:
"(a) protger et promouvoir la diversit des expressions culturelles; (b) crer les
conditions permettant aux cultures de spanouir et interagir librement de manire
senrichir mutuellement; (c) encourager le dialogue entre les cultures afin dassurer
des changes culturels plus intenses et quilibrs dans le monde en faveur du respect
interculturel et dune culture de la paix; (d) stimuler linterculturalit afin de
dvelopper linteraction culturelle dans lesprit, de btir des passerelles entre les
peuples; (e) promouvoir le respect de la diversit des expressions culturelles et la
prise de conscience de sa valeur aux niveaux local, national et international; // (i)
renforcer la coopration et la solidarit internationales dans un esprit de partenariat
afin, notamment, accrotre les capacits des pays en voie de dveloppement, protger
et promouvoir la diversit des expressions culturelles." (ONU 2005).
Depuis lors, les mots dordre des politiques culturelles ont port sur la
protection, la promotion, la conservation/la prservation du patrimoine culturel et la
mdiation culturelle, auxquelles il faut rajouter lapport du numrique la
valorisation et la diffusion du patrimoine culturel universel, limportance duquel
deviendra de plus en plus importante dans les annes venir.
La culture est troitement lie la transmission et la diffusion, donc, la
communication, et linterculturalit (voire aux changes et aux influences des
cultures du monde) et la pluridisciplinarit (elle touche diverses disciplines, et une
varit de genres et formes culturels de manifestation).
2.2. La culture et la communication
Lacte culturel est indniablement li lacte communicationnel. Au-del du
schma de Jakobson portant sur lmetteur (locuteur) le message le rcepteur
(interlocuteur), la smantique du terme "communication" renvoie lempathie
(souvrir vers lautre) et au partage. Etymologiquement, le mot "communication"
provient du latin classique "communicare" ("commnico, -re" = "avoir part,
partager" puis "entrer en relation avec".
En roumain, comme en franais, la sphre smantique du mot
"communiquer" ("comunicare" - en roum.) admet trois acceptions : 1."transmettre"
("a transmite" - en roum.) une information, faire connatre quelque chose;
84
2."partager" ("a mprti" - en roum.) quelque chose avec quelquun; 3."communier"

("a cumineca" - en roum.), -ier par traitement semi-savant de la terminaison, la
diffrence de "communiquer".)(CNRTL) = tre en union spirituelle ou affective avec
d'autres personnes, partager une condition, un sentiment; (s')unir au Christ dans
l'Eucharistie; recevoir ou distribuer l'hostie consacre (du latin "communicare" =
"avoir part, partager", d'o "tre en communion avec l'ensemble des fidles" et
spcialement "avoir part avec l'ensemble des fidles au corps et au sang du Christ".
En tant quacte de communication avec ses composantes largumentation et
la persuasion , le projet culturel suppose lchange et le partage mutuels de valeurs
culturelles. Cette interaction, mene au bnfice rciproque des cultures en contact,
est base sur le respect de certains principes parmi lesquels: lethos (lensemble de
normes et didaux moraux dun groupe social ou dune poque, constituant la
spcificit culturelle de la communaut respective); le pathos (lenthousiasme, le
dvouement, plus gnralement, le ct affectif investi dans un projet culturel);
lempathie (capacit, plutt intuitive mais aussi rationnelle si elle est programme, de
souvrir vers lautre; "forme dintuition de la ralit en sy identifiant affectivement;
forme, proche de lintuition, de connaissance de lautre, spcialement de lesprit
social ou de quelque chose ; interprtation de lesprit des autres selon le modle du
soi propre" (DEX).
De lempathie dcoulent galement quelques principes qui sont
fondamentaux pour la communication interculturelle, dont un projet culturel ne peut
se dispenser: la sensibilisation et lacceptation de la diffrence et de la diversit des
cultures, la tolrance, le respect mutuel, la conscience de la complmentarit des
valeurs et de lapport de chaque culture au patrimoine universel.
2.3. Le management du projet et le management culturel/interculturel:
dfinitions
En termes gnraux, le projet reprsente "lensemble des activits
interdpendantes, entreprises dans une succession logique, en un laps de temps limit,
en vue dobtenir certains rsultats bien prciss, ncessaires pour atteindre des
objectifs clairement [et pralablement n.n.] formuls." (ufaru 2012: 4).
Le projet culturel est lassemblage dactivits ayant pour vocation de
"valoriser et de promouvoir une uvre, une institution ou une rgion." (CNCP,
RNCP).
Le management du projet (ou la gestion du projet) pourrait tre dfini/e, en
dveloppant la dfinition gnrique du concept de management, comme le corpus
de dmarches, stratgies, approches, styles mthodes et instruments de gestion dun
projet, de ressources humaines impliques, en sappuyant sur un budget ncessaire
la mise en uvre du projet. Cest en mme temps "un processus dorganisation et de
surveillance de la mise en place du projet, conformment sa planification, dans les
limites et les spcifications prtablies." (Bulat 2011: 6).
Le management inter/culturel "// reprsente, de faon simplifie,
l'ensemble des stratgies ou modes de gestion des hommes ou des marchs qui
85
prennent en compte les cultures nationales des interlocuteurs (clients, personnel,

partenaires, pouvoirs publics, opinion publique // c'est la capacit adapter sa
communication, sa ngociation et son leadership au contexte culturel diffrent d'un
pays ou d'un groupe de pays (Fournier & Nicodme s.a.: 8-15).
Cette forme de management est, donc, tourne vers les interactions des
cultures et des personnes appartenant des cultures diffrentes (nationales ou
spcifiques pour des communauts plus restreintes ou pour des groupes ethniques),
tant impliques ou touches par le projet respectif.
Le projet inter/culturel suppose galement la mdiation culturelle qui "est par
essence un processus de mise en uvre sociale; elle fdre l'art et le public dans le
seul but d'apprendre et d'apprcier. Elle regroupe l'ensemble des actions qui visent
rduire l'cart entre l'uvre, l'objet d'art et de culture, les publics et les populations"
(Wikibooks s.a.). La mdiation culturelle se rfre, en principal, "la mise en place
de moyens daccompagnement, de cration et dintervention destins aux populations
locales et aux publics du milieu artistique et culturel" et la favorisation de "la
diversit des formes dexpression culturelle et des formes de participation la vie
culturelle." (Mairie de la ville de Montral s.a.).
La mdiation interculturelle signifie plus que la mise en relation des
personnes en vue de construire un projet culturel dessein social ou patrimonial, quil
sagisse dun rservoir de savoirs, dune manifestation ou de la ralisation de produits
culturels matriels. Elle met en contact des individus issus de cultures diffrentes, qui
voluent sur un mme territoire gographique ou qui ont des intrts et gots
communs, en les regroupant et les faisant agir autour dun projet culturel,
gnralement porte communautaire (Wikipdia s.a.).
En mme temps, la dmarche interculturelle dpasse le domaine strictement
culturel, dans une approche qui "considre la culture dans un sens large, comme un
systme de rfrence avec ses rgles et ses habitudes" (Association Modus Operandi
2008), et qui "// traverse tous les champs dinteraction de la socit: celui du
travail, de la sant, du judiciaire, de la famille, de lenseignement, du social, de la
scurit, etc." (Le Thanh Dibba 2013).
La mise en uvre dun projet interculturel exige lobtention dune vision
commune pour tous les "participants", ce qui est possible par la ralisation de
passerelles "socio-linguistico-culturelles", une tche sine que non qui revient au
responsable du projet et son quipe. Le manager de projet doit, donc, tre conscient
de son rle de mdiateur interculturel qui lui incombe certaines tches accomplir,
telles:
"//promouvoir le plurilinguisme social et individuel //, reconnatre officiellement
la diversit linguistique dans la socit // daujourdhui, considrer la connaissance
de diffrentes langues en tant que qualification professionnelle, servir les besoins de
communication en // [Roumanie], en Europe et ailleurs." (Simeonidou-Christidou
2010: 4).
86
3. Cas de figure: le projet interculturel "Confluena culturilor Carrefour

Cultures / Treffpunkt der Kulturen"
3.1. Les objectifs du projet:
- au niveau de lidation: linformation au sens large, lducation
(lacquisition et le dveloppement de la culture gnrale et de "lapptit
culturel"), la stimulation de la lecture et de lapprentissage des langues
trangres, lducation la multiculturalit/interculturalit par la
coopration des institutions culturelles franaise, allemande et
roumaines et des librairies de Timioara en vue de sensibiliser, de
fidliser et de faciliter pour les habitants de la ville laccs aux produits
culturels: le Centre Culturel Franais, le Centre Culturel Allemand (les
initiateurs du projet), la Philharmonie "Banatul", le Muse dArt, le
Thtre National "Mihai Eminescu", le Thtre Hongrois "Csiky
Gergely", le Thtre Allemand dEtat, les librairies Crtureti de Iulius
Mall et de rue Mercy, les librairies Humanitas Joc secund" et "Emil
Cioran", la librairie "Cartea de nisip".
- au niveaux conomique et financier: bnfices rapportes tant aux
initiateurs (visibilit accrue recettes), quaux partenaires (visibilit accrue
et recettes) et aux publics les bnficiaires de facto (rductions aux
services et produits offerts par les partenaires au projet): les personnes qui
sabonnent la mdiathque dun des deux Centres Culturels ont la
gratuit la mdiathque de lautre et des rductions (de 10 jusqu 50%)
aux produits (livres, ths servis dans la librairie, spectacles, concerts,
expositions courantes) offerts par les autres partenaires.
3.2. Lquipe dimplmentation du projet
Ce collectif a t multiculturel: linitiation et la conception ont appartenu aux
deux centres culturels trangers Timioara (structures coordonnes par les
Ministres dAffaires trangres Franais et Allemand, travers leurs Ambassades en
Roumanie dont les quipes sont formes de personnel franais, allemand et
roumain), qui ont coopt, dans le cadre dun contrat de type synallagmatique, sept
autres partenaires roumains, mais aussi de nationalits allemande et hongroise (qui
ont t dj mentionns ci-dessus). Par la suite, grce aux animations organises
autour du projet, des publics, surtout jeunes, ont massivement contribu la mise en
uvre du projet en le promouvant.
3.3. Les bnficiaires
Les personnes censes bnficier de ce projet du projet taient un niveau
gnral tous les "participants" effectifs la mise en uvre: roumains, franais,
allemands, hongrois, ainsi que les publics francophones, germanophones, etc. Ceux-ci
87
ont tous contribu, en mme temps, la continuit du projet: les initiateurs, les
partenaires et les publics "consommateurs" de produits culturels.
Dans un sens plus restrictif, les bnficiaires cibls par le projet, ont t les
publics cultivs ou intresss par la culture et les apprenants ou connaisseurs de
langues trangres: dans le cas ci-prsent, le franais et lallemand.
3.4. La mise en uvre du projet inter/culturel
3.4.1. Le message du projet
Il faut, avant tout, formuler et transmettre un message mobilisant pour
convaincre les partenaires et les publics joindre les initiateurs du projet et
simpliquer dans sa mise en place.
Le message a t, tout dabord, porteur de sens explicites, prsents lors des
entretiens avec les partenaires et la signature des conventions de partenariats.
La carte "Carrefour des cultures/Kreuzung der Kulturen/Confluena
culturilor" renferme galement des sens implicites, censs convaincre les
partenaires aussi bien que les bnficiaires soutenir et participer au projet:
Timioara est une ville europenne multiculturelle; les principaux distributeurs de
culture/des cultures sont solidaires, suivant lesprit europen du respect de la diversit
et des changes collaboratifs (linterculturalit: "In varietate concordia"), dans la
promotion et le dveloppement de lapptit pour la culture; un soutien financier
opratoire de la part de tous ceux qui manifestent de lintrt pour les produits
culturels (par lacquisition de la carte "Carrefour des cultures/Kreuzung der
Kulturen/Confluena culturilor"): il sagit des avantages et des rductions dont
bnficient ceux qui sont munis de la carte lorsquils participent des actes/activits
de culture, avantages qui se reflteront galement sur les crateurs et les distributeurs
de produits culturels.
3.4.2. Le marketing culturel
La promotion du projet/ de la carte "Carrefour des cultures/Kreuzung der
Kulturen/Confluena culturilor" a t faite par: affiches, des tracts; annonces et des
confrences de presse prcdant et au moment de linauguration officielle de la carte
par les reprsentants officiels de toutes les institutions partenaires; annonces passes
sur les rseaux de socialisation; activits de soutien (des animations): lectures
dbats, ateliers, projections de films, moments thtraux, etc.
4. Conclusion
Entre temps, mme si les librairies Humanitas ont ferm leurs filiales
Timioara, dautres organismes ont rejoint le projet, la carte "Carrefour des
cultures/Kreuzung der Kulturen/Confluena culturilor" runissant, prsent, 23
partenaires (par rapport 10, le nombre des collaborateurs-associs au dpart).
Un fois mis en place, un projet culturel doit vivre et se dvelopper, devenir le
point de dpart pour dautres projets. Suivant ce principe, en novembre 2013, le
88
collectif des Langue Modernes de la Facult dEconomie et de Gestion des Affaires,

de lUniversit de lOuest de Timioara, a organis un colloque workshop sous le
titre gnrique " De la culture de gestion la gestion culturelle", en se proposant,
entre autres, de lancer une rflexion autour de la mise uvre dune carte culturelle de
la ville de Timioara, dans le contexte o le municipe allait dposer sa candidature,
devenue effective ente temps, pour le titre de capitale culturelle europenne en 2021.
Il faut mentionner que nous tions parmi les promoteurs et les organisateurs
du Colloque en raison lexprience que nous avions acquise antrieurement, lors de
linitiation et la mise en uvre du projet de la carte Carrefour des Cultures, en tant
que responsable de la Mdiathque de lInstitut Franais de Timioara.
La rflexion a port sur linitiation dun partenariat entre les institutions
administratives (Htel de Ville, le Conseil Dpartemental), ducatives (universits,
coles), culturelles (thtres, philharmonie, muses ), ONG et associations, socits
commerciales, etc. en vue de construire limage la marque (multi) culturelle de la
ville.
Le projet reste toujours tre mis en uvre en polarisant tous les acteurs
culturels, ducationnels mais aussi conomiques de la ville, en perptuant les
partenariats culturels et conomiques dj regroups autour de la carte Carrefour des
Cultures aussi bien que ceux initis dans le cadre de leurorgion DKMT, ayant
galement pour but la promotion des valeurs culturelles des zones proximit de la
ville de Timioara.
Une autre piste de rflexion autour de la construction de la marque culturelle
de la ville de Timioara a port sur la valorisation du patrimoine architectural
Scession de lancienne cit situe sur la Bega, un trsor historique et culturel qui
pourrait valoir au municipe la qualit de membre dans les rseaux des villes
europennes possdant un patrimoine architectural Art Nouveau (Rseau Art
Nouveau Network et Art Nouveau European Route). Cest pourquoi nous avions
invit au Colloque, ct des spcialistes dans le courant Art Nouveau-Scession, M.
Lluis BOSCH PASCUAL, historien, Viceprsident du Rseau Art Nouveau Network
(Bruxelles) et Secrtaire Permanent du rseau Art Nouveau European Route, dont le
Prsident est le Maire de la ville de Barcelone. En mme temps, mme aprs la
clture du colloque, nous avons fait du lobbying pour faire reconnatre lappartenance
de la ville de Timioara, grce son architecture Scession, au patrimoine
architectural et culturel europen, et avons mis en contact notre invit avec les
officialits de la ville, en vue dune prochaine adhsion de Timioara au rseau Art
Nouveau European Route.
Ces dmarches sont, encore, en cours de finalisation, mais nous esprons que
les procdures dadhsion soient accomplies jusqu la fin de lanne 2015.
Rfrences bibliographiques
1. Blaga, L., Trilogia culturii, Bucureti, Fundaia pentru literatur i artRegele Carol,
1944.
2. Dasen, Pierre, Educaia intercultural, Bucuresti, Ed. Polirom, 1999.
89
3. Hofstede, Geert, Managementul structurilor multiculturale. Software-ul gndirii,

Bucureti, Editura Economic, 1996.
Webographie
1. Association Modus Operandi, La mdiation interculturelle au service de la rconciliation,
Irenees.net, un site de ressources pour la paix, http://www.irenees.net/bdf_fiche-analyse752_fr.html, Grenoble: Modus Operandi, 2008.
2. Blaga, L., [quote], http://www.citatepedia.ro/index.php?id=57448.
3. Bulat, V., Cum scriu un proiect? Ghid de reguli i principii de baz de scriere a unui
proiect
(2nd
ed .),
http://www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB8QFj
AA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iom.md%2Fattachments%2F110_Project%2520develop
ment%2520Guide.pdf&ei=ZY_cVJiAJYO5UbSzgZAG&usg=AFQjCNE1TPfDBFgr83Eyui
IQGdcpsP98xQ&bvm=bv.85761416,d.bGQ, Chiinu, Biroul de Relaii Interetnice, IOMOIM, 2011.
4. NCP, RNCP Commission Nationale de la Certification Professionnelle - Rpertoire
national des certifications professionnelles, http://www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/
5. DEX. Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, http://www.dex.ro/
6. Fournier,
A.F.
&
A.
Nicodme,
Le
management
interculturel,
http://www.google.fr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=
8&ved=0CDUQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fodlv.free.fr%2Fdocuments%2Fmethodologi
e%2Fmemoires%2Ffournier.pdf&ei=RqzlVPjrDcrtaICPgYgL&usg=AFQjCNF4_C4aLu6
AQu81_njo3QJVwolGYQ, s.l., s.n., s.a.
7. Le Thanh Dibba, N., La mdiation interculturelle dans tous ses tats,
http://www.reiso.org/spip.php?article3397, Genve, Collectif Interculturel de mdiation,
2013.
8. Mairie de la ville de Montral, Quest-ce que la mdiation culturelle ?,
http://montreal.mediationculturelle.org/quest-ce-que-la-mediation-culturelle/, Montral:
Le portail officiel de la ville de Montral, s.a.
9. ONU, La Confrence gnrale de lOrganisation des Nations Unies pour lducation, la
science et la culture, runie Paris du 3 au 21 octobre 2005,
http://www.unesco.org/new/fr/culture/themes/cultural-diversity/cultural-expressions/theconvention/convention-text/, Paris, ONU, 2005.
10. Schein, E.H.,
Organizational culture and leadership,
http://www.untagsmd.ac.id/files/Perpustakaan_Digital_2/ORGANIZATIONAL%20CULTURE%20Organiza
tional%20Culture%20and%20Leadership,%203rd%20Edition.pdf, San Francisco: John
Wiley & Sons, 2004.
11. ufaru,
A.,
Teaching.
Managementul
de
proiect,
http://www.slideshare.net/intoSEA/prezentare-management-proiect-partea-1?related=1,
s.l., Slideshare, 2012.
12. UNESCO, Dclaration de Mexico sur les politiques culturelles. Confrence mondiale sur
les politiques culturelles, Mexico City, 26 juillet - 6 aot 1982,
http://portal.unesco.org/culture/fr/ev.phpURL_ID=12762&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_
SECTION=201.html, Mexico City: UNESCO, 1982.
13. Wikibooks,
La
mdiation
culturelle,
http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/La_m%C3%A9diation_culturelle, Wikibooks, s.a.
14. Wikipdia,
La
mdiation
interculturelle,
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9diation_interculturelle, Wikipdia, s.a.
90

Seria Limbi moderne
Vol. 14, No. 1, 2015
Die Rolle der visuellen Medien im DaF-Unterricht

Ana-Maria Dasclu-Romian*
Zusammenfassung: Die Beschftigung mit visuellen Medien im Unterricht geht bereits schon
auf das 17. Jahrhundert zurck, als Johann Amos Comenius mit seinem bildlichen Lehrbuch
Orbis sensualim pictus den ersten Meilenstein setzte. Der technische Fortschritt und die
digitale Medienrevolution haben wesentlich dazu beigetragen, dass auch der
Fremdsprachenunterricht durch den Gebrauch der Unterrichtsmedien deutlich verbessert und
erleichtert wurde. Wenn man die Entwicklung der Fremdsprachenmethodik zurckverfolgt, so
kann man feststellen, dass die visuellen Medien in den letzten Jahren immer strker an
Bedeutung gewonnen haben. Durch ihren Einsatz im DaF-Unterricht (Deutsch als
Fremdsprache) wird nicht nur das Verstndnis der zu vermittelnden Kenntnisse erleichtert,
sondern auch die aktive Teilnahme des Lernenden gefrdert. Dieser Artikel versucht zu
zeigen, wie die Verwendung von Unterrichtsmedien und von visuellen Elementen dazu
beitragen kann, die Qualitt des DaF-Unterrichts zu steigern und bessere Lernergebnisse zu
erzielen.
Schlsselwrter: visuelle Medien, Unterrichtsmedien, Bildhaftigkeit,
PowerPoint-Prsentationen, Flipchart, Poster, Lernplakat, Wandzeitung.
Tafelbilder,
1. Einleitung Didaktische berlegungen

Unser Leben ist von Bildern geprgt, wir nehmen die Welt in und durch
Bilder wahr. Sie wirken auf unser Gehirn, auf unseren Geist und auf unsere Seele und
bestimmen die Art und Weise in welche uns die Welt dargestellt wird.
Die wesentliche Funktion der visuellen Elemente erkannte bereits der
Humanist Johann Amos Comenius (1582-1670), als er Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts sein
Orbis sensualium pictus (Die sichtbare Welt, 1658) als erstes bildliches Schulbuch
verfasste. Die Illustrationen, die Comenius lateinisch-deutsches Sprachlehrbuch und
Enzyklopdie begleiten, hatten als Ziel, den Schlern die Aufnahme und das
Verstndnis zu erleichtern. Dabei betonte der Autor schon im Titel und im Vorwort
des Sprachlehrbuches, dass es ausschlaggebend ist, Lernen, Erkennen und Verstehen
*
Researcher, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania.
91
mit allen Sinnen wahrzunehmen, um die Verknpfung von Objekten und

Erscheinungen zu deuten: Das Wichtigste dabei ist, den Sinnen zuerst sinnlich
wahrnehmbare Dinge vorzulegen, damit sie begriffen werden knnen. Was nicht
zuerst in den Sinnen war, ist dann im Verstand nicht enthalten (Tomkowiak 2002:
59). Comenius Schulbuch ist demzufolge ein den Sinnen zugngliches
Nachschlagewerk, das den Lesern durch seine Bildhaftigkeit die sichtbare Welt
verschlsselt. Durch die Einfhrung von Abbildungen, Illustrationen und Tabellen,
entdeckte der groe Pdagoge des 17. Jahrhunderts die bedeutende Rolle visueller
Kommunikationsmittel und fhrte sie schon damals als Unterrichtshilfsmittel ein.
Die Vermittlung und das Verstndnis des Fremdsprachenunterrichts werden
mithilfe der visuellen Medien deutlich vereinfacht, wobei die Anschaulichkeit und die
Visualisierung innerhalb der Fremdsprachendidaktik eine zentrale Funktion ausben.
Der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit besteht darin zu zeigen, wie die zielgerichtete
Verwendung der visuellen Medien und die mit ihnen verbundenen Lehrmaterialien es
ermglichen, hhere Lernleistungen zu erreichen und den DaF-Unterricht zu
verbessern.
Zunchst wird auf die Rolle visueller Medien einzeln eingegangen, wobei der
Begriff Medium hier als Unterrichtsmedium zu verstehen ist, das als Hilfsmittel und
Lernobjekt innerhalb der Gestaltung des Unterrichts eingesetzt wird. Medien
bezeichnen alle Informationstrger, die im Unterricht fr eine effizientere
Vermittlung der Kenntnisse benutzt werden. Darunter lassen sich mehrere
Medientypen erkennen, zu denen Printmedien, visuelle, auditive, audiovisuelle und
neue Medien gehren. In diesem Artikel wird die Rolle der visuellen Medien als
Unterrichtsmedien hervorgehoben.
Visuelle Medien sind dabei nicht mit Bildern gleichzusetzen, sondern als
Medien zu betrachten, die Informationen ber bildliches Material weitergeben, das
vom menschlichen Auge aufgenommen und an das Gehirn weitergegeben wird. Zu
den visuellen Medien gehren Bilder als visuelle Darstellung der zu vermittelnden
Botschaft. Gleichzeitig lassen sich diese in Einzelbilder, Illustrationen, Tabellen,
Tafelbilder, Wandbilder, Poster, Flip-charts, Wandzeitungen, Plakate, Fotos, Dias u.a.
einteilen.
Wenn man die Entwicklung der Fremdsprachenmethodik parallel mit der
medienkulturellen Evolution zurckverfolgt, so kann man feststellen, dass die
visuellen Medien im Laufe der Jahrhunderte, aber vor allem in den letzten Jahren
immer strker an Bedeutung gewonnen haben und fr einen erfolgreichen Unterricht
unentbehrlich sind. Im DaF-Unterricht gehrt der Bildeinsatz zu den beliebtesten und
effizientesten Formen der Sprachvermittlung, und das vor allem wegen der groen
Auswahl visueller Medien, die dank ihrer zahlreichen Funktionen fr jede Lern- bzw.
Zielgruppe und in allen Sprachstufen anwendbar sind. Zu den anderen wichtigen
Aufgaben und Leistungen visueller Medien im Fremdsprachenunterricht gehren: die
Untersttzung des Textverstndnisses durch die bildhafte Darstellung
sprachbezogener und inhaltsbezogener Elemente; die Verdeutlichung komplexer
Sprachstrukturen und die Erleichterung des Verstehensprozesses; die Stimulation der
92
Wahrnehmung und das Ansprechen der Gefhle des Lernenden; das Erwecken der
Motivation des Lernenden; die Vereinfachung der Kommunikation; das
kontextbezogene Lernen im Bereich Lexik, Semantik und Syntax zu frdern u.a.
Zugleich begnstigen visuelle Medien das Verstndnis der zu vermittelnden
Informationen, was wiederum den Frontalunterricht verbessert und das Interesse der
Lernenden erweckt.
Im Folgenden wird eine Auswahl der in der Praxis verwendeten visuellen
Medien vorgenommen, zu denen Tafel, Overheadprojektor, PowerPoint-Prsentation,
Flip-Chart, Poster, Lernplakat, Wandzeitung und andere visuelle Medien zugeordnet
werden.
2. Visuelle Medien im Unterricht
Die Tafel gehrt als ltestes visuelles Medium seit Jahrhunderten zum
Unterrichtsraum. Wenn man die Entwicklung dieses Mediums von den traditionellen
Schreibtafeln im Klassenraum und den Schreibtafeln der Schler, die bereits schon im
16. Jh. erwhnt wurden, bis hin zur modernen Tafel, die mit Tafelfilzstiften zu
beschreiben ist, zu Magnettafeln, Pinntafeln, Hafttafeln, Anschlagtafeln, Filztafeln
und elektronischen Tafeln verfolgt, kann man bemerken, dass es zu den beliebtesten
Unterrichtsmedien gehrt. Ihre Beliebtheit lsst sich durch eine groe Anzahl von
Vorzgen erklren: Tafeln sind einfache und leicht zu handhabene Medien, die
keinen technischen Aufwand erfordern und immer einsatzbereit sind. Man kann sie
zur Veranschaulichung von Text und bildlicher Information jederzeit verwenden,
Fehler knnen sofort beseitigt werden, Erluterungen knnen ergnzt werden usw. Ob
Schreibtafeln, Anschlagetafeln, Hafttafeln, Lehrtafeln, Magnettafeln oder
elektronische Tafeln bzw. mit einem Computer verbundene Touchscreens alle
Tafelformen gehren zu den am hufigsten eingesetzten Medien, die man in jeder
Unterrichtsphase und in jeder Lerngruppe benutzen kann. Die Tafel dient der
Illustration oder dem Festhalten von Informationen und eignet sich besonders dafr,
schrittweise etwas entstehen zu lassen, z. B. Gedanken zu entwickeln, Meinungen zu
uern und in Stichpunkten festzuhalten oder Regeln abzuleiten. Dabei untersttzen
Tafelbilder die Veranschaulichung des Lernstoffs, die Sammlung von Ideen, die
Erstellung von Skizzen, Tabellen, Strukturen und Erluterungen, welche die
Vermittlung des Fremdsprachenunterrichts favorisieren.
Ein gutes Tafelbild ist oft aussagekrftiger als tausend Worte, wobei das vor
allem innerhalb des Fremdsprachenunterrichts hilfreich ist. Informationen zum
Unterrichtsschema lassen sich auf vielfltige Weise ber die Tafel reprsentiern: ein
Sachtext mit Unterstreichungen, Hervorhebungen oder in Spalten angeordneten
Gegenstzen; eine Graphik, eine Tabelle oder ein Diagramm; eine Skizze; ein
Organigramm u.a.
Gleichzeitig kann man auch dynamisch mit dem Tafelbild arbeiten. Im
Unterschied zum statischen Tafelbild oder zu einem Arbeitsblatt mit einer fertigen
Zeichnung sind die Lernenden am Prozess der Entstehung mit ihren Augen und
93
Ohren beteiligt und knnen dadurch jede Etappe des Unterrichts verfolgen und
mitgestalten.
Zugleich lassen sich Tafelbilder interaktiv gestalten, wobei die Lernenden in
das Erstellen oder Verndern des Tafelbildes mit einbezogen werden. Sie knnen z.B.
Vermutungen uern, die vom Lehrer / von der Lehrerin in das entstehende Tafelbild
aufgenommen werden, sie knnen das Tafelbild ergnzen, verndern, mitgestalten.
Der Vorteil besteht darin, dass alle Lernenden die notwendigen Schritte beobachten
knnen und dass eventuelle Fehler sofort korrigiert werden.
Tafelbilder dienen vor allem dem Skizzieren von Unterrichtsinhalten, dem
Veranschaulichen von Sachverhalten bzw. der grafischen Darstellung inhaltlicher
Zusammenhnge. Andererseits kann das Tafelbild den Schwerpunkt einer ganzen
Unterrichtsstunde bilden, wobei Sach-, Sinn- oder Problemzusammenhnge im Laufe
einer Stunde grafisch mit Text und Bild dargestellt und entwickelt werden. Alle
Phasen der gesprchsweisen Erarbeitung werden dabei mit den Tafelbildern
verbunden. Durch die Entwicklung eines solchen groen dramaturgischen Tafelbildes
werden alle Zwischenergebnisse der ganzen Unterrichtseinheit festgehalten, die dann
abgewischt werden knnen, wenn man sie nicht mehr verwendet.
Auerdem dokumentieren Tafelbilder alle Lern- und Arbeitsprozesse
innerhalb der Unterrichtsstunde. Der Lehrer kann wichtige Stichworte festhalten oder
Wrter mit schwieriger Rechtschreibung notieren, Arbeitsauftrge, Fragen u. a.
vermerken. Die Lernenden knnen dabei alle Schritte gut verfolgen und ben, einen
Gesprchsverlauf in seinen wesentlichen Aussagen festhalten, eine Struktur
herausarbeiten, Kernargumente einer Diskussion erkennen. Gleichzeitig knnen die
Lernenden Lsungsideen vorstellen oder die Tafel zur Untersttzung eines Referats
nutzen. Ferner knnen sie die Tafel in die Prsentation von Arbeitsergebnissen
einbeziehen, seien es Ergebnisse ihrer eigenen Recherche oder von Gruppenarbeit,
Mitteilungen aus Projekten usw. Sie knnen auf diese Weise ihre Lern- oder
Arbeitsprozesse sichtbar und fr andere verstndlich machen.
Allerdings weist die Tafel auch Nachteile auf: Das auf die Tafel
Geschriebene ist etwas Einmaliges. Wenn es nicht abgeschrieben wird, ist ein spterer
Rckgriff auf das Tafelbild nicht mglich.
In vielen Schulen und an Universitten wird der Overheadprojektor anstelle
der Wandtafel verwendet und ist wahrscheinlich neben der Tafel ein weiteres sehr
beliebtes und hufig eingesetztes visuelles Medium. Der Vorzug dieses Gerts
gegenber der Tafel besteht u. a. darin, dass die vorbereiteten Folien mit Text und
Bild eingesetzt werden knnen, dass die Folien wiederverwendbar sind und dass bei
der Arbeit mit Overheadprojektor der Blickkontakt zu den Lernern erhalten bleibt
(vgl. Frankenberg & Fuhr 1997: 42). Man kann Bilder aus Bchern auf Folien
kopieren, ohne die vielleicht seltenen oder kostbaren Originale immer mit in die
Klasse oder in den Seminarraum nehmen zu mssen. Dadurch gewinnt auch die
Vorplanung ein greres Gewicht: Man kann Folien zu Hause sorgfltig gestalten und
muss nicht in der Pause vor der Unterrichtsstunde ein Tafelbild anfertigen.
94
Die Arbeit mit dem Overheadprojektor bedarf einer gezielten Vorbereitung,

wobei drei Arten von Projektionsvorlagen zu bercksichtigen sind: die Fertig-Folie,
die Live-Folie und die Teilfertig-Folie. Whrend die Fertig-Folie von den Referenten
vorher vorbereitet und bei der Prsentation nicht verndert wird, entsteht die LiveFolie vor den Augen der Studierenden im Verlauf des Vortrags
(Entwicklungstechnik). Die Teilfertig-Folie (Ergnzungstechnik) besteht aus
vorgefertigten Elementen, wird aber im Laufe der Prsentation ergnzt (vgl.
Geldmacher 2010: 40).
Der Overheadprojektor ist multifunktional, in jeder Phase der Prsentation
anwendbar und dient meist dazu, die Struktur der vorgetragenen Inhalte zu
veranschaulichen oder einzelne Abschnitte des Vortrags zu illustrieren. Dabei gibt es
unterschiedliche Techniken, wie OHP-Folien eingesetzt werden knnen: Neben dem
Auflegen einer Folie, dem Ab- und schrittweisen Aufdecken der Informationen sind
vor allem die Overlaytechnik (berlagerungstechnik) blich, bei der mehrere
Folien schrittweise bereinander gelegt werden, um so z. B. eine Grafik zu
vervollstndigen.
Zum Overheadprojektor gibt es Zusatzgerte, so z. B. das
Datenprojektionsgert, das dazu verhilft, Bilder vom Computerbildschirm ber den
Overheadprojektor auf eine Projektionswand zu projizieren. In einen OHP-Feeder
knnen bis zu 30 Folien eingelegt werden, die dann per Fernbedienung zum richtigen
Zeitpunkt prsentiert werden. Es gibt auch OHP-Gerte, an deren Sule ein
Diaprojektor befestigt werden kann.
Auch die Stellung des Overheadprojektors ist wichtig. Der Overheadprojektor
steht entweder auf dem Tisch oder in einem fahrbaren Projektortisch neben dem
Lehrertisch. Die Entfernung zur Projektionsflche sollte etwa 2,5 Meter betragen.
Gnstig ist, wenn sich die Projektionsflche neben der Tafel befindet, so dass der
Overheadprojektor parallel zur Tafel genutzt werden kann.
Bei der Einsetzung der Folien, sollte man folgende wichtige Aspekte in
Betracht ziehen:
- Auf einer Folie sollte man nicht zu viele Informationen einfgen, der
Inhalt sollte sich eher auf eine Kernaussage, auf ein Bild, auf ein
Organigramm u.s.w. beschrnken;
- Text und Bilder sollten miteinander verbunden werden, wobei die
bildhaften Elemente berwiegen sollten;
- Man sollte mehrere Farben verwenden, um die Aufmerksamkeit der
Lernenden zu erwecken;
- Um den Unterricht so spannend wie mglich zu gestalten, sollte man
die Folien mit anderen Medien kombinieren;
Die Vortrge mit Folien fr den Overheadprojektor werden in letzter Zeit
immer fter durch computergesttzte PowerPoint-Prsentationen ersetzt. Dabei
wird whrend der Prsentation mithilfe des Beamers die PowerPoint-Folie an die
Wand projiziert, wobei im Unterschied zur Overhead-Folie die bergnge von einer
zur nchsten Folie nicht manuell, sondern vom Computer durchgefhrt werden.
95
Die Software erleichtert die Prsentierung der Folien und ermglicht zugleich
das Einfgen weiterer multimedialer Elemente, wie z. B. Videoclips, Fotos,
Filmausschnitte usw. Zu den Vorteilen der PowerPoint-Folien zhlen auch die
Leuchtkraft der Farben sowie auch die Mglichkeit, Animationen einzufgen und
Bilder zu bewegen.
All diese Elemente verhelfen dazu, den Vortrag in einer bersichtlichen,
attraktiven, vielseitigen und spannender Art und Weise darzustellen und das Interesse
der Lernenden zu erwecken.
Das Flipchart (auch Flip-Chart) ist ein visuelles Medium, welches als
grafisches Hilfsmittel im Rahmen des Unterrichts, bei Referaten, Vortrgen usw.
verwendet wird. Es ist als berdimensionaler Schreibblock an einem Gestell hnlich
einer Pinn-Stellwand angebracht.
Dieses Medium ist auch ein beliebtes, ergnzendes Hilfsmittel im
Sprachunterricht, wobei es dafr verschiedene Einsatzmglichkeiten auch im Bereich
des DaF-Unterrichts gibt, vor allem dann, wenn keine Tafel vorhanden ist. Das
Flipchart eignet sich beispielweise zum Eintragen von Kernaussagen, zum Festhalten
von Kommentaren, Fragen, Zwischenergebnissen u.a. Gleichzeitig kann der
Vortragende am Flipchart ein Thema interaktiv mit den anderen Zuhrern ausarbeiten
und die wichtigsten Informationen festhalten. Die Zuhrer beteiligen sich auch durch
ihre Mitarbeit am Entstehungsprozess des Unterrichts, wobei die Anwendung der
Flipcharts einen interaktiven Fremdsprachenunterricht ermglicht.
Ein Flipchart wird normalerweise mit farbigen Faserstiften beschrieben, um
die Aufmerksamkeit der Lernenden auf die zu vermittelnden Informationen zu
lenken. Die gebrauchten Bltter knnen, falls man spter nochmals auf sie
zurckgreifen mchte, nach hinten umgeschlagen und als Dokumentation verwendet
werden.
Ein weiterer Vorteil der Flipcharts besteht darin, dass man es als eine fr alle
Teilnehmer sichtbare Schreibflche in jedem Raum einsetzen kann. Gleichzeitig,
knnen die Papierbgen auch vor dem Unterricht vorbereitet werden, um dadurch
Zeit zu sparen.
Zu den Nachteilen der Einsetzung von Flipcharts als visuelles Medium gehrt
das ungnstige Hochformat, das wenig Platz fr die Erstellung von lngeren Stzen
oder ausfhrlichen Formulierungen bietet. Zugleich ist auch an die
Papierverschwendung zu denken, die durch die Anwendung des Flipcharts verursacht
und als umweltbelastend zu betrachten ist.
Ein anderes visuelles Medium ist das Poster, ein gedrucktes Bildmedium,
welches in Form von groen Papierbgen dargestellt wird und neben den Bildern
auch oft von kurzen Informationen begleitet wird.
hnlich wie Wandbilder haben Poster im Sprachunterricht die Funktion,
Informationen zu veranschaulichen, als Material fr Wortschatzarbeit zu dienen oder
als Sprech- oder Schreibanlass genutzt zu werden.
Folgende Aspekte sollten bei der Erstellung des Posters und bei seinem
Einsatz im Fremdsprachenunterricht in Betracht gezogen werden: das Poster soll eine
96
Kernaussage klar und deutlich hervorheben bzw. eine Botschaft vermitteln; es sollte
durch attraktive Bilder und Grafiken ins Auge springen und die Aufmerksamkeit des
Lernenden gewinnen; die bildlichen Elemente und die berschriften mit Aussagen
sollten die Hauptgehalte und die Ergebnisse beleuchten; das Poster sollte die
inhaltliche Qualitt des Unterrichts steigern und die Lernenden zu Diskussionen
anregen. Bei der Gestaltung der Poster, wre es ratsam folgende Hinweise zu
befolgen: die bildlichen Elemente sollten dominieren, damit der Betrachter vom
Poster optisch angezogen wird; man sollte kurze, knappe Stze oder berschriften
gebrauchen und dabei eine groe Schriftart und Farben gebrauchen; man sollte
bersichtliche, aussagekrftige Bilder, Grafiken und Diagramme verwenden.
Die Lernplakate, die im Rahmen des Unterrichts zu Prsentationszwecken
benutzt werden, unterscheiden sich von anderen Plakaten nicht aufgrund des
Materials (auch hier: ein groes Papier variabler Farbe und Dicke), sondern aufgrund
der inhaltlichen Gestaltung und Zielsetzung. Lernplakate dienen, wie der Begriff
schon sagt, dem Lernen.
Nach Miriam Geldmacher (2010: 35) lassen sich zwei Typen von
Lernplakaten voneinander unterscheiden: Das individuelle Lernplakat, das der Autor
fr sich selbst erstellt, und das fr eine grere Lerngruppe gedachte Lernposter.
Whrend das individuelle Lernplakat sich vor allem an der kognitiven Lernstruktur
des Erstellers richtet, muss sich das Lernposter daran orientieren, welche Lernmuster
in der Gruppe vorhanden sind, bemerkt Geldmacher (2010: 35).
Zur Untersttzung von Prsentationen wird in der Regel ein fr eine grere
Gruppe gedachtes Lernposter verwendet. Ziel eines Lernposters ist nicht nur,
Informationen zu vermitteln, sondern diese auf wesentliche Lerninhalte zu reduzieren
Lernplakate und -poster seien dazu gedacht, Wissen zu strukturieren und
damit den Bedrfnissen Lernender entgegenzukommen. Sie haben aber auch den
Zweck, den Lernenden, die das Plakat erstellen, nahe zu bringen, wie Inhalte sinnvoll
aufgebaut und grafisch ansprechend prsentiert werden.
Im Unterschied zum Lernplakat beinhaltet die Wandzeitung jedoch in der
Regel hauptschlich Informationen zu einem Thema, wobei der Inhalt nicht auf
Begriffe, Assoziationen und kurzen Erklrungen reduziert wird, sondern vor allem
lngere Textpassagen enthlt, die auf ein groes Papier aufgeklebt wurden. Wie der
Begriff schon andeutet, handelt es sich dabei z. B. um Zeitungsartikel oder um kurze
Informationstexte, die mit Fotos oder Illustrationen versehen sind.
Die Wandzeitung kann auch die Rolle haben, Informationen zu einem Thema
in Gestalt von aufgeklebten (Zeitungs-)Artikeln zu dokumentieren (traditionelle
Wandzeitung). In dieser Form kann sie eine Prsentation ergnzen, wenn z. B.
Lernende dazu aufgefordert werden, im Rahmen eines Vortrags selbststndig
Informationen zu sammeln, um diese dann in die Diskussion einbringen zu knnen.
Die Wandzeitung wird prsentationsbegleitend, z. B. als Basis fr Arbeitsauftrge,
oder im Anschluss an eine Prsentation, z. B. zur Vertiefung, eingefhrt (vgl
Geldmacher 2010: 36).
97
Die didaktische Aufgabe der Wandzeitung besteht nach Miriam Geldmacher

(2010: 36) vor allem darin, dass die Lernenden sich und andere ber ein Thema
informieren und die Informationsquellen dem Betrachter zur Verfgung stellen. Die
Rezeption bentigt allerdings einen lngeren Prozess als im Falle des Posters oder des
Lernplakats.
3. Einige Beispiele aus der Praxis
3.1. Die Tafel als Grammatikeinfhrung und -bung
Verben
fahren
Satzmuster
Ich bin sehr schnell gefahren.
lesen
Ich habe diesen Roman gelesen.
Assoziative Ergnzungen
schnell
Auto
nach Frankfurt
zum Arzt
diesen Roman
gestern
die ganze Nacht
konj. Verb Partizip II

(Position 2) (Ende)
Tabelle 1: Das Perfekt
Zunchst werden die Verben an die linke Tafel geschrieben und an die rechte
Tafel werden die von den Lernenden dazu assoziierten Wrter notiert. In der Mitte
erscheint dann das Satzmuster, nach dem alle weiteren Informationen formuliert
werden.
3.2. Die Tafel als Wortschatzarbeit
Ein wichtiges Prinzip der Fremdsprachendidaktik lautet, neue Wrter nur im
Zusammenhang, in einem Kontext zu prsentieren und zu lernen. Die Lerner sollen
deshalb auch dazu motiviert werden, dieses Prinzip im Selbststudium anzuwenden. In
diesem Sinne, bilden Tafelbilder verschiedene Mglichkeiten der Veranschaulichung
von semantischen Relationen. Beispiele fr Wortschatzbungen liefert das Tafelbild
im Unterkapitel 3.2.1. Wie aus dem Beispiel zu deuten ist, werden von einem
Oberbegriff ausgehend, zahlreiche Unterbegriffe durch Assoziationen abgeleitet.
Diese Ergebnisse illustrieren semantische Strukturen innerhalb des mentalen
Wortschatzes, welche die verschiedenen Beziehungen zwischen den Wrtern erfassen
und zur Erweiterung des Wortschatzes verhelfen.
3.2.1. Zuordnung von Unterbegriffen zu einem Oberbegriff durch die
Tafel
Verkehrsmittel
Bus
Straenbahn
Flugzeug
....
Familie
Mutter
Grovater
Schwiegermutter
....
Tabelle 2: Beispiele
98
3.2.2. Systematischer Wortschatz durch die Tafel

Als Abschluss der Bearbeitung eines Themas ist es sehr wichtig, den
vermittelten Wortschatz zu systematisieren:
Personen
Gegenstnde im Raum
der Lehrer
die Tafel
die Lehrerin
der Tisch
der Student
der Stuhl
die Studentin
der OHP
der Schler
die Leinwand
die Schlerin
der Schrank
Unterricht
Ttigkeiten
hren
lernen
lesen
schreiben
buchstabieren
prsentieren
Wir arbeiten mit (D.)

dem Lehrbuch
dem Arbeitsblatt
der Folie
dem Bild
der Tafel
dem Buch
Tabelle 3: Wortschatz
3.2.3. Wortfamilien durch die Tafel

Auch Wortfamilien lassen Bedeutungsbeziehungen und Zusammenhnge
erkennen. Das verbindende Element ist in diesem Falle die Wortverwandtschaft, die
ggf. auch bildlich dargestellt werden kann:
Ostern
der Osterhase
das Osterei
die Osterblume
das Osterfest
die Osterglocke
das Osterlamm
der Osterkuchen
das Osterlied
Tabelle4: Wortfamilie
3.2.4. Tafelbilder zur Festigung der Grammatik und zur Erweiterung

des Wortschatzes
Dieses Beispiel soll veranschaulichen, wie man Grammatik- und
Wortschatzbungen anhand von Tafelbildern leichter erklren kann. Das aufgegebene
Thema Wir bauen ein Regal Handlungsanweisung im Passiv soll zeigen, wie man
an der Tafel Informationen, Gedanken, Ideen zum Thema festhlt, dabei aber auch die
Grammatik bt und den Wortschatz erweitert.
Zunchst geht es um die Erarbeitung des notwendigen Wortschatzes:
Wir bauen ein Regal.
Was brauchen wir?
_____________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Tabell 5: Wortschatz
Die gesammelten Ergebnisse knnten wie folgt aussehen:

Wir bauen ein Regal.
Was brauchen wir?
das Holz
das Brett, -er
die Sge, -n
der Nagel,-
Tabelle 6: Beispiele
99
die Schraube, -n
der Hammer, der Pinsel, die Farbe, -n
Um den Prozess der Herstellung eines Regals beschreiben zu knnen, werden

dann die Verben zusammengetragen:
Was mssen wir machen?
messen
sgen
nageln
schrauben
streichen
-gemessen (haben)
- gesgt (haben)
- genagelt (haben)
- geschraubt (haben)
-gestrichen (haben)
Zuerst werden die Bretter gemessen.

Dann ...
Danach ...
Tabelle 7: Ergebnisse
In Partnerarbeit kann nun nach dem Muster die gesamte Handlungsanweisung

formuliert werden. Die Tafelbilder dienen dabei einerseits zur Erklrung des Passivs,
andererseits aber auch zur Erweiterung und Festigung des Wortschatzes.
3.2.5. Textarbeit an der Tafel
Die Mglichkeit, an der Tafel ein Thema, eine Kernaussage, ein Gedanke,
eine Idee usw. entstehen zu lassen, ist auch fr die Textarbeit gut nutzbar.
Zuerst wird der zentrale Begriff des Themas (z. B. Urlaub) aufgegeben und
man fordert die Lernenden dazu auf, zu sagen, was ihnen dazu einfllt. Diese
Assoziationen werden dann an die Tafel geschrieben und um den Hauptbegriff
angeordnet:
Abbildung 1: Assoziationsdiagramm zum Thema Urlaub
Das Assoziationsdiagramm dient in diesem Fall dazu, mit dem Begriff

verknpftes Wissen und den entsprechenden fremdsprachigen Wortschatz zu
100
aktivieren. Das so erarbeitete Tafelbild bleibt an der Tafel stehen und dient nach dem
ersten Sehen, Lesen, Hren einer ersten Verstndniskontrolle: Haben wir unsere
Ideen im Text wiedergefunden?
Die mit den Hypothesen bereinstimmenden Textinformationen sollten an
der Tafel markiert werden, um bewusst zu machen, dass man auch ohne Textkenntnis
schon recht viel ber ein bestimmtes Thema in der Fremdsprache sagen kann. Diese
bungen sind durch das Einsetzen der Tafelbilder attraktiver und motivieren den
Lernenden, aktiv teilzunehmen und den Unterricht mitzugestalten.
3.2.6. Erarbeitung der Textstruktur an der Tafel
Fr die Bewusstmachung von Textstrukturen und Verknpfungselementen ist
die Tafel ebenfalls ein sehr geeignetes Medium. Ein Beispiel dafr wre die
Erstellung eines offiziellen Briefes, der gemeinsam mit den Lernenden an der Tafel
erarbeitet werden kann. Der Lehrer schreibt den Musterbrief an die Tafel, weist dabei
auf wichtige Textstrukturen, auf Aufbau, Anrede usw. hin, hebt all diese Aspekte
hervor und die Lernenden schreiben den Text anschlieend ab.
Im Anfngerunterricht spielen Dialoge eine wichtige Rolle. Diese lassen sich
effektiver einben, wenn sie zunchst an der Tafel gezeigt werden.
Eine Einladung
Ich mchte gern mit dir essen gehen.
Heute Abend.
So um sieben.
Um neun?
(+/-) Wann denn?

Um wie viel Uhr?
(-) Da muss ich zu meiner Kollegin.
(+)---------------------------------------
Tabelle 8: Einladung
Nachdem das Tafelbild erstellt wurde, wird der Dialog paarweise gelesen.
Dabei knnen einige Wrter aus dem Dialog weggewischt werden, bis schlielich der
Dialog frei reproduziert wird.
4. Schlussfolgerungen
Im vorliegenden Artikel wurde die Rolle der visuellen Medien im
Fremdsprachenunterricht thematisiert und anhand von einigen Beispielen beleuchtet.
Dabei wurden zunchst einige Medientrger vorgestellt, die fr eine attraktivere
Gestaltung des Unterrichts sorgen und das Interesse des Lernenden am
Sprachenlernen erwecken.
Als Mittel der Veranschaulichung sind Lehr- und Lernmittel aller Art
eigentlich Unterrichtsmedien. Im Unterschied zu den Massenmedien, die vorwiegend
Informationsquellen
sind,
werden
Unterrichtsmedien
vorwiegend
als
Vermittlungshilfen verstanden und im Fremdsprachenunterricht eingesetzt.
101
Weil die Vermittlung und die Aufnahme von Informationen und Kenntnissen
auf Sinneswahrnehmung basiert, ist der Einsatz visueller Medien im Sprachunterricht
nicht nur sehr wichtig, sonder unbedingt erforderlich.
Die Art und die Anzahl visueller Medien im Fremdsprachunterricht ist
stndig gestiegen, wobei neben den traditionellen Medien (wie die Tafel), neue
Medien wie Overheadprojektor, PowerPoint-Folie oder Flipchart immer fter
verwendet werden. Heute stehen Lehrern und Studierenden eine groe Vielfalt von
Anschauungsmitteln zur Verfgung, so dass es nicht immer leicht fllt, das
angemessene Medium auszuwhlen.
Wie aus den herangefhrten Beispielen und Tafelbildern hervorgeht, wird die
Grammatik- und Wortschatzvermittlung anhand der visuellen Medien deutlich
erleichtert. Vom didaktischen Standpunkt aus betrachtet, werden durch den Einsatz
dieser Medien im DaF-Unterricht nicht nur die Lern- und Entwicklungsprozesse
untersttzt, sondern auch die Motivation des Lernenden gesteigert und seine aktive
Teilnahme gefrdert.
Abschlieend ist zu bemerken, dass durch die zielgerichtete Verwendung von
Bildern und durch die bildgesttzte Sprachvermittlung hhere Lernerfolge erzielt
werden und dadurch die Qualitt des DaF-Unterrichts deutlich verbessert wird. In
diesem Sinne ist es angemessen, den Umgang mit visuellen Medien als wichtigen Teil
des Unterrichts zu betrachten und die wesentliche Funktion der Bildmedien im
Rahmen der Fremdsprachendidaktik zu erkennen.
Literatur
1. Frankenberg, B., & L. Fuhr, Visuelle Medien im Deutschunterricht, Erprobungsfassung
4/97, Berlin/Mnchen: Langenscheidt, 1997.
2. Geldmacher, M., Prsentationskompetenz im gymnasialen Deutschunterricht. Ziele,
Inhalte, Methoden, Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren, 2010.
3. Tomkowiak, I., Populre Enzyklopdien. Von der Auswahl, Ordnung und Vermittlung des
Wissens, Zrich: Chronos, 2002, 59.
102
ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS

Sebastian CHIRIMBU
Department of Letters - Centre of Multicultural
and Interlinguistic Studies USH/ Department of
Research UW, Bucharest, ROMANIA
E-mail: sebastian_chirimbu@yahoo.com
Ana-Maria DASCLU-ROMIAN
Romanian Academy, Bucharest
ROMANIA
E-mail: arodette@live.com
Andreea DOBRA
Politehnica University of Timioara
Department of Mechatronics
Bd. Mihai Viteazul, 1
300223 Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: branisteludmila@yahoo.com
Hatem EL ZEIN
Central Queensland University
Communication and Media Studies
AUSTRALIA
E-mails: hatemelzein@yahoo.com.au
Golam FARUK
King Khalid University
Department of English
Abha, SAUDI ARABIA
E-mail: faruk.golam@yahoo.com
Roxana GHI
Dept. of Communication and Foreign Languages
Str. Traian Lalescu 2a
roxana.elena.gh@gmail.com
Simona OLARU-POIAR
Victor Babe University of Medicine and Pharmacy
Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: simona.posiar@yahoo.com
Iulia PARA
University of Timioara
Department of Marketing and International
Relations
Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: iulia.para@e-uvt.ro
Claudia E. STOIAN
E-mail: claudia.stoian@upt.ro
Sorina ERBNESCU
West University of Timioara
Department of Marketing and International
Economic Relations
Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: sorinaserbanescu@yahoo.com
Simona IMON
E-mail: simona.simon@upt.ro
103
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