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Editor-in-chief / Redactor ef
Conf. Dr. Daniel DEJICA, Politehnica University of Timioara, Romania
CONTENTS
Linguistics and Communication
Simona IMON
Hatem EL ZEIN
13
23
Andreea DOBRA
31
Simona OLARU-POIAR
41
49
Iulia PARA
61
Roxana GHI
71
Sebastian CHIRIMBU
75
Sorina ERBNESCU
81
Ana-Maria DASCLUROMIAN
91
104
CUPRINS
Linguistics and Communication
Simona IMON
Hatem EL ZEIN
13
23
Andreea DOBRA
31
Simona OLARU-POIAR
41
49
Iulia PARA
61
Roxana GHI
71
Sebastian CHIRIMBU
75
Sorina ERBNESCU
81
Ana-Maria DASCLUROMIAN
91
104
1. Introduction
At the beginning of the 20th century, philosophers started wondering on the
nature of our utterances. In that period a philosophical doctrine called logical
positivism appeared. This doctrine states that a sentence has to be either true or false
to the reality for which it stands, otherwise it is meaningless (Levinson 1994: 227). It
follows then that most literary, aesthetic, ethical discourses and everyday utterances
are meaningless. One of the most fervent proponents of this doctrine is Wittgenstein
(1961), who later on however underlines that meaning is use (Wittgenstein 1958:
paragraph 43) and that utterances may be explained in relation to their role in
different activities or language-games (imon 2014).
A similar stand to that of the later Wittgenstein is also adopted by Austin
who emphasises that the total speech act in the total speech situation is the only
actual phenomenon which, in the last resort, we are engaged in elucidating (Austin
1962: 147). He distinguishes between those speech acts that express some
psychological states and those that mirror the type of social interaction they are
involved in. Austin also classifies speech acts into constative and performative ones,
the former being evaluated according to truth conditions and the latter according to
felicity conditions (imon & Dejica 2015a). Furthermore, he emphasises that when
uttering a sentence, we simultaneously perform a locutionary, an illocutionary and a
perlocutionary act. Taking all this into consideration, Austins theory of speech acts is
perceived as being more comprehensive than the one proposed by logical positivism
which it soon replaced.
Searle (1994) further develops Austins speech acts theory. He emphasises
that we use speech acts in order to communicate and therefore speech acts are the
smallest units of linguistic communication. The production of speech acts is
determined by regulative and constitutive rules, which influence the illocutionary
force of an utterance. The illocutionary force is also the one on which Searle bases his
taxonomy of speech acts (imon & Dejica 2015b). His classification is thus very
helpful for the identification and description of speech acts.
Van Dijks (1992) approaches speech acts from the perspective of the theory
of actions as using speech acts in speaking implies doing actions in real life. He thus
differentiates among single speech acts, composite speech acts and sequences of
speech acts. Furthermore, he considers that each speech act should contribute to the
realisation of other speech acts, so that there might be preparatory, component,
auxiliary and consequent speech acts (imon 2008). Van Dijk contributes greatly to
the understanding of the speech acts by highlighting that they are organised linearly in
micro-speech acts, and hierarchically in global / macro-speech acts.
Taking these theories into account, the present article outlines their most
important contributions to the description of the speech acts, used independently, or
in larger pieces of discourse. The examples used to illustrate some key-concepts are
taken from advertisements that appeared in some English magazines listed at the end
of the article. The choice of speech acts in advertisements is highly important as they
contribute greatly to the success or failure of the advertisement in question.
2. Austins speech acts theory
In his lectures on speech acts, Austin (1962) clarifies that speech acts are
expressions of psychological states (e.g. embarrassment, gratitude, irritation, regrets,
etc.) or of involvement in social interaction (e.g. ordering, requesting, promising,
warning, etc.). Furthermore, he distinguishes between constative and performative
utterances. The former ones describe a state-of-affairs and have the property of being
either true or false: We put a lot in our lasagna. (Parents, September 2006). The latter
Its formula:
10
narratives, which are rather associated with global speech acts than with component
speech acts (van Dijk 1992: 233).
5. Conclusion
The present article gave an account of the most important speech acts theories
developed by Austin, Searle, and van Dijk, who consider that speaking a language is
performing acts. Their speech acts theories complement each other so that in the end
an entire linguistic phenomenon is covered. Speech acts, the minimal units of
linguistic communication, were thus defined as expressions of psychological states or
involvement in social interaction. They have been classified into constative and
performative; locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary; assertives, directives,
commissives, expressives and declaratives. These speech acts may be evaluated
according to truth conditions or to felicity conditions, and may be described in terms
of constitutive or regulative rules. The illocutionary force of an utterance is
established by the illocutionary force indicating devices, which are linguistic means
such as verbs, intonation contour, stress, word order, etc. In a discourse, speech acts
are organised linearly in micro-speech act sequences and hierarchically in macrospeech acts, which are the global speech acts performed by entire discourses. All the
topics approached in the present article have been exemplified with speech acts
selected from English magazine advertisements in order to emphasise their important
role in achieving the advertisers goals.
References
1. Austin, J., How To Do Things With Words, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962.
2. Levinson, S.C., Pragmatics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
3. Searle, J.R., The Classification of Illocutionary Acts, in Language in Society, 5, 1976, 124.
4. Searle, J.R., Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994.
5. Superceanu, R., Elements of Discourse and Discourse Analysis: A linguistic approach.
Timioara: Editura Orizonturi Universitare, 2000.
6. imon, S., The Pragmatic Structure of Written Advertisements, in Superceanu, R. & D.
Dejica, (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Professional
Communication and Translation Studies, vol. 1, Timioara: Editura Politehnica, 2008, 5158, http://www.cls.upt.ro/files/conferinte/proceedings/2008/08_Simon.pdf.
7. imon, S., The Persuasive Function of Written Advertisements. Cluj-Napoca: Casa Crii
de tiin, Timioara: Ed. Orizonturi Universitare, 2014.
8. imon, S., & D. Dejica-Cari, Speech Acts in Written Advertisements: Identification,
Classification and Analysis, in Rahimi, A., (ed.), Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, vol. 192, Elsevier, 2015a, 234-239,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042815035041.
11
Sources of advertisements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
12
1. Introduction
Militant organisations in the Middle East in the context of conflict with Israel
utilise linguistic terminologies in their media statements to frame 'the self' and 'the
other.' Suleiman (2004) argues that, "one of the most important aspects of the ArabIsraeli conflict is the manipulation of terminology to create a linguistic map that
conditions people's perceptions of the facts on the ground" (138).
In this context, Hezbollah's military arm, "The Islamic Resistance", in
Lebanon has established a military media unit in the mid-1980s and one of its
missions is to issue statements about the war with Israel. The messages of this unit
contain frames to represent the identity of Hezbollah's military arm and to reframe
other identities.
Understanding the frames is significant, because they "represent
interpretative schemata that combine cognitive tools and language that allow people
to make sense of everyday experiences and events, and are more likely to resonate
*
PhD student in Communication and Media Studies, Central Queensland University, Australia.
13
with the intended recipients when they draw on shared cultural themes and cultural
memory in specific historical contexts" (Matar 2010: 150).
To identify the embedded frames in the media discourse of Hezbollah's
military arm and provide an insight about their meaning, this paper review the
existing literature and analysing the relevant data.
2. Literature Review
Hezbollah formed unofficially in Lebanon after the Israeli invasion to Beirut
in 1982 (Hamzeh 2004). This religious party faced the Israeli army through its
military wing "The Islamic Resistance" (Harb 2011). In its war, this military arm
established in 1984 a "Military Media Unit", translated also into "War Information
Unit", to broadcast various outputs, such as to document the attacks against the Israeli
army, issue media statements, archive the fighters' testaments and film the military
operations against Israel (Osipova 2011).
In an attempt to identify the media discourse of Hezbollah's military arm, El
Zein (2014) points out that "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse constitutes of
the outputs of "The Military Media Unit" and the resistant speeches of its leader the
Secretary-General of Hezbollah who is now Sayyed Hassan Nasrullah.
There are studies about Hezbollah's history, policy and ideology (Alagha
2006). Also, there studies about some outputs of "The Military Media Unit",
particularly the military operations' videos (Harb 2011; El Houri 2012). However,
Karagiannis (2009) endeavoured to identify and classify the frames in Hezbollahs
ideology, policy and excerpts from Nasrullahs speeches. However, he did not
identify the frames in The Military Media Unit of The Islamic Resistance.
Furthermore, the author did not delve in the meanings of the sketched frames.
In this regard, it seems there is a dearth in studies about the embedded frames
in the media discourse of Hezbollah's military arm. However, the question is: what
are the embedded frames in "The Islamic Resistance's" media discourse and their
meaning? Thus, this paper sheds light on the basic utilised frames and their meanings.
3. Methodology
Under the umbrella of critical discourse analysis discipline, framing can be
utilised as a theory to interpret the meaning (Darwish 2009). However, the discourse
refers to a language in an identified domain, such as media discourse (Fairclough
1995). Generally, discourse can be considered a mass noun, or a count noun (El-daly
2010). However, the powerful discourse is based "on a socio-historical grounding
embedded in the wider terrain of a culture of communication, what Foucault calls
episteme, rather than remaining as restricted, isolated and disordered political signs"
(Matar 2010: 143).
This paper considers the identified discourse as a mass noun, because it
includes the outputs' genres that constitute "The Islamic Resistance's" media
discourse.
14
15
(which means the party). Thus, the new term is 'Rijalo-llah' (the men of Allah or
Allah's men) can signify the men of Hezbollah or Hezbollah's men (Rijalo Hezb-llah).
Whatever the implication of 'Allah's Men' or 'the Men of Allah', this term has
turned into a frame and has become a brand, or an indicator to "The Islamic
Resistance's" fighters, because it has emerged during July War 2006 and maintained
since then as a marker to their identity.
6.1.2 "The Islamic Resistance's" Actions
"The Islamic Resistance" presents its military actions in the context of
defending Lebanon from Israeli army assaults, liberating the occupied Lebanese
territories and Lebanese prisoners from Israeli jails. Thus, "The Islamic Resistance"
frames the actions of its fighters as responding or replying to Israel attacks and
violation.
The utilisation of this label in the media discourse of "The Islamic
Resistance" to frame the actions of 'the self' implies that this military arm has a
nuance understanding to the importance of choosing self-defensive words in
addressing the public, particularly foreign audience, to change their perception about
the nature of the conflict and entice a sort of legitimacy.
In his comments on the description of the Israeli military actions in some
Western press, Suleiman (2004) points out that the "military actions by the Israelis
are always a 'response' to something, even when they strike first. If they haven't
actually been attacked, it's a 'response' to a security threat. 'Response' is a very useful
word. It provides a ready-made reason for the Israelis' actions and neatly brushes off
demands for further explanation. It says: 'Don't ask why we did it, ask the other side'"
(138).
Similarly to Israel and its sympathisers or allies, the utilisation of this frame
about its actions seems to have significance in "The Islamic Resistance's" media war,
because it legalises 'the self' actions.
6.2 The Frames of 'the Other'
In the context of Arab-Israeli conflict, framing is characterised by the process
of naming, particularly to the actions and the places. It entails cultural and political
dentation by the both parties in the Arab-Israeli conflict. In this regard, the Palestinian
scholar "[Rashid] Khalidi comments on the oppositional sets of names for the city and
some of its most important landmarks between the Palestinians and the Israeli Jews:
Bayt al- Maqdis (house of sanctity) and al-Quds al-Sharif (noble/holy sanctuary)
versus Yerushalaim (city of peace); al-Haram al-Sharif (noble sanctuary) versus
Temple Mount; al-Buraq Wall versus the Wailing or Western Wall. This conflict
extends to names Filastin (Palestine) versus Israel as designations for the country
which each group sees as its homeland" (Suleiman 2004: 176).
The Palestinian cause shaped the perception of Hezbollah and consequently
its military arm, since their inceptions, towards the conflict with Israel (Matar &
Dakhlallah 2006). As observed in its media statements, "The Islamic Resistance"
17
employs certain frames to describe Israel, its places, its army and its actions. It denies
the right of Israel to exist and describe its army as an occupation army. Thus, there is
no Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) or Israel ministry (and minister) of defence in its
discourse. Instead, the organisation replaces the term 'defence' by 'war' and IDF by
'occupation army.'
This section provides an insight on how "The Islamic Resistance" reframes
Israel, its actions and places in its discourse. It shows the origin of the utilised frames
by "The Islamic Resistance" in language and culture. These frames can be another
form of war ignited by the organisation against Israel.
6.2.1 Reframing Israel's Name
In its media statements, "The Islamic Resistance" refers generally to Israel
and its army as Zionists who occupy Palestine.
In obtaining the meaning of "The Zionist Entity", which is utilised by "The
Islamic Resistance" to name Israel, it is crucial to illuminate on the denotations of
Zionism and entity. Massad (2006) points out that Zionism in its early days was nonJewish, because the main idea of European colonialists in the nineteenth century,
particularly British and French colonialists, was establishing a Jewish state in
Palestine to allow the European Jews to migrate to this new state. In this context, the
establishment of Israel reflects the intersection of interests between European
colonialists and European Jews, who suffered from anti-Semitism and accepted the
idea to settle in Palestine and have their own state. Thus, Massad (2006) argues that
"Zionism and anti-Semitism had a unified goal-the removal of Jews from Europewhich became the basis for their shared imperial vision" (15).
In contrast to the term Zion, which can be found in the Old Testament and
may refer to a hummock in Jerusalem, Zionism appeared in an article published by
the Jewish Austrian Journalist Nathan Birnbaum in his newspaper "SelbstEmancipation" in 1886 and utilised later by Herzl to in political context (Shoufani
1996).
In reviewing its analysed media statements, "The Islamic Resistance" did not
choose religious or cultural names to name the State of Israel, such as "The Jewish
State" or "The Hebrew State." Instead of these terms, which may not be considered
abusive and may align with the description of Israel to its state, "The Islamic
Resistance" names Israel "The Zionist Entity" (al-Kayn al-suhyn). In Arabic, the
term 'Kayn' (entity) signifies an occurrence, or a new created thing. However, the
lexical roots of this Arabic term 'Kayn' derives from the verb 'Kan' which generally
means a defective verb in Arabic grammar (Manzur 2003). Notably, the term "The
Zionist Entity" is employed by Arab media to describe Israel "as an artificial state that
lacked the geographic, demographic and economic strengths necessary for long-term
survival" (Suleiman 2011: 131). Thus, the use of the term 'entity' seems to ossify the
notion that the existence of Israel is deficient, and thus Israel cannot be considered a
state.
18
In a similar vein, "The Islamic Resistance" utilises in its media discourse the
term "The Rapist Entity" to describe Israel. The utilisation of this term, as Suleiman
(2011: 131) argues, is:
a continuation of the post-1948 rhetoric, the Arab political discourse represented the
occupation of Arab land in 1967 in sexual terms, describing it as an act of rape
(ightisb). This rape was all the more devastating to the victim because it was
perpetrated by what was regarded as the weaker party in the conflict, against the
stronger and numerically most dominant one regionally, which, since then, has
suffered chronic political and military impotence. This act of rape penetrated deep
into the Arab psyche, because in carrying it out, the perpetrator used the latest
Western technology, which the Arabs had so much desired but were constantly
denied.
The adoption of this frame by "The Islamic Resistance" from Arab media
discourse seems reflecting the political landscape of this military arm and the
significance of utilising this frame to address Arab audiences, including those who do
not hold the same religious belief with the organisation, but they may support the war
against Israel.
6.2.2 Reframing The Israeli Places
"The Islamic Resistance" calls the Israeli villages and cities colonies and
occasionally calls them settlements. For "The Islamic Resistance", all Palestine is
occupied by Israel. Thus, "The Islamic Resistance", which was reviving Al-Quds' day
with a military parade, considers Al-Quds an Islamic holy city and should be liberated
from Israeli occupation (Attal 2010).
El Houri (2012) points out that the notions occupation and colonialism
prevailed after establishing the State of Israel in 1948 over the Palestinian territories.
Thus, occupation "is one of the defining elements of modern Arab identity, notably in
Palestine but also elsewhere with the legacy of the colonial and post-colonial
experiences. As a category, occupation is coupled with and cannot be dissociated
from resistance as the struggle to end occupation" (El Houri 2012: 174-175). In this
vein, and as El Houri (2012) argues, "The notion of liberation cannot be dissociated
from the experience of occupation and the attachment to the land as the physical
space on which the conflict is fought. Liberation becomes a re-occupation of land that
had been lost a re-appropriation of the formerly occupied space" (175).
Occupation, which is used to describe the legal status quo of the territories in
West Bank, east Jerusalem and previously Gaza Strip, is a term utilised by the
Security Council of the United Nations to name the occupied Arab lands by Israel in
June 1967 (Suleiman 2004). Thus, the term Occupied Territories "derives from the
UN resolution 242, is used once only in spite of the fact that it is the only term that
defines the legal status of the so-called 'Administered Territories'. The term
'Occupied' is used once and then only as a gloss for term 'Administered', thus
favouring the latter term over its former counterpart" (Suleiman 2004: 166). The same
author claims that the "academic discourse on the use of names for the settlements in
19
the Occupied Territories is not immune from this injection of ideology. By censoring
the word 'Occupied' in the name Occupied territories, Israel social science takes the
occupation out of Occupation. And when this happens in publications in Englishmedium journals, as it does all too often, the impact is no longer localised" (Suleiman
2011: 205).
To provide an example and verify his argument, Suleiman (2011) points out
that David Aberbach "instead of referring to Palestine under the British mandate by
that name, the author describes it as 'pre-State Israel' [...]. In this case, Palestine is
written out of history in the same way that the Israeli occupation is written out of the
occupation of the West Bank and Gaza" (205).
In retrospect, the term 'colonies' and its derivative, such as 'colonists', may
not be abusive, because they signify "how some leading Zionists, particularly those
working in the culture domain, conceptualised themselves and their activity"
(Suleiman 2004: 188). Thus, this term was "used by the Zionist movement to
designate the new Jewish 'settlement' in Palestine" (Suleiman 2011: 208).
On the other hand, the term settlements, in Arabic, "mustawtant, from
istawtana, implies the act of an outsider to settle down in a location that does not
originally belong to him or to which he is a stranger" (ibid).
Poole (Quoted in Suleiman 2011) "explains that the term settlement in
English 'conjures an idea of a virgin, unpopulated territory: an image of building log
cabins in the wilderness,' as well as carrying the 'secondary sense of agreement,'
neither of which is true. Israeli settlements were built 'in heavily populated
Palestinian areas' and have been declared illegal by UN Security Council and the
international court of Justice. The Hebrew term for settlements is hitnakhlut, 'a word
of biblical origin which means roughly settling on one's patrimony'" (208).
Suleiman (2004) points out that "Sharjah TV in the United Arab Emirates
calls the Israeli settlement[s] in the Occupied Territories mughtasabt, not
mustawtant, which is the prevalent term in the Arab media. The former term is
derived from the root ghasaba, the meaning of which incorporates the ideas of taking
away by force, extortion, coercion, abduction and rape. This range of meanings is
closer to how the Arabs conceptualise the Israeli settlements, and is closer to the
status of the settlements in international law than the normal Arabic term" (188). As
shown earlier, the use of this term aligns with how "The Islamic Resistance's" media
describes Israel by "The Rapist Entity."
7. Findings
Apart from 'the self' religious frames, Hezbollah's military arm utilises the
same linguistic terminologies set by Arab media in the context of their war with
Israel. In this regard, the organisation asserts on the notion that its actions are selfdefensive and aim to liberate the occupied Lebanese territories by Israel. Thus, the
culture behind this discourse represented by utilising certain frames is connected to
Arab societies to present 'the self' and 'the other', or by other words Israel. As noted
20
21
6. El-daly, H. M., On the Philosophy of Language: Searching for Common Grounds for
Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis, in International Journal of Academic Research, 2(6),
2010, 244-262.
7. El Houri, W., The Meaning of Resistance: Hezbollahs Media Strategies and the
Articulation of a People, Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers, 2012.
8. El Zein, H., Identifying and Understanding Media Discourse of Hezbollah's Military
Arm, in Jurnal Komunikasi: Malaysian Journal of Communication 30(2), 2014, 117-140.
9. Fairclough, N., Media Discourse. London, UK: Edward Arnold, 1995.
10. Hall, S., The Work of Representation, in Hall, S., Evans, J. & S. Nixon (eds),
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Publications Ltd, 2013, 1-47.
11. Hamzeh, A. N., In The Path Of Hizbullah. New York: Syracuse University Press, 2004.
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Media, London: I.B.Tauris, 2011.
13. Juliaboutros, Julia Boutros Ahibaii Videoclip, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tch6tmd_-Q, October 2006.
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Media: Linguistic Analyses and Applications, The Netherlands: Brill Academic
Publishers, 2010, 141-157.
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Imagined Community of Resistance, in Westminster Papers in Communication and
Culture 3(2), 2006, 22-40.
20. McAdam, D., McCarthy, J.D., & M.N. Zald, Introduction: Opportunities, mobilizing
structures, and framing processes toward a synthetic, comparative perspective on social
movements, in McAdam, D., McCarthy, J.D. & M.N. Zald (eds), Comparative
Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and
Cultural Framings, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, 1-22.
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Evolution of Three Media Effects Models, in Journal of Communication, 57(1), 2007, 920.
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Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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22
Analysing Images:
A Social Semiotic Perspective
Claudia E. Stoian
Abstract: The present paper introduces briefly one of the most important theories and models
of visual social semiotics, namely Kress and van Leeuwens grammar of visual design. An
image, advertising honeymoon packages, is used to illustrate to the reader the points presented
by the theory. The conclusion includes practical implications of the theory, pointing out
several areas where visual social semiotic analysis can be applied.
Keywords: visual communication, social semiotics, visual analysis, systemic-functional
metafunctions.
1. Introduction
Visual communication conveys information and ideas visually by visual
means. Along with its various types, it has been studied from various perspectives,
such as: content analysis (Bell 2001); cultural dimensions (Stoian 2015);
anthropological studies (Collier & Collier 1986); psychoanalysis (Diem-Ville 2001);
film and television (Price 2015) or social semiotics (Jewitt & Oyama 2001), to
mention just a few. Social semiotics, the perspective dealt with in this paper, is said to
involve the description of semiotic resources, what can be said and done with images
(and other visual means of communication) and how the things people say and do
with images can be interpreted (Jewitt & Oyama 2001: 134). Visual resources are,
thus, considered from a functionalist approach; like any semiotic resource, they
perform several metafunctions simultaneously in order to convey meaning.
This paper presents briefly one of the most important theories and models of
visual social semiotics, i.e. Kress and van Leeuwens grammar of visual design
(1996; 2006). It uses an image that advertises honeymoon packages from a tour
23
operators website to illustrate to the readers the points presented by the theory. The
image is included in the Appendix. Finally, the paper points out some of the fields
where visual analysis can be applied.
2. Visual design
Visual social semiotics follows Hallidays theory of metafunctions (1994;
2004; Halliday & Matthiessen 2004), which postulates that language fulfils three
metafunctions simultaneously, namely ideational, interpersonal and textual. The same
metafunctions have been extended to visual social semiotic resources by Kress and
van Leeuwen (1996; 2006) and renamed as representational, interactive and
compositional. They consider that the visual, like all semiotic modes, has to serve
several communicational (and representational) requirements, in order to function as a
full system of communication (2006: 41).
2.1. Representational metafunction
The first metafunction has to do with the patterns of representation, in other
words, the way experience is encoded visually. The visual encoding is carried on
either by narrative and/or conceptual structures. Narrative structures present
unfolding actions and events, processes of change and transitory spatial arrangements.
They always include a depicted element which forms an oblique line and indicates
directionality, called vector (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 59). For example, in the
image used here for illustration, there are two vectors, one indicated by the couples
arms and the other by the direction of their look. There are several kinds of narrative
processes: action, reactional, speech, mental, and conversion, depending on the types
of vectors and participants included. Action processes contain a vector formed by a
depicted element or an arrow, departing from a participant, i.e. Actor. There are two
types of actions: non-transactional (only the Actor) and transactional (Actor and
Goal). In this case, Goal is the participant towards which the vector is directed.
Transactional processes can be bidirectional, meaning that each participant plays now
the role of Actor now the role of Goal, as Interactors (63-66). Applying this to the
image, the couple act as Interactors in a transactional bidirectional action, since they
appear hugging each other, as indicated by the vector formed by their arms. In the
case of reactional processes, the vector is formed by the direction of the glance of one
or more participants, i.e. Reacters. Also these structures can be non-transactional (the
glance is directed towards something outside the picture frame) and transactional (the
glance is directed towards another participant, the Phenomenon) (Kress & van
Leeuwen 2006: 67-68). For example, the represented participants in the image from
the Appendix are involved in a transactional reactional process as Reacters looking
directly at something outside the picture that can be identified as the viewer. Turning
to speech processes, these present dialogue balloons in order to link speakers, called
Sayers, to their speech, called Utterance. The same is applicable to mental processes,
just that dialogue, speakers and speech are replaced by thought balloons, thinkers
24
(Sensers) and thought (Phenomenon). The last type of processes, conversion, depict a
chain of transactional processes, where a third participant called Relay is Goal for one
participant and Actor for another (68-70). These three last processes have not been
identified in the image considered.
Narrative structures contain also secondary participants, called
Circumstances. They are connected to the main participants by other ways than
vectors. Moreover, they can be left out without changing the narrative pattern, but this
would cause loss of information. The circumstances expressed by visual language are
of several types: Locative (relate participants to the Setting), Means (present the tools
used in action processes) and Accompaniment (depict two participants, who are not
linked by a vector) (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 72). The image here shows how the
encoding of reality is made more detailed by using circumstances of location (the
setting against which the couple is placed) and means (the couples hands).
As for conceptual structures, they represent participants in terms of their
class, structure or meaning (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 59). These are divided into
classificational, analytical and symbolical. Classificational processes relate
participants to each other; there is always a Subordinate for a Superordinate. They are
further classified into overt and covert taxonomies, depending whether the
Superordinate is shown or not (79-87). This type is not found in the image presented
here. Furthermore, analytical processes connect participants in terms of part-whole
structures; the parts/Possessive Attributes belong to the whole/Carrier. Also, these
processes can be of several types: unstructured (no Carrier); temporal (realized by
times lines); exhaustive (Possessive Attributes presented exhaustively); inclusive
(much of the Carrier unaccounted); topographical (physical spatial relations);
topological (logical relations between participants); and spatio-temporal (applied to
charts) (87-104). In the image discussed, the represented non-human participants are
depicted belonging to the surrounding of the couple. The bushes, trees and sky are
part, as Possessive Attributes, of the landscape, as Carrier. However, the way they fit
together as a whole is omitted, indicating an unstructured analytical process. Finally,
symbolic processes depict what a participant is or means. They can be attributive or
symbolic. In the former case, two participants are involved: a Carrier, the part whose
meaning or identity is established in the relation, and a Symbolic Attribute, the part
which represents the meaning or identity itself. In turn, in the last case, there is only
the Carrier, whose meaning and identity is not being conferred, but is coming from its
own qualities (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 105-107). The image here uses a
symbolic attributive process to picture the couple (Symbolic Attribute) as doing
nothing but posing for the viewer, displaying their example of just married happy
people on honeymoon (Carrier).
Narrative and conceptual structures can appear individually or together, the
same as simple or complex sentences in language. When they appear together,
embedding takes places. The distinction between major and minor processes in
visuals is determined by the relative size and conspicuousness of the elements
(Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 107). The image used in the honeymoon advertisement
25
26
Kress and van Leeuwen include in their model of visual design also the
concept of modality. As in language, this is related to the reliability of the message,
since visuals can represent people, places and things as though they actually exist in
this way or as though they do not (as imaginary) (2006: 156). Modality is
constructed by a complex interplay of markers, such as colour saturation,
differentiation or modulation; contextualization; representation; depth; illumination
and brightness (see Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 160-163 for more details). The
interplay of the markers of modality in the image from the online advertisement turns
it into certain. High and medium modality is suggested by the following visual clues:
median colour saturation and modulation, several different colours, incomplete
articulated and detailed setting, median represented details, central perspective and
median degrees of brightness.
2.3. Compositional metafunction
The last metafunction refers to the meaning of composition, being related to
the way in which representations and communicative acts cohere into the kind of
meaningful whole we call text (Kress & van Leeuwen 1996: 181). Meaning is built
by three interrelated systems: information value, salience and framing. In addition,
these systems are not restricted to single pictures, but they apply also to composite
visuals, i.e. visuals, which combine text, image and/or other graphic elements, and
their layouts.
Information value is associated to three main visual areas: left and right; top
and bottom; and centre and margin. In the case of left and right, the composition is
structured along the horizontal axis. The left side is related to given information,
which is assumed to be familiar and accepted as a point of departure for the message
by the viewer. As opposed, the right side is reserved to new information, to something
unknown or requiring special attention (Kress & van Leeuwen 2006: 179-185). The
image discussed here is composed on a horizontal axis, placing the couple as given
information and the landscape as new. This can mean that marriage has become
known information and the couple should focus on the landscape or surroundings,
implying, thus, the destination of their honeymoon. To continue, information can be
structured also along a vertical axis. On one hand, the information placed at top is
presented as essential or ideal, illustrating a promise. On the other hand, the bottom
depicts the product itself, by real or more specific and practical information (186194). Placing the image considered into its context, namely the webpage of the tour
operators website, the layout of the webpage makes use of the vertical axis,
presenting the image in the upper part and the text in the lower one. Thus, the image
is considered ideal information, its essence, which presents the promise of the
advertisement. In contrast, the text represents the real, specific and practical
information. Furthermore, different values are attributed to the information following
a centre-margin alignment. The centre is reserved for the nucleus of information,
whereas the margins are similar and subservient to the centre (194-200). These
information values have not been found in the image provided here as an example.
27
28
4. Conclusion
To summarise, Kress and van Leeuwen (1996; 2006) have provided a
grammar of visual design, presenting the theory and vocabulary needed to talk about
and read images. They have extended Hallidays metafunctions to visual
communication and called them representational, interactive and compositional. The
types of structure, process, participant and circumstance; the types of image act,
social distance, perspective, point of view, modality; and the types of information
value, salience and framing can indicate the reality encoded; the interaction and
relation established between participants; and the meaning composed, all of them
visually. These meaning-making metafunctions and visual resources can, not only be
described and observed, but also interpreted. The complexity created by the
description and interpretation of images and/or any other type of visuals raises
interest in various fields where visual communication is thoroughly used. To
conclude, the model proposed by Kress and van Leeuwen is applicable to domains,
such as promotion, websites, teaching material, paintings, fairy tales, spatial
arrangements of buildings, tourism and/or cultural aspects of non-verbal
communication, to mention just a few. It can help, on one side, students and
researchers understand better visual communication and, on the other, professionals
make a more adequate use of visual communication in order to convey information
and persuade more successfully.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Bell, P., Content Analysis of Visual Images, in van Leeuwen, T., & C. Jewitt (eds),
Handbook of Visual Analysis, London: Sage Publications, 2001, 10-34.
Collier, J., & M. Collier, Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method.
Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1986.
Diem-Ville, G., A Therapeutic Perspective: The Use of Drawings in Child
Psychoanalysis and Social Science, in van Leeuwen, T., and C. Jewitt (eds), Handbook
of Visual Analysis, London: Sage Publications, 2001, 119-133.
Halliday, M.A.K., An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold,
1985, 1994.
Halliday, M.A.K., & C. Matthiessen, An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd ed),
London: Hodder Arnold, 2004.
Jewitt, C., & R. Oyama, Visual Meaning: A Social Semiotic Approach, in van Leeuwen
T., and C. Jewitt (eds), Handbook of Visual Analysis, London: Sage Publications, 2001,
134-156.
Kress, G., & T. van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. London:
Routledge, 1996, 2006.
Price, D., Surveyors and Surveyed: Photography out and about in L. Wells (ed),
Photography. A Critical Introduction (5th ed), London: Routledge, 2015, 75-133.
Stoian, C., The Discourse of Tourism and National Heritage: A Contrastive Study from a
Cultural Perspective, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015.
29
10. ***,
Paquete
de
Luna
de
Miel,
CostaRican
http://www.costaricantrails.com/espanol/romance/romanc00.html, 2009.
Appendix
Image used for illustration
30
Trails,
1. Introduction
By analysing the title, the following directions are traced: human computer
interface, visual communication and colour.
2. Visual communication
Visual communication is the communication through a visual aid and it is
described as the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or
looked at.
Visual communication as a part or as a whole relies on vision (Sless
1981:187-190) and it is primarily presented or expressed with two dimensional
images (signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, industrial design,
advertising, animation, colour) and electronic resources.
31
We also explore the idea that a visual message (Smith 2005: 123-125)
accompanying a text has a great power to inform, to educate, or to persuade a person
or audience (Visual communication, 2015).
Visual
communication
is
based
on
several
theories
(http://mtsujournalism.org). Some of them are: the semiotics (science of sign and
symbols), the gestalt (the sum is greater than its part, the humans are capable to
assembly mentally separate objects into new logical wholes), the constructivism
(humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their
experiences and their ideas / observations), the ecological (people interprets what they
see through spatial properties: light and scale), the cognitive (perception involves
mental processes) (Loubere 2015).
3. Colour
The colour gives realism to screen usability. It attracts the users eye
emphasizes the logical information, facilitates the difference of screen components,
makes display more attractive, only if it is chosen properly.
The colour derives from the spectrum of light (wavelength) interacting in the
eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors.
Light is made of electromagnetic waves. Different colours have different
wavelengths. Table 1 shows the colour of the visible light spectrum (Bohren 2006:
216-220).
Colour
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Cyan
Blue
violet
32
Colours in human computer interface are defined by one of the colour space
or model: RGB, HSL and HSV (HSB). (Figure 1)
3.1.1. RGB (Red Green Blue)
RGB uses additive colour mixing, because it describes what kind of light
needs to be emitted to produce a given colour. It defines a colour space in terms of
three components:
Red, which ranges from 0-255
Green, which ranges from 0-255
Blue, which ranges from 0-255
The RGB colour model is an additive one. Red, Green and Blue values
(known as the three primary colours) are combined to reproduce other colours.
Maximum numbers of colours is 16.7 million.
3.1.2. HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) / HSB (Hue, Saturation, Brightness)
colour space
Often, it is easier to think about a colour in terms of hue and saturation rather
than in terms of additive or subtractive colour components.
HSB / HSV is a nonlinear transformation of the RGB colour space (colour is
not defined as a simple combination addition / subtraction of primary colours but as a
mathematical transformation).
The HSB / HSV colour model defines a colour space in terms of three
constituent components:
Hue: the colour type (such as red, blue, or yellow). It ranges from 0
to 360 in most applications. (Each value corresponds to one colour:
0 is red, 45 is a shade of orange and 55 is a shade of yellow).
Saturation: the intensity of the colour. It ranges from 0 to 100% (0
means no colour, that is a shade of grey between black and white;
100 means intense colour).
Brightness (or Value): the brightness of the colour. It ranges from 0
to 100% (0 is always black; depending on the saturation, 100 may be
white or a more or less saturated colour).
3.1.3. HSL colour space
HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness / Luminance), also known as HSI (Hue,
Saturation, Intensity) is quite similar to HSV.
Hue: the colour type (such as red, blue, or yellow). It ranges from 0
to 360 in most applications (to each value corresponds one colour).
Saturation: variation of the colour depending on the lightness. It
ranges from 0 to 100% (from the centre of the black & white axis).
Lightness (also Luminance or Luminosity or Intensity). It ranges
from 0 to 100% (from black to white).
33
34
35
36
Figure 4. Cultural colour association table and diagram (Pantone 2014; Bortoli 2015)
38
39
5. Conclusion
Colour in user interface is more than an aesthetical element. It is a powerful
tool of communication.
A good communication needs to be properly sent and received, without
noise. The feedback in visual communication by colours in human computer interface
is difficult to measure. For this reason, colour is used to be closer to the users needs,
in order to understand and to help the development of the activity.
There are some usage of colours on interface that should be avoided: too
many colours at one time, colours with equal brightness, lack of contrast, usage of
colour in unexpected ways (e.g. use green for stop or danger), etc.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
1. Einfhrung
Kultur kann als materiell in Form von architektonisches Design, Maschinen
usw. wahrgenommen werden; und als subjektiv wie zum Beispiel Einstellungen,
berzeugungen, Werte und stillschweigende Normen. Obwohl Kultur nicht Religion,
Geschlecht, Rasse oder Nationalitt ist, interagieren sie untereinander. Die Geschichte
zeigt, dass die materiellen und subjektiven Elemente einer Kultur sich in der Zeit
verndern, indem die wissenschaftliche Innovation und der geistige Fortschritt alte
Konstruktionen, Einstellungen, Werte und berzeugungen versetzt. Die Kulturen
finden sich neu auf und ihre Sprachen werden komplexer; sie entwickeln sich stndig
weiter.
Die Kultur wird dadurch definiert, dass sie ein System von gemeinsamen
Werten und berzeugungen ist, was die angemessene Verhaltensweisen anbelangt,
was wichtig zu sein scheint und was die Gefhle und die Beziehungen uerlich und
innerlich betrifft. Werte und Kulturen mssen bedeutsam fr die Organisation sein,
weit verbreitet und in der tglichen Praxis reflektiert sein und relevant fr die Zwecke
der Hochschule und Hochschullehrplne sein.
Organisationskultur ist die Sammlung von relativ gleichmigen und
*
Assistant, PhD, Victor Babe University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timioara, Romania.
41
dauerhaften Werte, berzeugungen, Bruche, Traditionen und Praktiken, die von den
Mitgliedern einer Organisation gemeinsam ausgebt werden, von neuen Trainer
gelernt werden und von einer Generation zur nchsten bertragen. Neu ist die
Individualitt der verschiedenen Generationen von Studenten, vor allem in den
Universitten, wo unterschiedliche Kulturen zusammenstoen, wo verschiedene
Religionen und Backgrounds zusammen kommen und sich mit einem verschiedenen
Trainingsystem auseinandersetzen ein anderes Niveau und mit einer anderen
Lehrplne, Trainer usw. Um klar zu verstehen was mit Organisationskultur bedeutet,
wre es hilfreich, zunchst einen Bericht zur Verfgung zu stellen darber, wie Kultur
in dem gesellschaftlichen Kontext und in einer engen Beziehung mit der
Globalisierung wahrgenommen wird.
Ein weiterer Aspekt der Kultur ist die kulturelle Globalisierung: die kulturelle
Globalisierung bezieht sich auf die bertragung von Ideen, Bedeutungen und Werte
in der ganzen Welt in einer solchen Weise, damit die soziale Beziehungen intensiver
zu werden. Dieser Prozess wird durch den gemeinsamen Konsum von Kulturen, die
durch das Internet, der populren Kultur, Medien und der internationalen Reisen
gestreut wurden, gekennzeichnet. Dies hat zum Prozessen der Warenaustausch und
Kolonisation beigefgt, der eine lngere Geschichte der Durchfhrung kultureller
Bedeutung in der ganzen Welt zugegeben hat.
Das Zirkullieren der Kulturen ermglicht den Menschen in erweiterte soziale
Beziehungen, die nationale und regionale Grenzen berschreiten, teilzunehmen. Der
Auf- und Ausbau solcher sozialen Beziehungen ist nicht nur auf materieller Ebene zu
beobachten. Die kulturelle Globalisierung beinhaltet die Bildung von gemeinsamen
Normen und Wissen, womit Menschen ihre individuellen und kollektiven, kulturellen
Identitten verknpfen. Es bringt wachsende Vernetzung zwischen den verschiedenen
Bevlkerungen und Kulturen.
2. Die Begriffe Kultur und Globalisierung
In 1871 der Antrophologe Edward Tylor hat die Kultur als Wissen, Glauben,
Kunst, Moral, Recht, Sitte und alle anderen Fhigkeiten und Gewohnheiten durch
Mitgliedschaft in der Gesellschaft erworben. Der Begriff beschreibt die unterschiede
zwischen zwei Gesellschaften.
In diesem Kontext, entsprechend zu Giddens:
[...]eine Kultur ist ein System von berzeugungen und Verhaltensweisen sozial
bertragen. Genauer gesagt, es besteht aus den Stzen und Regeln, die von einer
Gesellschaft gehalten werden. (Giddens 1989: 30)
Die Werte werden von jungen Menschen verinnerlicht in dem sie lernen was gut und
was wnschenswert ist. Sie definieren fr uns, was wichtig und erstrebenswert ist.
Werte stellen die grundlegende berzeugung dar, dass in einer persnlichen oder
sozialen Kontext eine spezifische Verhaltensweise vor einer anderen vorzieht.
Globalisierung ist ein Prozess der Interaktion und Integration zwischen den
Menschen, Unternehmen und Regierungen verschiedener Nationen, ein Prozess durch
internationalen
Handel
und
Investitionen
angetrieben
und
durch
Informationstechnologie untersttzt. Dieses Verfahren hat Auswirkungen auf die
42
Umwelt, auf Kultur, auf politische Systeme, auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und
den Wohlstand, und auf das Wohlbefinden der Menschen in der ganzen Welt.
Peter Ludwig Berger, ein sterreichischer Soziologe der fr seine Arbeit in
der Religionssoziologie und der Wissenssoziologie bekannt ist, gibt eine der besten
Zitate auf die Globalisierung und deren Auswirkungen: Wir haben auch ein
kulturelles Phnomen: die Entstehung einer globalen Kultur, oder eine kulturelle
Globalisierung. (Berger 1977: 56)
Technologie wurde die Haupttreiber der Globalisierung. Fortschritte in der
Informationstechnologie haben das Wirtschaftsleben dramatisch verndert.
Informationstechnologien haben alle Arten von einzelnen WirtschaftsakteureVerbraucher, Investoren, Unternehmen-wertvolle neue Werkzeuge fr die
Identifizierung und Verfolgung wirtschaftlicher gegeben.
Die Globalisierung ist zutiefst umstritten. Die Befrworter der Globalisierung
argumentieren, dass es ermglicht armen Lnder und ihre Brger sich wirtschaftlich
zu entwickeln und ihren Lebensstandard zu heben, whrend die
Globalisierungsgegner behaupten, dass die Schaffung eines ungehinderten
internationalen freien Markt hat multinationale Konzerne in der westlichen Welt auf
Kosten der lokalen Unternehmen profitiert. Widerstand gegen die Globalisierung hat
sich daher Form auf Regierungsebene getroffen, wie Menschen und Regierungen
versuchen, den Fluss von Kapital, Arbeit, Gter zu verwalten.
3. Das Verhltnis zwischen den Werten und Normen
Der Zusammenhang zwischen Werten und Normen wird deutlich, wenn ein
Versto gegen die Normen trotzt Werte der Gruppe aufkommt; die Einrichtung von
Verhaltensnormen spiegelt seine Werte. Dieses Konzept erstreckt sich ber die
Gruppe, in greren Gruppen und hinaus in die ganze Gesellschaft selbst: zum
Beispiel die Art, wie Menschen einander begegnen, und wie sie sich in der
ffentlichkeit fhren. Die Menschen kleiden sich nach dem, was von ihnen im
beruflichen Umfeld erwartet wird aber anders als in ihrer Freizeit. Alle solchen
Situationen verlangen bestimmte Kleidung und insbesondere Verhaltensweisen.
Daher durch seine Systeme von Normen und Werten untersucht, ist die Kultur
nach Linton (1945: 78) einer Gesellschaft die Lebensweise ihrer Mitglieder; die
Sammlung von Ideen und Gewohnheiten, die sie lernen, zu teilen und bertragen von
Generation zu Generation".
Bei der Geburt sind die Kinder vllig hilflos und abhngig von anderen, fr
ihre Bedrfnisse zu sorgen. Um langfristig zu berleben, Kinder mssen Kenntnisse
und Fhigkeiten entwickeln und mssen lernen, wie Menschen um sie herum
berleben. Mit anderen Worten, mssen die Kinder die Kultur der Gesellschaft, in die
sie geboren wurden zu lernen.
Kultur muss also gelernt werden, und damit eine Gesellschaft, um effektiv zu
arbeiten, muss ihre Leitlinien von seinen Mitgliedern durch ihr Verhalten geteilt
werden. Lernen und die gemeinsame Nutzung einer Kultur ist weitgehend ohne
bewusste Kontrolle erreicht. Es passiert einfach, wie Menschen sich entwickeln und
sozialisiern, und auch wenn es richtet ihr Handeln und Denken und legt ihre
Einstellung zum Leben. Die meisten Mitglieder einer Gesellschaft nehmen ihre
43
Kultur als selbstverstndlich. Menschen merken kaum ihre Kultur, auch wenn ihre
Annahme seiner Werte und die bereinstimmung mit ihren Normen zeigen, ein
gemeinsames Verstndnis von dem, was ist und was nicht akzeptabel ist.
Als eine der wichtigsten stabilen Faktoren, spielt die Kultur eine
entscheidende Rolle in den tglichen Operationen der Organisation . Obwohl sich die
kulturelle Literatur manchmal auf der Kultur einer Organisation, als gemeinsame
Grundvoraussetzung, oder als Metaphern in Organisationen konzentriert hat ,ist es
nicht genug,damit man versucht sie zu verstehen und zu beurteilen. Dieser Beitrag
untersucht die Organisationskultur in allgemeinen, einige Definitionen und
Auswirkungen der Organisationskultur aus unterschiedlichen Perspektiven zu
besprechen, kulturelle web und andere aktuelle Themen zu verstehen.
4. Organisationskultur
Historisch gesehen gibt es unzhlige Definitionen ber Organisationskultur,
die in viele Arten in der Literatur definiert sind. Vielleicht die hufigste bentzte
Definition ist die Art, wie wir Dinge hier tun. Die Organisationskultur manifestiert
sich in den typischen Merkmale der Organisation, in anderen Worten, die
Organisationskulter sollte als die richtige Weise indem, Dinge getan sind oder
Probleme verstanden sind in der Organisation, angesehen werden. Es ist weithin
anerkannt, dass die Organisationskultur, als tief verwurzelte Werte und
berzeugungen, die das Personal aus der Organisation hat, definiert wird.
Unternehmenskulturen sind die Ergebnisse der Verflechtung eines
Individuums in einer Gemeinschaft und die kollektive Programmierung des
Verstandes, die, die Mitglieder unterscheidet. Die Werte, Normen, berzeugungen
und Bruche, die eine Person gemeinsam mit anderen Mitgliedern einer sozialen
Einheit oder Gruppe hat, unterscheidet eine von einander.
Eine andere Meinung von der Unternehmenskultur, die als ein System mit
gemeinsamen Werten (was ist Wichtig) und berzeugungen (wie die Dinge
funktionieren) gesehen ist, spricht ber Menschen einer Organisation,
Organisationsstrukturen und Kontroll Systeme, um Verhaltensnormen zu produzieren,
zu bilden (die Art, wie wir die Dinge hier tun), zu betrachten.
In einer anderen Perspektive, kann die Kultur als Software in einer
Organisation betrachtet werden, da es Software ist, so, sollten die Managers
sorgflltig studieren und versuchen die Funktion jedes Elementes zu finden auf der
Grundlage von Hardware (nur in Bezug auf einer Organisation als Betriebs
Hardware).
In Allgemeinen ist die Organisationskultur die Mengenlehre von wichtigen
Werte, berzeugungen und Verstndnisse, die, die Mitglieder gemeinsam haben. Die
Kultur bietet bessere (oder die besten) Denkweisen, Gefhle und Reagierungen, die
Managern helfen knnten, um Entscheidigung zu treffen und Aktivitten in der
Organisation arrangieren.
Eine erfolgreiche Organisation sollte starke Kulturen, die die Leute anzieht,
haltet, und belohnt, haben,fr die Durchfhrung von Aufgaben und Ziele ,
wohingegen starke Kulturen gewhnlich , durch die Hingabe und Zusammenarbeit in
den Dienst der gemeinsamen Werte gekennzeichnet sind. Also, wie viel ist ein
44
fr neue Angestellte sich zu benehmen, bentzt wird, dabei, kann die Kultur das
berleben und Wachstum der Organisation verewigen.
Zweitens, ist die Kultur als ein Glaubenssystem angesehen, das Muster der
gemeinsamen berzeugungen und Werte, die den Mitglieden einer Institution Sinn
und Regeln, wie sie sich in der Organisation benehmen mssen.
Um den Sinn der kulturellen Themen besser zu verstehen, haben drei
englische Schriftsteller die Organisationskultur in fundamentle und tgliche
berzeugungen geteilt.Und sie befrwortern, dass die wichtigsten berzeugungen
den Kontext fr die praktischen berzeugungen jedes Tages versorgen, das heisst,
dass sie Anweisungen fr tgliche berzeugungen geben. Als grundstzlicher Prinzip,
ndern sich die wichtigste berzeugungen selten, da sie im Bereich der universellen
Wahrheit sind. Auf der anderen Seite, sind tgliche berzeugungen auch ein Teil der
Unternehmenskultur und knnen als Regeln und Gefhle fr das Alltagsverhalten,
beschrieben werden. Diese sind jedoch dynamisch und situationsbezogen; sie mssen
sich ndern, um im Kontext zu entsprechen.
Drittens, ist Kultur als eine Strategie gesehen. Nach den Abschluss einer weit
reichenden Analyse, wiederspricht Bates (1995: 267-288) die Unterscheidung
zwischen Strategie und Kultur, und glaubt, dass [...] Kultur ist ein strategisches
Phnomen:. Strategie ist ein Kulturphnomen. Das heit, es gibt zweierlei
Auswirkungen
solcher
berzeugungen:
Erstens
ist
jede Art
von
Strategieformulierung eine kulturelle Aktivitt, beispielsweise die Entwicklung der
Strategie ist nur eine kulturelle Entwicklung; zweitens sollten alle kulturelle
Vernderungen als strategische Vernderungen gesehen werden.
In Wirklichkeit ist jeder Kulturprogramm in einer Organisation nicht
voneinander getrennt, weil jede Vernderung des Kulturprogramms immer innerhalb
formellen und informellen strategischen Planungsprozesse stattfindet. Die vierte
Perspektive ist die Kultur ,als mentale Programmierung anzusehen. Einer der
wichtigsten Vertreter dieser Perspektive ist Hofstede (1997), nach Hofstede, ist Kultur
die kollektive Programmierung des Verstandes, die die Mitglieder aus einer
Kategorie von Menschen von einer anderen unterscheidet. Hofstede hat auch die
Kultur in vier Gruppen (oder vier Hauptelemente) unterteilt: Symbole, Helden,
Rituale und Werte.Eine weitreichende Untersuchung an den vier Gruppen ist
entscheidend fr die organisatorischen Managers, weil es Unternehmen oder Betrieb,
in unterschiedlichen Grad und Weise, beeintrchtigt.
6. Organisationsentwicklung und die Notwendigkeit einer Vernderung
Organisationsentwicklung (OE) ist ein Begriff das verwendet wird, um einen
Prozess zu beschreiben, durch den, mit den Prinzipien und Praktiken der
Verhaltungswissenschaften ein Verderungs-Programm in der Organisation, oft auf
eine unternehmensweite Basis angewendet wird. OE hat als letztendliches Zweck die
Schaffung einer effektiven Organisation durch Vernderung der Struktur und eine
Besserung in was einige der ausgebildenden berzeugungen , Einstellungen und
Werte anbelangen.Es befasst sich nicht mit dem, was gemacht wird , sondern , wie die
Dinge gemacht werden und mit dem Erstellen einer neuen Kultur der Zusammenhalt,
gegenseitige Abhngigkeit und gegenseitigem Vertrauen .
46
7. Schlussfolgerungen
Kulturelle Globalisierung ist die Intensivierung und den Ausbau der
kulturellen Strmungen rund um den Globus. Kultur ist ein sehr weit gefasster Begriff
und hat viele Facetten, aber in der Diskussion ber Globalisierung, Steger behauptet
es bezieht sich auf "die symbolische Konstruktion, Artikulation, und die Verbreitung
von Bedeutung." Themen in dieser Rubrik zhlen Diskussion ber die Entwicklung
einer globalen Kultur oder dessen Mangel, die Rolle der Medien. Jede Organisation
hat ihre eigene einzigartige Kultur oder eingestelltes Wert, und verschiedene
Organisationen knnen ihre eigene Bedeutung der Kultur haben. Die Kultur der
Organisation ist in der Regel unbewusst erstellt, basierend auf den Werten des
Grnders der Organisation. Um eine erfolgreiche Kultur zu erreichen, sollten
Ausbildende, die Organisationskultur und ihre Themen nicht ignorieren, denn Kultur
kann Vorteil whren der Entwicklung verwendet und eine festgesetzte Kultur (eine in
der berzeugungen und Werte weit verbreitete und tiefverwurzelt sind) sehr viele
Vorteile bieten, wie Zusammenarbeit, Steuerung, Kommunikation und Engagement.
Inzwischen, wchst die Bedeutung der Organisationskultur als Ergebnis mehreren
aktuellen Entwicklungen, und die kulturellen Themen knnen stndig benutzt werden,
um die Einfluss der Organisation bei der Gestaltung unserer Identitten und
Begierden zu messen, sowie auch ihre Rolle in der Globalisierung der Sprachen.
Litteraturverzeichnis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
48
1. Introduction
In the golden age of its economic prosperity, when Saudi Arabia is trying to
lift its dependence on oil and reform its education system to develop a knowledgebased economy (The Ministry of Planning and National Economy 2006)an essential
precondition to move towards the centre of Wallersteins capitalist modern world
system (Wallerstein 2006)Saudi universities are instructed to incorporate critical
thinking skills in their education programs (National Qualifications 2009: 4-5). To this
end, National Qualifications Framework for Higher Education in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia (NQF) (National Qualifications 2009) has been designed to produce the
*
Professor, PhD, Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University
of Saudi Arabia.
49
graduates of high international standard who among many other things should have a
wide range of thinking and problem solving skills (Ennis 1989, 1990, 1993, 1997;
Siegel 1988; McPeck 1990; Paul 1992; 1995; 2008; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo
1992; Swartz & Parks 1994; Halpern 1998; Fisher 2001; Elder 2002; 2005). However,
apparently, NQFs expectation of developing the students ability and commitment to
engage in lifelong learning, capacity for effective communication, and the ability to
take initiative in individual and group activities (National Qualifications 2009: 3) is
improbable, if not impossible, to realize in the shadow of current and past Saudi
educational practices where critical thinking skills are discouraged (Elyas 2008; AlEssa 2009; Al-Miziny 2010; Al Ghamdi, Amani, & Philline 2013).
Saudi education has two lineagestraditional and formal. The curriculum of
traditional Quranic school was meant to develop remember and understand (terms
are explained in Table 1). In this type of school, the key method of learning was
memorization for two reasons: firstly, memorization of the Holy Book is glorified in
Hadith (Al Bukhari n.d.: 93: 489), and secondly, the transmission of the Quran from
one generation to another could be achieved only orally in the past. On the other hand,
formal education has been organized into two types of schoolingthe kuttab and
madrassa (Tibi 1998). For many years kuttab was the only type of formal education in
Saudi Arabia and its curriculum was centred around religion, the Arabic language and
basic arithmetic. In the twentieth century, although the modern elementary school
(madrassa) replaced kuttab but it still continued the legacy of the old syllabus and
method of instruction (where the teacher acted like a preacher). In the 1970s,
Szyliowicz (1973) observed that Saudi public schools and universities followed the
same instruction methods:
The following method of instruction prevailed in medieval Islam through [sic]
adaptations were [sic] made to meet the needs of different levels of instruction. Formal
delivery of lecture with the lecturer squatting on a platform against a pillar and one or
two circles of students seated before him was the prevailing method in higher levels of
instruction. The teacher read from a prepared manuscript or from a text, explaining the
material, and allowed questions and discussion to follow the lecture.
Baker (1997: 246) observed the same instruction method in Saudi Arabia
where the students were the poor third component in classroom after teacher and
textbooks and so did John Goodlad (1984) in an extensive research in secondary
schools. Goodlad found that Saudi textbooks were often a substitute for pedagogy and
that teaching methods tended to be mechanistic and engaging, and that memorization
and rote learning were favoured consistently over critical thinking and creativity.
In a similar vein, in the twenty first century, Elyas and Picard (2010: 138)
observe that the preacher-like teacher-centred Saudi classroom resembles Halgaha
religious gathering at a mosque where the imam preaches and the passive audience
listens attentively and exclusively to him. However, sometimes, the preacher-like
powerful teachers provide some latitude for interactions to the students with some strict
parametersthe students are not free to ask questions on all the topics and assumptions
50
(Jamjoon 2009: 7-8). Over and above, many other scholars (Elyas 2008; Al-Essa 2009;
Al-Souk 2009; Al-Miziny 2010; Al Ghamdi, Amani, & Philline 2013) agree that
present Saudi education still revolves around teacher and textbook centeredness where
the students are not encouraged to participate in classroom activities, ask questions, and
think critically and creatively. Allamnakhrah (2013) argues that four factors are
responsible for this seemingly unchangeable teaching/learning methods: a) teachers, b)
society, c) students, and d) education system. Among these factors, the researcher
observes that although the teachers are supposed to take initiative and influence the
other factors in order to change the traditional teaching/learning methods, they cannot
or do not do these because most of them:
1. do not have clear idea about what critical thinking is.
2. are not trained to teach critical thinking skills.
3. were never taught critical thinking skills.
4. think that teaching critical thinking skills is difficult.
5. cannot withstand the students resistance.
6. apprehend students mass-failing in the exams.
7. are afraid of job termination (particularly the expatriate teachers) for
students failure.
It is to be noted here that 14,915 (Mohammed 2014) out of 41,927 university
teachers (Ministry of Education 2013) are expatriates. However, any teacher teaching
cognitive skills might feel like swimming against the stream in Saudi Arabia where the
culture is predominantly one of uncritical submission to authority (Al-Essa 2009; AlMiziny 2010; Allamnakhrah 2013: 8).
Thus, Saudi tertiary education lacks a focus on critical thinking and problem
solving activitiesmemorization is given more importance than inquiry based
learning. (Al Ghamdi, Amani, & Philline 2013) and this instrumentalized pedagogy
indoctrinates the students to become superficial learners and nothing more, always
caring more about the grade than about real, authentic learning.
In this context, the paper investigates whether it is possible to develop the
students higher domains of learning with two research questions:
1. Is it possible to motivate the students to come out of the secured domain of
learningknowledge?
2. Is it possible to develop the students capability of critical thinking?
2. NQFs Learning Outcomes and Blooms Taxonomy
In NQF (National Qualifications Framework 2009), there are five domains of
learning outcomesknowledge, cognitive skills, interpersonal skills and
responsibility, communication, information technology and numerical skills, and
psychomotor skills. As it is discussed above, the students are not even ready to develop
their cognitive skills let alone the higher domains like interpersonal skills and
responsibility or communication. Hence this study is concerned with an attempt to
raise students learning domain from knowledge to cognitive skills (see Table 1)
51
which correspond to Revised Blooms Taxonomy (Anderson et. al. 2001) (see Table
2).
NQF Domains
Knowledge
Cognitive skills
Learning Outcomes
Ability to recall, understand, and present information, including: knowledge of
specific facts, knowledge of concepts, principles and theories, and knowledge
of procedures.
Ability to apply conceptual understanding of concepts, principles, theories
Ability to apply procedures involved in critical thinking and creative problem
solving, both when asked to do so, and when faced with unanticipated new
situations
Ability to investigate issues and problems in a field of study using a range of
sources and draw valid conclusions.
Cognitive skills
RBT categories
RememberRetrieving relevant knowledge
from long-term memory.
UnderstandDetermining the meaning of
instructional messages, including oral,
written, and graphic communication.
RBT subcategories
Recognizing, Recalling
Interpreting,
Exemplifying,
Classifying,
Summarizing, Inferring,
Comparing, Explaining
Executing,
Implementing
Differentiating,
Organizing, Attributing
Checking, Critiquing
Generating, Planning,
Producing
The cognitive skills as described above in Tables 1 and 2 are not innate and
cannot be acquired independently by the students (Lundquist 1999; Rippen, et. al.
2002; Landsman & Gorski 2007), and as the teachers are not dealing with them in
52
classrooms (mentioned above), it can be inferred that Saudi students are not aware of
critical thinking, which Scriven & Paul (2007) describe as a systematic and procedural
approach to the process of thinking.
3. Method
The study was conducted in English department in King Khalid University,
Saudi Arabia. As the researcher has been teaching in the department for the last seven
years, he is well aware of the students learning strategies, the method of instruction by
which they were taught in their schools and university, and about the types of question,
they usually answer in quizzes, assignments, and examinations.
Participants
Thirty three fourth year students of English department of King Khalid
University, Saudi Arabia participated in the study. The graduating students were
selected as the sample of the study because they were supposed to have the required
linguistic competence to express their critical thinking on the one hand, and, on the
other, their performance may be considered to be one of the major indicators which
shows whether critical thinking skills is practiced in the lower levels or not. The young
adults (aged 2023) were studying a course named Applied Linguistics 1 in the first
semester of the academic year 2014-2015. The course was based on the basic
introductory concepts of Applied Linguistics.
Material
The students studied a textbook covering the topics like definition and areas of
Applied Linguistics, major theoretical approaches, non-linguistic factors which affect
language learning, and learning strategies.
Procedure
As students are motivated to perform well on examinations, and as the exam
questions can strongly influence their study strategies (Entwistle & Entwistle, 1992;
Gardiner 1994; Scouller 1998), at the beginning of the course, the researcher told them
that the final exam would challenge their knowledge as well as cognitive skills.
Accordingly, the researcher focused on the domains of knowledge and cognitive
skills while teaching the students (for 42 contact hours) and giving them tests (first
and second mid-terms for 40 marks) and 13 assignments (10 marks) for three months
and 15 days (September 2014mid-December 2014). As it was not possible and
necessary to deal with remember in a 45 minutes classroom, the researcher focused
only on one category of the domain of knowledge understand and three
categories of the domain of cognitive skillsapply, analyse, and evaluate. As
mentioned above, 42 hours were allocated for the course and out of these hours the
researcher tried to give 10 hours for each category. Out of 10 hours, two hours (20% of
the allocated time for each category) were spent for lecturing and eight hours (80% of
the allocated time) were spent for classroom activities. The instructional design was
based on the following principles:
1. Classrooms were student-centred.
53
Cognitive
skills
RBT
categories
Remember
Subcategories
Understand
Explaining
Apply
Recalling
Questions
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
Executing/
a.
Implementing
b.
c.
Analyse
Differentiatinga.
b.
Evaluate
Attributing
a.
Critiquing
a.
b.
c.
In order to test the students knowledge and all the skills of all the learning
domains except create, the researcher found it useful to take one particular topic like
Error Analysis and developed a series of increasingly challenging questions for the
five hierarchical levels. It is to be noted here that the answers to the cognitive skills
questions were not previously provided through classroom instruction because if the
students got the answers before and memorized them, the high order cognitive skills
questions would only require recall (Allen & Tanner 2002).
Data Analysis
Marking the papers. Two independent raters marked the students answers for
assessing their knowledge and cognitive skills ignoring the grammatical mistakes.
The raters assessed the answers to the cognitive skills questions on the following basis:
1) Clarity and accuracy of thinking.
2) Depth and breadth of thinking.
3) The number of alternatives considered.
4) Do the students know why they think the way they do?
Interrater reliability for marking the papers. The marks given to the students
answers by two independent raters were analysed through the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient Test. The correlation coefficient (r) between the two sets of marks was .78,
p < .01, which was considered to be consistent enough to proceed with further statistical
analysis.
Statistical analysis. The participants scores were analysed by using paired
sample t test and post-hoc LSD (least significant difference). Cohens d was also used
to calculate the effect size.
4. Results and Discussion
The results are illustrated in Tables 4 and 5. As can be seen, differences exist
between students scores for different questions, but the mean differences are not
always significant. The students scores are less in cognitive skills questions than in
knowledge questions. In a similar vein, the students did better in lower category
cognitive skill questions than higher category cognitive skill questions.
NQF Domains
Knowledge
Cognitive skills
RBT categories
Remember
Understand
Total
Apply
Analyse
Evaluate
Total
N
99
99
198
99
99
99
297
Mean
1.369
1.354
1.361
1.101
1.091
.955
1.049
55
SD
.758
.753
.754
.799
.784
.773
.785
Conditions
Remember vs. Understand
Knowledge
(remember+understand) vs.
Apply
Knowledge vs. Analyse
Knowledge vs. Evaluate
Knowledge vs. Cognitive
skills
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Mean
Difference
.015
.268
df
Cohens d
Effect size
.862
.0016**
.173
3.24
98
98
.013
.335
.006
.165
.278
.414
.265
.0010**
.0001**
.0001**
3.40
4.51
4.389
98
98
197
.352
.772
.624
.173
.360
.297
confirmed that though the students resist at the beginning, it is possible to motivate
most of the students to develop their domain of cognitive skills. The answer to the
first research question is in fact the partial answer to the second research questionIs
it possible to develop the students capability of critical thinking?. Statistical analysis
of their scores shows that at least the two lowest categories of cognitive skills can be
developed in a stand-alone course. Therefore, if a synchronized and concerted effort by
all the teachers of a department is aimed at embedding and integrating critical thinking
throughout the students academic career, they would score much better results in all
the categories of cognitive skills.
5. Conclusion and Implications
Two conclusions, with some caveats described below, can be drawn from this
study. Firstly, if the teachers persuade and train the students to fly their nests of
knowledge, in order to undertake investigations, comprehend and evaluate new
information, concepts and evidence from a range of sources, and apply conclusions to
a wide range of issues and problems with limited guidance (National Qualifications,
2009: 19), the students would realize their own innate potential and be encouraged
to ascend the higher categories of cognitive skills. Secondly, in order to ensure the
students instrumental motivationhe has to make it very clear at the outset of a course
that without developing their cognitive skills they would not be able to pass the exam.
This study is not without limitations. Firstly, this study was conducted in a very
short period of timethree months and 15 days to be exact, and hence the highest
category of the domain of cognitive skillscreatecould not be included.
Secondly, the number of participants could not be increased while controlling the
teacher variable and so the sample was small. A larger sample could tolerate
individual variations better in statistical analysis. Lastly, for the lack of qualitative data
regarding students attitudes and experience, their opinions and beliefs remained
unexplored.
Despite these limitations, the results of this study have important pedagogical
implications. Given the fact that the students did considerably good in at least two
lowest categories of the domain of cognitive skills in a matter of three and a half
months, the teachers can tap into the students latent capability of achieving all the
cognitive skills suggested by NQF and unlock them without fearing students failing
and their own job termination.
In short, it is true that Saudi students are still heavily dependent on
memorization and they are unwilling to fly the nest of knowledge in order to soar
towards the higher level cognitive skills. However, it is not difficult to change their
mindset which seems to be fixed and unchangeable, if the higher domains of learning
can be integrated or embedded throughout the undergraduate students' academic career,
not just in one, stand-alone course.
57
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60
1. Introduction
Most authors, who wrote about English, English language teaching, see
Business English in the larger context of ESP, as it shares the important
characteristics of needs analysis, syllabus design, course design, and material writing,
which are common to all fields of work in ESP. Similar to other varieties of ESP,
Business English implies a special language corpus and emphasis on specific types of
communication, in a specific context. According to Ellis & Johnson (1994), Business
English is different from other varieties of ESP, due to its mix of specific content and
general content. Therefore, the challenges Business English teachers face in their
activity should be the following: the main focus; specialised vocabulary;
communication skills in a business related context; needs analysis related to the
Business English they need in their future careers; the role of the teacher and the
techniques most appropriate to be used for Business English students.
Assistant Professor, PhD, Department of Marketing and International Relations, Faculty of Economics
and Business Administration, University of Timisoara, Romania.
61
62
63
67
students have a real chance to feel supported and helped, while the general feeling is
that they are supported and encouraged in their effort. There are times when teachers
need to act as a prompter; on other occasion it would be more appropriate to act as a
resource, and it is up to the teacher to know how to switch between the various roles
above mentioned, judging when it is appropriate to use one or other of them. When
the teacher has made a decision, however consciously or sub-consciously it is done,
we need to be aware of how we carry that role, how we perform (Harmer 2008:
111).
4.11. The teacher as actor / entertainer
ESP texts have a reputation of being boring and not very interesting ones, due
to their subject-matter content. It is the teachers task to make them as interesting as
possible, by making use of various activities, such as: pre-reading questions, while
reading questions, and avoid dead time. Materials must be selected and good
materials should, therefore, provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will
guide teacher and learner through various activities in such a way as to maximise the
chances of learning. It should help the teacher in his/her activity and encourage in the
students a sense of progress and achievements. The teacher should not use a
monotonous text and pattern of lesson to avoid dullness in the classroom, this type of
teaching if it doesnt send you to sleep [...] it will certainly send your learners to
sleep (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 107). The teacher should do his/her best so as to
entertain and involve the students in all the activities, make any lesson interesting and
approach it with enthusiasm, and avoid the assembly-line approach which makes each
unit look the same, with the same type of text, the same type and number of exercises
a materials model must be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for
creativity and variety (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 107). The teacher should
therefore create a friendly atmosphere, present each unit in a very interesting way, as
if it were some kind of show, so as to attract as many students as possible to take part
in the whole happening. The teacher should employ all his/her talent so as to find the
best way to the students hart.
We have mentioned a few of the roles of the teacher, mentioned in the
literature of methodology and we have also added some of our considerations, which
are, in a way, the result of our teaching experience. In order to do ones best and be
very efficient at it, ESP teachers need to arm themselves with a sound knowledge of
both theoretical and practical developments in ELP, in order to be able to make the
range of decisions they are called upon to make. (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 160).
5. Conclusions
In the present paper we have tried to underline the changing role of the
modern ESP teacher and go through various roles mentioned in the literature of
teaching. We have underlined the positive aspects of each of these roles, but
eventually teachers must remember that for efficient results s/he must combine all
these roles adapted to the students s/he is teaching, i.e. to the class.
This type of modern teacher is supposed to master both English language and
be familiar with the business subjects of the students. If teachers are not able to
69
operate highly specialised texts effectively, they should not be used. The teachers
competence is an essential ingredient in the teaching learning process and must,
therefore, be able to discuss almost any business topic.
There should be meaningful communication in the classroom, it is essential
that there is a common fund of knowledge and interest between teacher and learner.
This implies, inevitably, that the ESP teacher must know a lot about the world of
business. The teacher should be much more sensitive to the needs of his/her students.
The teacher should know how to handle each group of students and adapt to
their needs, wants and linguistic level. S/He must always remember that teaching
does not equal learning. It is quite possible for a teacher to be putting great effort
into his/her teaching and no learning to be taking place; similarly, a teacher could
apparently be doing nothing, but the students learn a great deal. (Scrivener 2009:
17).
In order to achieve his/her goals, the teacher should be a mix of manager,
trainer, consultant, coach, controller, prompter, participant, tutor, actor and adapt
himself/herself to the group of students s/he is teaching. The teachers degree of
flexibility is the key to success. All ESP teachers are in effect pioneers who are
helping to shape the world of ESP (Hutchinson & Waters 1994: 160).
This work was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme
Human
Resources
Development
2007-2013,
project
number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of Humanities
and Socio-Economic Sciences. A Multi-regional Research Network.
Aceast lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional
Sectorial
pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 2013, Cod Contract:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Cercetori competitivi pe plan european n domeniul tiinelor
umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE).
References
1. Bargiela-Chiappini, F., & C. Nickerson, Business Discourse: Old Concepts, New
Horizons, in International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 40(4),
2002, 273286.
2. Ellis, M., & C. Johnson, Teaching Business English, Oxford: OUP, 1994, 2009.
3. Frendo, E,, How To Teach Business English, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2012.
4. Gardner, R.C. & V.E. Lambert, Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning,
Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972.
5. Harmer, J., The Practice of English Language Teaching, Edinburgh: Pearson Longman,
2008.
6. Hutchinson T., Waters A., English for Specific Purposes, Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
7. Kennedy, C., & R. Bolitho, English for Specific Purposes, London: MacMillan, 1991.
8. Scrivener, J., Learning Teaching, Oxford: MacMillan, 2009.
9. Sylvie, D., Teach Business English, Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
10. ***. Statistics about the Population Growth in China, 20012011, World Bank, July
2012. Retrieved 10 April 2013. ( http://www.statista.com/statistics/270129/populationgrowth-in-china/ )
70
1. Introduction
All languages emerge first as words, both historically and in terms of the way
each of us learned our first and subsequent languages. Neither the coining, nor the
acquisition of new words ever stops and we are continually learning new words or
new meanings for old words. Learning the vocabulary of a second language presents
the learner with numerous challenges, and in order to meet them, the learner has to
acquire a critical mass of words for use in both understanding and producing a
language and to develop strategies to remember words over time, and be able to recall
them readily. In a text, word choice is heavily constrained by what comes before and
after. This is probably the most elusive aspect of the lexical system, thus the hardest
for learners to acquire. Even the slightest adjustment to the collocations by
substituting one of its components for a synonym might turn the text into nonstandard English. As Scott Thornbury points out, the ability to deploy a wide range
of lexical chunks both accurately and appropriately is probably what most
distinguishes advanced learners from intermediate ones (Thornbury 2002: 116).
PhD,
71
72
73
working later and paying less attention to me. He stopped doing the housework, so I had to do
everything. He made a lot of promises but then he would break them. He was very stressed and
he started to go bald, he got very depressed about this and started getting drunk after work. I
was getting very worried about him. He would always come home drunk and make a mess.
Then, one day, while I was cleaning his clothes, something caught my attention. It was a
lipstick stain on his shirt. I got very angry; he was keeping a secret from me! That night when
he came home, I confronted him and he broke the news to me: he had been having an affair. It
broke my heart. I kicked him out of the house and we got divorced two weeks later.
4. Conclusion
Rosamund Moon calls just looking at words "dangerously isolationist" (1997:
40), and goes on to say that "words are again and again shown not to operate as
independent and interchangeable parts of the lexicon, but as parts of a lexical system"
(ibid: 42). An understanding of collocation is vital for all learners, and for those on
advanced level courses, it is essential that they are not only aware of the variety and
sheer density of this feature of the language but that they actively acquire more and
more collocations both within and outside the formal teaching situation.
References
1. McCarthy, M., & F. ODell, English Collocations in Use, New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2008.
2. Moon, R., Vocabulary connections: multi-word items in English, in Schmitt, N. & M.
McCarthy (eds), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy, New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1997.
3. Lewis, M., Teaching Collocation, Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications, 2000.
5. Thornbury, S., How to Teach Vocabulary, Harlow, Essex: Longman, 2002.
Webography
1.
2.
3.
74
1. Introduction
Whereas the contemporary world, and even more the world of tomorrow, is
characterized by complexity, globalization, acceleration and generalization of
changes, education endows the future adult for the complexity and change and
develops abilities to discover and eliminate malfunctions, the ability to master them,
to demonstrate liability for personal acts and independence for interaction and
changes of ideas. All of these converging traits can be merged into what we call
creativity. The educational ideal of Romanian school is aimed at the formation of the
autonomous and creative personality, which is able to anticipate the future, to
Associate Professor, PhD, Department of Letters - Centre of Multicultural and Interlinguistic Studies,
Spiru Haret University / Department of Research, Wales University, Bucharest, Romania
75
transform present into its previously anticipated direction, to discover and resolve
situations together with others.
2. Analysing creativity as an attribute of thinking.
There is a growing number of recent psycho-pedagogical investigations
calling upon creativity, based on the following arguments: the creative potential is
one of the most complex and mysterious assets of the human being, and educating it
in order to obtain manifestations of creative behaviours is one of the most daring and
highest objectives; the creative potential differs from one individual to another, being
higher or lower; the tasks facing the man during his life multiply, are amplified and
diversified, requiring creativity, acting directly upon determining factors of creativity;
everyone is requested to contribute to his/ her workplace in a creative manner;
creativity can be assessed and educated at each human subject (for this purpose the
process of instruction from kindergarten and school education can contribute in
particular); the company, which will invest more in children's creativity, will win, in
time, the world competition with other countries (on condition that such a country
shall preserve inside the creative values available).
In these circumstances it is obvious that the investigation of creativity is not
triggered by scientific, but by theoretical rationale, especially by needs of practical
application.
Analysing creativity J. Dewey (1921) starts from its significance of attribute
of thinking; G.W. Allport and P.E. Vernon (1933, 1937) highlights that the act of
creation involves skills and even mental processes. Thus, these scientists use
interpretations which go beyond unilateral images that reduce creativity to
"endowment", "skill", "talent". For a long time it was considered that the possibility
to produce the new, the exceptional is a quality and a precious gift possessed only by
a small number of "chosen individuals" of providence. It was considered that this
quality has the force of self-development that is achieved by itself. There was a
widespread opinion that the creative potential can be developed, but only within the
limits of a given genetic endowment; education can only refine latent forces
determined by hereditary endowment.
On this background, J. Dewey and G.W. Allport suggested another vision of
creativity - the human being has a certain potential, and the duty of education is to
discover and develop it.
More than ever, education has as a fundamental goal to prepare the child for
life, for concrete, real, existing world challenges and future work-related, social and
cultural life. The Romanian educational ideal aims to form an autonomous and
creative personality able to anticipate the future, to transform it towards its previously
anticipated direction, to discover and resolve situations together with others. The
issue has preoccupied many researchers in the field of creativity, psychologists,
practitioners in the field of education, impressed by the amount of capacity that
envelops the person and the behaviour of some individuals creators. Creativity
continues to be an issue of research not because the efforts of the concerned academic
community have been sterile, but because the creative potential is one of the most
76
complex processes of the human mind, and educating it in order to trigger creative
behaviours is one of the most daring and highest objectives. Thus, the vast majority of
specialists consider creativity as a defining feature for individual existence and for the
evolution of society. Each human being has, among other potentials, a creative
potential. The issue of turning it into a personality trait is still controversial. There are
some theorists who see the creative potential as a self-contained force, while others
considered that the level of creativity depends only on the quality of creative actions.
Starting from the bi-factorial model of creativity developed by P. P. Neveanu
(1996), who interprets creativity as creative interaction of vectors (motivation,
emotional experiences, creative attitude) with operational systems (logical, heuristic,
imaginative creative processes, attitudes), researchers in the field of education have
come to reveal the fact that the duty of the educator is to endow a child with the
adequate tool storage starting as early as possible, with generative operations, but also
to stimulate development needs, cognitive motivation, aspirations, and, why not, the
practical non-conformism. However, the creative forces of pre-school children are
formed and developed only in the ludic climate, hence the importance of play in
preschool child creativity development.
3. The game as the fundamental activity of the child
The game is the main activity during which children manifest and exercise
their creative potential, it is also the most favourable psychological climate of the
preschool child to form harmonious abilities and competences. Through the game, the
child has the opportunity to enhance the knowledge of the self, to fully establish the
relationship between him / herself and the environment. The game is the fundamental
activity of the child, an expression of the activity carried out spontaneously, for fun,
loaded with rewards.
Our documentation, experimental and reflection efforts had the following
objectives:
- Revealing the role of the development needs (present at the preschool age) in enabling and stimulating creative potential;
- Stimulating the creative potential of children through various
activities and educational games ever since kindergarten level;
- Highlighting the role of the adult in stimulating or hindering original
behaviour in pre-school children;
- Developing a training program for creative development for
preschool age children.
4. Reviewing the specialized literature on games and creativity
"What is the game and why do children play?"-are questions that scientists
started asking themselves more than a century ago. In this respect, the Romanian
psycho-pedagogical literature (Nicola 1981, Roca 1981, Stoica 1983, Oprescu 1991,
77
78
difficulties, as such young children are not able to read or write, therefore the only
approach is the oral one. On the other hand, at this age the acquisition of
pronunciation is characterized by a high level of accuracy.
As the world of the young learner aged 4-6 years is self centred (Peter &
Chirimbu 2015: 28), the teaching-learning process can start from four fundamental
structures related to the self, around which an imaginative teacher can build rich
vocabulary clusters. The four main grammar structures that can be used in the
teaching of foreign languages to young children are I am, I have, I can, I like, which,
approached in a creative manner can lead to the acquisition of a rich vocabulary and
high capacity of generating new content.
The first structure traces a delimitation between the childs self and the rest of
the world around him / her. Sub-structures such as I am + noun (predicative
expression), I am + adjective (predicative expression), I am + place adverbial ca be
taught at this age by means of images, drawings, cards, at an older age (over 6) the
capacity of reproducing being doubled by the capacity of building ones own models.
I can is the other structure developing the idea of self-description. At very
young ages the total physical response can successfully be used to teach vocabulary
collocating with this modal structure (I can run / I can jump / I can draw / I can swim
/ I can climb / I can write / I can speak English, etc.).
Assistant Professor, PhD, Department of Marketing and International Economic Relations, Faculty of
Economics and Business Administration, West University of Timioara, Romania.
81
82
productions et les biens culturels sont la fois les faonneurs et les tmoins des
cultures et des identits, tant collectives quindividuelles. En tant que rservoirs dun
hritage commun de lhumanit, les cultures sont, en mme temps, lors de leurs
interactions, des vecteurs de cohsion sociale entre les peuples ou les communauts.
La culture est un organisme dynamique qui volue avec le progrs des
socits du monde. Le XXIe sicle a renforc et statu le caractre vivant des cultures,
leur diversit et leur galit en ce qui concerne leurs droits, tels "la libert de pense,
dexpression et dinformation." (ONU 2005). Les desseins majeurs de la culture, tels
quils ont t formuls lors de la Convention de lONU de 2005, circonscrivent les
aspects fondamentaux que les politiques culturelles, tous les niveaux, doivent
respecter. Ces objectifs sont:
"(a) protger et promouvoir la diversit des expressions culturelles; (b) crer les
conditions permettant aux cultures de spanouir et interagir librement de manire
senrichir mutuellement; (c) encourager le dialogue entre les cultures afin dassurer
des changes culturels plus intenses et quilibrs dans le monde en faveur du respect
interculturel et dune culture de la paix; (d) stimuler linterculturalit afin de
dvelopper linteraction culturelle dans lesprit, de btir des passerelles entre les
peuples; (e) promouvoir le respect de la diversit des expressions culturelles et la
prise de conscience de sa valeur aux niveaux local, national et international; // (i)
renforcer la coopration et la solidarit internationales dans un esprit de partenariat
afin, notamment, accrotre les capacits des pays en voie de dveloppement, protger
et promouvoir la diversit des expressions culturelles." (ONU 2005).
Depuis lors, les mots dordre des politiques culturelles ont port sur la
protection, la promotion, la conservation/la prservation du patrimoine culturel et la
mdiation culturelle, auxquelles il faut rajouter lapport du numrique la
valorisation et la diffusion du patrimoine culturel universel, limportance duquel
deviendra de plus en plus importante dans les annes venir.
La culture est troitement lie la transmission et la diffusion, donc, la
communication, et linterculturalit (voire aux changes et aux influences des
cultures du monde) et la pluridisciplinarit (elle touche diverses disciplines, et une
varit de genres et formes culturels de manifestation).
2.2. La culture et la communication
Lacte culturel est indniablement li lacte communicationnel. Au-del du
schma de Jakobson portant sur lmetteur (locuteur) le message le rcepteur
(interlocuteur), la smantique du terme "communication" renvoie lempathie
(souvrir vers lautre) et au partage. Etymologiquement, le mot "communication"
provient du latin classique "communicare" ("commnico, -re" = "avoir part,
partager" puis "entrer en relation avec".
En roumain, comme en franais, la sphre smantique du mot
"communiquer" ("comunicare" - en roum.) admet trois acceptions : 1."transmettre"
("a transmite" - en roum.) une information, faire connatre quelque chose;
84
86
87
ont tous contribu, en mme temps, la continuit du projet: les initiateurs, les
partenaires et les publics "consommateurs" de produits culturels.
Dans un sens plus restrictif, les bnficiaires cibls par le projet, ont t les
publics cultivs ou intresss par la culture et les apprenants ou connaisseurs de
langues trangres: dans le cas ci-prsent, le franais et lallemand.
3.4. La mise en uvre du projet inter/culturel
3.4.1. Le message du projet
Il faut, avant tout, formuler et transmettre un message mobilisant pour
convaincre les partenaires et les publics joindre les initiateurs du projet et
simpliquer dans sa mise en place.
Le message a t, tout dabord, porteur de sens explicites, prsents lors des
entretiens avec les partenaires et la signature des conventions de partenariats.
La carte "Carrefour des cultures/Kreuzung der Kulturen/Confluena
culturilor" renferme galement des sens implicites, censs convaincre les
partenaires aussi bien que les bnficiaires soutenir et participer au projet:
Timioara est une ville europenne multiculturelle; les principaux distributeurs de
culture/des cultures sont solidaires, suivant lesprit europen du respect de la diversit
et des changes collaboratifs (linterculturalit: "In varietate concordia"), dans la
promotion et le dveloppement de lapptit pour la culture; un soutien financier
opratoire de la part de tous ceux qui manifestent de lintrt pour les produits
culturels (par lacquisition de la carte "Carrefour des cultures/Kreuzung der
Kulturen/Confluena culturilor"): il sagit des avantages et des rductions dont
bnficient ceux qui sont munis de la carte lorsquils participent des actes/activits
de culture, avantages qui se reflteront galement sur les crateurs et les distributeurs
de produits culturels.
3.4.2. Le marketing culturel
La promotion du projet/ de la carte "Carrefour des cultures/Kreuzung der
Kulturen/Confluena culturilor" a t faite par: affiches, des tracts; annonces et des
confrences de presse prcdant et au moment de linauguration officielle de la carte
par les reprsentants officiels de toutes les institutions partenaires; annonces passes
sur les rseaux de socialisation; activits de soutien (des animations): lectures
dbats, ateliers, projections de films, moments thtraux, etc.
4. Conclusion
Entre temps, mme si les librairies Humanitas ont ferm leurs filiales
Timioara, dautres organismes ont rejoint le projet, la carte "Carrefour des
cultures/Kreuzung der Kulturen/Confluena culturilor" runissant, prsent, 23
partenaires (par rapport 10, le nombre des collaborateurs-associs au dpart).
Un fois mis en place, un projet culturel doit vivre et se dvelopper, devenir le
point de dpart pour dautres projets. Suivant ce principe, en novembre 2013, le
88
Webographie
1. Association Modus Operandi, La mdiation interculturelle au service de la rconciliation,
Irenees.net, un site de ressources pour la paix, http://www.irenees.net/bdf_fiche-analyse752_fr.html, Grenoble: Modus Operandi, 2008.
2. Blaga, L., [quote], http://www.citatepedia.ro/index.php?id=57448.
3. Bulat, V., Cum scriu un proiect? Ghid de reguli i principii de baz de scriere a unui
proiect
(2nd
ed .),
http://www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB8QFj
AA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iom.md%2Fattachments%2F110_Project%2520develop
ment%2520Guide.pdf&ei=ZY_cVJiAJYO5UbSzgZAG&usg=AFQjCNE1TPfDBFgr83Eyui
IQGdcpsP98xQ&bvm=bv.85761416,d.bGQ, Chiinu, Biroul de Relaii Interetnice, IOMOIM, 2011.
4. NCP, RNCP Commission Nationale de la Certification Professionnelle - Rpertoire
national des certifications professionnelles, http://www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/
5. DEX. Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, http://www.dex.ro/
6. Fournier,
A.F.
&
A.
Nicodme,
Le
management
interculturel,
http://www.google.fr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=
8&ved=0CDUQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fodlv.free.fr%2Fdocuments%2Fmethodologi
e%2Fmemoires%2Ffournier.pdf&ei=RqzlVPjrDcrtaICPgYgL&usg=AFQjCNF4_C4aLu6
AQu81_njo3QJVwolGYQ, s.l., s.n., s.a.
7. Le Thanh Dibba, N., La mdiation interculturelle dans tous ses tats,
http://www.reiso.org/spip.php?article3397, Genve, Collectif Interculturel de mdiation,
2013.
8. Mairie de la ville de Montral, Quest-ce que la mdiation culturelle ?,
http://montreal.mediationculturelle.org/quest-ce-que-la-mediation-culturelle/, Montral:
Le portail officiel de la ville de Montral, s.a.
9. ONU, La Confrence gnrale de lOrganisation des Nations Unies pour lducation, la
science et la culture, runie Paris du 3 au 21 octobre 2005,
http://www.unesco.org/new/fr/culture/themes/cultural-diversity/cultural-expressions/theconvention/convention-text/, Paris, ONU, 2005.
10. Schein, E.H.,
Organizational culture and leadership,
http://www.untagsmd.ac.id/files/Perpustakaan_Digital_2/ORGANIZATIONAL%20CULTURE%20Organiza
tional%20Culture%20and%20Leadership,%203rd%20Edition.pdf, San Francisco: John
Wiley & Sons, 2004.
11. ufaru,
A.,
Teaching.
Managementul
de
proiect,
http://www.slideshare.net/intoSEA/prezentare-management-proiect-partea-1?related=1,
s.l., Slideshare, 2012.
12. UNESCO, Dclaration de Mexico sur les politiques culturelles. Confrence mondiale sur
les politiques culturelles, Mexico City, 26 juillet - 6 aot 1982,
http://portal.unesco.org/culture/fr/ev.phpURL_ID=12762&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_
SECTION=201.html, Mexico City: UNESCO, 1982.
13. Wikibooks,
La
mdiation
culturelle,
http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/La_m%C3%A9diation_culturelle, Wikibooks, s.a.
14. Wikipdia,
La
mdiation
interculturelle,
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9diation_interculturelle, Wikipdia, s.a.
90
Tafelbilder,
91
Wahrnehmung und das Ansprechen der Gefhle des Lernenden; das Erwecken der
Motivation des Lernenden; die Vereinfachung der Kommunikation; das
kontextbezogene Lernen im Bereich Lexik, Semantik und Syntax zu frdern u.a.
Zugleich begnstigen visuelle Medien das Verstndnis der zu vermittelnden
Informationen, was wiederum den Frontalunterricht verbessert und das Interesse der
Lernenden erweckt.
Im Folgenden wird eine Auswahl der in der Praxis verwendeten visuellen
Medien vorgenommen, zu denen Tafel, Overheadprojektor, PowerPoint-Prsentation,
Flip-Chart, Poster, Lernplakat, Wandzeitung und andere visuelle Medien zugeordnet
werden.
2. Visuelle Medien im Unterricht
Die Tafel gehrt als ltestes visuelles Medium seit Jahrhunderten zum
Unterrichtsraum. Wenn man die Entwicklung dieses Mediums von den traditionellen
Schreibtafeln im Klassenraum und den Schreibtafeln der Schler, die bereits schon im
16. Jh. erwhnt wurden, bis hin zur modernen Tafel, die mit Tafelfilzstiften zu
beschreiben ist, zu Magnettafeln, Pinntafeln, Hafttafeln, Anschlagtafeln, Filztafeln
und elektronischen Tafeln verfolgt, kann man bemerken, dass es zu den beliebtesten
Unterrichtsmedien gehrt. Ihre Beliebtheit lsst sich durch eine groe Anzahl von
Vorzgen erklren: Tafeln sind einfache und leicht zu handhabene Medien, die
keinen technischen Aufwand erfordern und immer einsatzbereit sind. Man kann sie
zur Veranschaulichung von Text und bildlicher Information jederzeit verwenden,
Fehler knnen sofort beseitigt werden, Erluterungen knnen ergnzt werden usw. Ob
Schreibtafeln, Anschlagetafeln, Hafttafeln, Lehrtafeln, Magnettafeln oder
elektronische Tafeln bzw. mit einem Computer verbundene Touchscreens alle
Tafelformen gehren zu den am hufigsten eingesetzten Medien, die man in jeder
Unterrichtsphase und in jeder Lerngruppe benutzen kann. Die Tafel dient der
Illustration oder dem Festhalten von Informationen und eignet sich besonders dafr,
schrittweise etwas entstehen zu lassen, z. B. Gedanken zu entwickeln, Meinungen zu
uern und in Stichpunkten festzuhalten oder Regeln abzuleiten. Dabei untersttzen
Tafelbilder die Veranschaulichung des Lernstoffs, die Sammlung von Ideen, die
Erstellung von Skizzen, Tabellen, Strukturen und Erluterungen, welche die
Vermittlung des Fremdsprachenunterrichts favorisieren.
Ein gutes Tafelbild ist oft aussagekrftiger als tausend Worte, wobei das vor
allem innerhalb des Fremdsprachenunterrichts hilfreich ist. Informationen zum
Unterrichtsschema lassen sich auf vielfltige Weise ber die Tafel reprsentiern: ein
Sachtext mit Unterstreichungen, Hervorhebungen oder in Spalten angeordneten
Gegenstzen; eine Graphik, eine Tabelle oder ein Diagramm; eine Skizze; ein
Organigramm u.a.
Gleichzeitig kann man auch dynamisch mit dem Tafelbild arbeiten. Im
Unterschied zum statischen Tafelbild oder zu einem Arbeitsblatt mit einer fertigen
Zeichnung sind die Lernenden am Prozess der Entstehung mit ihren Augen und
93
Ohren beteiligt und knnen dadurch jede Etappe des Unterrichts verfolgen und
mitgestalten.
Zugleich lassen sich Tafelbilder interaktiv gestalten, wobei die Lernenden in
das Erstellen oder Verndern des Tafelbildes mit einbezogen werden. Sie knnen z.B.
Vermutungen uern, die vom Lehrer / von der Lehrerin in das entstehende Tafelbild
aufgenommen werden, sie knnen das Tafelbild ergnzen, verndern, mitgestalten.
Der Vorteil besteht darin, dass alle Lernenden die notwendigen Schritte beobachten
knnen und dass eventuelle Fehler sofort korrigiert werden.
Tafelbilder dienen vor allem dem Skizzieren von Unterrichtsinhalten, dem
Veranschaulichen von Sachverhalten bzw. der grafischen Darstellung inhaltlicher
Zusammenhnge. Andererseits kann das Tafelbild den Schwerpunkt einer ganzen
Unterrichtsstunde bilden, wobei Sach-, Sinn- oder Problemzusammenhnge im Laufe
einer Stunde grafisch mit Text und Bild dargestellt und entwickelt werden. Alle
Phasen der gesprchsweisen Erarbeitung werden dabei mit den Tafelbildern
verbunden. Durch die Entwicklung eines solchen groen dramaturgischen Tafelbildes
werden alle Zwischenergebnisse der ganzen Unterrichtseinheit festgehalten, die dann
abgewischt werden knnen, wenn man sie nicht mehr verwendet.
Auerdem dokumentieren Tafelbilder alle Lern- und Arbeitsprozesse
innerhalb der Unterrichtsstunde. Der Lehrer kann wichtige Stichworte festhalten oder
Wrter mit schwieriger Rechtschreibung notieren, Arbeitsauftrge, Fragen u. a.
vermerken. Die Lernenden knnen dabei alle Schritte gut verfolgen und ben, einen
Gesprchsverlauf in seinen wesentlichen Aussagen festhalten, eine Struktur
herausarbeiten, Kernargumente einer Diskussion erkennen. Gleichzeitig knnen die
Lernenden Lsungsideen vorstellen oder die Tafel zur Untersttzung eines Referats
nutzen. Ferner knnen sie die Tafel in die Prsentation von Arbeitsergebnissen
einbeziehen, seien es Ergebnisse ihrer eigenen Recherche oder von Gruppenarbeit,
Mitteilungen aus Projekten usw. Sie knnen auf diese Weise ihre Lern- oder
Arbeitsprozesse sichtbar und fr andere verstndlich machen.
Allerdings weist die Tafel auch Nachteile auf: Das auf die Tafel
Geschriebene ist etwas Einmaliges. Wenn es nicht abgeschrieben wird, ist ein spterer
Rckgriff auf das Tafelbild nicht mglich.
In vielen Schulen und an Universitten wird der Overheadprojektor anstelle
der Wandtafel verwendet und ist wahrscheinlich neben der Tafel ein weiteres sehr
beliebtes und hufig eingesetztes visuelles Medium. Der Vorzug dieses Gerts
gegenber der Tafel besteht u. a. darin, dass die vorbereiteten Folien mit Text und
Bild eingesetzt werden knnen, dass die Folien wiederverwendbar sind und dass bei
der Arbeit mit Overheadprojektor der Blickkontakt zu den Lernern erhalten bleibt
(vgl. Frankenberg & Fuhr 1997: 42). Man kann Bilder aus Bchern auf Folien
kopieren, ohne die vielleicht seltenen oder kostbaren Originale immer mit in die
Klasse oder in den Seminarraum nehmen zu mssen. Dadurch gewinnt auch die
Vorplanung ein greres Gewicht: Man kann Folien zu Hause sorgfltig gestalten und
muss nicht in der Pause vor der Unterrichtsstunde ein Tafelbild anfertigen.
94
Die Software erleichtert die Prsentierung der Folien und ermglicht zugleich
das Einfgen weiterer multimedialer Elemente, wie z. B. Videoclips, Fotos,
Filmausschnitte usw. Zu den Vorteilen der PowerPoint-Folien zhlen auch die
Leuchtkraft der Farben sowie auch die Mglichkeit, Animationen einzufgen und
Bilder zu bewegen.
All diese Elemente verhelfen dazu, den Vortrag in einer bersichtlichen,
attraktiven, vielseitigen und spannender Art und Weise darzustellen und das Interesse
der Lernenden zu erwecken.
Das Flipchart (auch Flip-Chart) ist ein visuelles Medium, welches als
grafisches Hilfsmittel im Rahmen des Unterrichts, bei Referaten, Vortrgen usw.
verwendet wird. Es ist als berdimensionaler Schreibblock an einem Gestell hnlich
einer Pinn-Stellwand angebracht.
Dieses Medium ist auch ein beliebtes, ergnzendes Hilfsmittel im
Sprachunterricht, wobei es dafr verschiedene Einsatzmglichkeiten auch im Bereich
des DaF-Unterrichts gibt, vor allem dann, wenn keine Tafel vorhanden ist. Das
Flipchart eignet sich beispielweise zum Eintragen von Kernaussagen, zum Festhalten
von Kommentaren, Fragen, Zwischenergebnissen u.a. Gleichzeitig kann der
Vortragende am Flipchart ein Thema interaktiv mit den anderen Zuhrern ausarbeiten
und die wichtigsten Informationen festhalten. Die Zuhrer beteiligen sich auch durch
ihre Mitarbeit am Entstehungsprozess des Unterrichts, wobei die Anwendung der
Flipcharts einen interaktiven Fremdsprachenunterricht ermglicht.
Ein Flipchart wird normalerweise mit farbigen Faserstiften beschrieben, um
die Aufmerksamkeit der Lernenden auf die zu vermittelnden Informationen zu
lenken. Die gebrauchten Bltter knnen, falls man spter nochmals auf sie
zurckgreifen mchte, nach hinten umgeschlagen und als Dokumentation verwendet
werden.
Ein weiterer Vorteil der Flipcharts besteht darin, dass man es als eine fr alle
Teilnehmer sichtbare Schreibflche in jedem Raum einsetzen kann. Gleichzeitig,
knnen die Papierbgen auch vor dem Unterricht vorbereitet werden, um dadurch
Zeit zu sparen.
Zu den Nachteilen der Einsetzung von Flipcharts als visuelles Medium gehrt
das ungnstige Hochformat, das wenig Platz fr die Erstellung von lngeren Stzen
oder ausfhrlichen Formulierungen bietet. Zugleich ist auch an die
Papierverschwendung zu denken, die durch die Anwendung des Flipcharts verursacht
und als umweltbelastend zu betrachten ist.
Ein anderes visuelles Medium ist das Poster, ein gedrucktes Bildmedium,
welches in Form von groen Papierbgen dargestellt wird und neben den Bildern
auch oft von kurzen Informationen begleitet wird.
hnlich wie Wandbilder haben Poster im Sprachunterricht die Funktion,
Informationen zu veranschaulichen, als Material fr Wortschatzarbeit zu dienen oder
als Sprech- oder Schreibanlass genutzt zu werden.
Folgende Aspekte sollten bei der Erstellung des Posters und bei seinem
Einsatz im Fremdsprachenunterricht in Betracht gezogen werden: das Poster soll eine
96
Kernaussage klar und deutlich hervorheben bzw. eine Botschaft vermitteln; es sollte
durch attraktive Bilder und Grafiken ins Auge springen und die Aufmerksamkeit des
Lernenden gewinnen; die bildlichen Elemente und die berschriften mit Aussagen
sollten die Hauptgehalte und die Ergebnisse beleuchten; das Poster sollte die
inhaltliche Qualitt des Unterrichts steigern und die Lernenden zu Diskussionen
anregen. Bei der Gestaltung der Poster, wre es ratsam folgende Hinweise zu
befolgen: die bildlichen Elemente sollten dominieren, damit der Betrachter vom
Poster optisch angezogen wird; man sollte kurze, knappe Stze oder berschriften
gebrauchen und dabei eine groe Schriftart und Farben gebrauchen; man sollte
bersichtliche, aussagekrftige Bilder, Grafiken und Diagramme verwenden.
Die Lernplakate, die im Rahmen des Unterrichts zu Prsentationszwecken
benutzt werden, unterscheiden sich von anderen Plakaten nicht aufgrund des
Materials (auch hier: ein groes Papier variabler Farbe und Dicke), sondern aufgrund
der inhaltlichen Gestaltung und Zielsetzung. Lernplakate dienen, wie der Begriff
schon sagt, dem Lernen.
Nach Miriam Geldmacher (2010: 35) lassen sich zwei Typen von
Lernplakaten voneinander unterscheiden: Das individuelle Lernplakat, das der Autor
fr sich selbst erstellt, und das fr eine grere Lerngruppe gedachte Lernposter.
Whrend das individuelle Lernplakat sich vor allem an der kognitiven Lernstruktur
des Erstellers richtet, muss sich das Lernposter daran orientieren, welche Lernmuster
in der Gruppe vorhanden sind, bemerkt Geldmacher (2010: 35).
Zur Untersttzung von Prsentationen wird in der Regel ein fr eine grere
Gruppe gedachtes Lernposter verwendet. Ziel eines Lernposters ist nicht nur,
Informationen zu vermitteln, sondern diese auf wesentliche Lerninhalte zu reduzieren
Lernplakate und -poster seien dazu gedacht, Wissen zu strukturieren und
damit den Bedrfnissen Lernender entgegenzukommen. Sie haben aber auch den
Zweck, den Lernenden, die das Plakat erstellen, nahe zu bringen, wie Inhalte sinnvoll
aufgebaut und grafisch ansprechend prsentiert werden.
Im Unterschied zum Lernplakat beinhaltet die Wandzeitung jedoch in der
Regel hauptschlich Informationen zu einem Thema, wobei der Inhalt nicht auf
Begriffe, Assoziationen und kurzen Erklrungen reduziert wird, sondern vor allem
lngere Textpassagen enthlt, die auf ein groes Papier aufgeklebt wurden. Wie der
Begriff schon andeutet, handelt es sich dabei z. B. um Zeitungsartikel oder um kurze
Informationstexte, die mit Fotos oder Illustrationen versehen sind.
Die Wandzeitung kann auch die Rolle haben, Informationen zu einem Thema
in Gestalt von aufgeklebten (Zeitungs-)Artikeln zu dokumentieren (traditionelle
Wandzeitung). In dieser Form kann sie eine Prsentation ergnzen, wenn z. B.
Lernende dazu aufgefordert werden, im Rahmen eines Vortrags selbststndig
Informationen zu sammeln, um diese dann in die Diskussion einbringen zu knnen.
Die Wandzeitung wird prsentationsbegleitend, z. B. als Basis fr Arbeitsauftrge,
oder im Anschluss an eine Prsentation, z. B. zur Vertiefung, eingefhrt (vgl
Geldmacher 2010: 36).
97
Satzmuster
Ich bin sehr schnell gefahren.
lesen
Assoziative Ergnzungen
schnell
Auto
nach Frankfurt
zum Arzt
diesen Roman
gestern
die ganze Nacht
Zunchst werden die Verben an die linke Tafel geschrieben und an die rechte
Tafel werden die von den Lernenden dazu assoziierten Wrter notiert. In der Mitte
erscheint dann das Satzmuster, nach dem alle weiteren Informationen formuliert
werden.
3.2. Die Tafel als Wortschatzarbeit
Ein wichtiges Prinzip der Fremdsprachendidaktik lautet, neue Wrter nur im
Zusammenhang, in einem Kontext zu prsentieren und zu lernen. Die Lerner sollen
deshalb auch dazu motiviert werden, dieses Prinzip im Selbststudium anzuwenden. In
diesem Sinne, bilden Tafelbilder verschiedene Mglichkeiten der Veranschaulichung
von semantischen Relationen. Beispiele fr Wortschatzbungen liefert das Tafelbild
im Unterkapitel 3.2.1. Wie aus dem Beispiel zu deuten ist, werden von einem
Oberbegriff ausgehend, zahlreiche Unterbegriffe durch Assoziationen abgeleitet.
Diese Ergebnisse illustrieren semantische Strukturen innerhalb des mentalen
Wortschatzes, welche die verschiedenen Beziehungen zwischen den Wrtern erfassen
und zur Erweiterung des Wortschatzes verhelfen.
3.2.1. Zuordnung von Unterbegriffen zu einem Oberbegriff durch die
Tafel
Verkehrsmittel
Bus
Straenbahn
Flugzeug
....
Familie
Mutter
Grovater
Schwiegermutter
....
Tabelle 2: Beispiele
98
Unterricht
Ttigkeiten
hren
lernen
lesen
schreiben
buchstabieren
prsentieren
Tabelle 3: Wortschatz
der Osterhase
das Osterei
die Osterblume
das Osterfest
die Osterglocke
das Osterlamm
der Osterkuchen
das Osterlied
Tabelle4: Wortfamilie
Tabell 5: Wortschatz
das Holz
das Brett, -er
die Sge, -n
der Nagel,-
Tabelle 6: Beispiele
99
die Schraube, -n
der Hammer, der Pinsel, die Farbe, -n
messen
sgen
nageln
schrauben
streichen
-gemessen (haben)
- gesgt (haben)
- genagelt (haben)
- geschraubt (haben)
-gestrichen (haben)
Tabelle 7: Ergebnisse
aktivieren. Das so erarbeitete Tafelbild bleibt an der Tafel stehen und dient nach dem
ersten Sehen, Lesen, Hren einer ersten Verstndniskontrolle: Haben wir unsere
Ideen im Text wiedergefunden?
Die mit den Hypothesen bereinstimmenden Textinformationen sollten an
der Tafel markiert werden, um bewusst zu machen, dass man auch ohne Textkenntnis
schon recht viel ber ein bestimmtes Thema in der Fremdsprache sagen kann. Diese
bungen sind durch das Einsetzen der Tafelbilder attraktiver und motivieren den
Lernenden, aktiv teilzunehmen und den Unterricht mitzugestalten.
3.2.6. Erarbeitung der Textstruktur an der Tafel
Fr die Bewusstmachung von Textstrukturen und Verknpfungselementen ist
die Tafel ebenfalls ein sehr geeignetes Medium. Ein Beispiel dafr wre die
Erstellung eines offiziellen Briefes, der gemeinsam mit den Lernenden an der Tafel
erarbeitet werden kann. Der Lehrer schreibt den Musterbrief an die Tafel, weist dabei
auf wichtige Textstrukturen, auf Aufbau, Anrede usw. hin, hebt all diese Aspekte
hervor und die Lernenden schreiben den Text anschlieend ab.
Im Anfngerunterricht spielen Dialoge eine wichtige Rolle. Diese lassen sich
effektiver einben, wenn sie zunchst an der Tafel gezeigt werden.
Eine Einladung
Ich mchte gern mit dir essen gehen.
Heute Abend.
So um sieben.
Um neun?
Tabelle 8: Einladung
Nachdem das Tafelbild erstellt wurde, wird der Dialog paarweise gelesen.
Dabei knnen einige Wrter aus dem Dialog weggewischt werden, bis schlielich der
Dialog frei reproduziert wird.
4. Schlussfolgerungen
Im vorliegenden Artikel wurde die Rolle der visuellen Medien im
Fremdsprachenunterricht thematisiert und anhand von einigen Beispielen beleuchtet.
Dabei wurden zunchst einige Medientrger vorgestellt, die fr eine attraktivere
Gestaltung des Unterrichts sorgen und das Interesse des Lernenden am
Sprachenlernen erwecken.
Als Mittel der Veranschaulichung sind Lehr- und Lernmittel aller Art
eigentlich Unterrichtsmedien. Im Unterschied zu den Massenmedien, die vorwiegend
Informationsquellen
sind,
werden
Unterrichtsmedien
vorwiegend
als
Vermittlungshilfen verstanden und im Fremdsprachenunterricht eingesetzt.
101
Weil die Vermittlung und die Aufnahme von Informationen und Kenntnissen
auf Sinneswahrnehmung basiert, ist der Einsatz visueller Medien im Sprachunterricht
nicht nur sehr wichtig, sonder unbedingt erforderlich.
Die Art und die Anzahl visueller Medien im Fremdsprachunterricht ist
stndig gestiegen, wobei neben den traditionellen Medien (wie die Tafel), neue
Medien wie Overheadprojektor, PowerPoint-Folie oder Flipchart immer fter
verwendet werden. Heute stehen Lehrern und Studierenden eine groe Vielfalt von
Anschauungsmitteln zur Verfgung, so dass es nicht immer leicht fllt, das
angemessene Medium auszuwhlen.
Wie aus den herangefhrten Beispielen und Tafelbildern hervorgeht, wird die
Grammatik- und Wortschatzvermittlung anhand der visuellen Medien deutlich
erleichtert. Vom didaktischen Standpunkt aus betrachtet, werden durch den Einsatz
dieser Medien im DaF-Unterricht nicht nur die Lern- und Entwicklungsprozesse
untersttzt, sondern auch die Motivation des Lernenden gesteigert und seine aktive
Teilnahme gefrdert.
Abschlieend ist zu bemerken, dass durch die zielgerichtete Verwendung von
Bildern und durch die bildgesttzte Sprachvermittlung hhere Lernerfolge erzielt
werden und dadurch die Qualitt des DaF-Unterrichts deutlich verbessert wird. In
diesem Sinne ist es angemessen, den Umgang mit visuellen Medien als wichtigen Teil
des Unterrichts zu betrachten und die wesentliche Funktion der Bildmedien im
Rahmen der Fremdsprachendidaktik zu erkennen.
Literatur
1. Frankenberg, B., & L. Fuhr, Visuelle Medien im Deutschunterricht, Erprobungsfassung
4/97, Berlin/Mnchen: Langenscheidt, 1997.
2. Geldmacher, M., Prsentationskompetenz im gymnasialen Deutschunterricht. Ziele,
Inhalte, Methoden, Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren, 2010.
3. Tomkowiak, I., Populre Enzyklopdien. Von der Auswahl, Ordnung und Vermittlung des
Wissens, Zrich: Chronos, 2002, 59.
102
Ana-Maria DASCLU-ROMIAN
Romanian Academy, Bucharest
ROMANIA
E-mail: arodette@live.com
Andreea DOBRA
Politehnica University of Timioara
Department of Mechatronics
Bd. Mihai Viteazul, 1
300223 Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: branisteludmila@yahoo.com
Hatem EL ZEIN
Central Queensland University
Communication and Media Studies
AUSTRALIA
E-mails: hatemelzein@yahoo.com.au
Golam FARUK
King Khalid University
Department of English
Abha, SAUDI ARABIA
E-mail: faruk.golam@yahoo.com
Roxana GHI
Politehnica University of Timioara
Dept. of Communication and Foreign Languages
Str. Traian Lalescu 2a
300223 Timioara, ROMANIA
roxana.elena.gh@gmail.com
Simona OLARU-POIAR
Victor Babe University of Medicine and Pharmacy
Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: simona.posiar@yahoo.com
Iulia PARA
University of Timioara
Department of Marketing and International
Relations
Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: iulia.para@e-uvt.ro
Claudia E. STOIAN
Politehnica University of Timioara
Dept. of Communication and Foreign Languages
Str. Traian Lalescu 2a
300223 Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: claudia.stoian@upt.ro
Sorina ERBNESCU
West University of Timioara
Department of Marketing and International
Economic Relations
Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: sorinaserbanescu@yahoo.com
Simona IMON
Politehnica University of Timioara
Dept. of Communication and Foreign Languages
Str. Traian Lalescu 2a
300223 Timioara, ROMANIA
E-mail: simona.simon@upt.ro
103
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104