Advance Mechnics of Machines M Tech Basics

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
OF PLANE MECHANISMS
JEREMY HIRSCHHORN
~
A ssociafe Professor of Mechanical Engineering

The University of New South Wales
Sydney, N.S. W., Australia
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York
San Francisco
Toronto
London
Original from
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction .
1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
1-4.
1-5.
1-6.
1-7.
1-8.
Fundamentals of Vector Analysis
3
3
4
8
8
11
Kinematics of the Plane Motion of a Particle .
13
14
15
Kinematics of the Plane Motion of a Rigid Body .
Definitions and Basic Concepts .
Types of Plane Motion. .

. .
The Velocity Pole, or Instant Center of Rotation

.
Determination of Velocities by Means of the Velocity Pole . . .

Determination of Velocities by Means of Orthogonal Velocity Vectors .
Polodes . .
. . .
. . .
.
.
Relative Motion of Physically Connected Particles .
General Motion as Superposition of Translation and Rotation
The Velocity Image.

.
. .
. . .
The Acceleration Image

.
Graphical Solution of the Velocity and Acceleration Equations
The Acceleration Pole, or Instantaneous Center of Accelerations .
..
Vll
Digitized by
Go gle
v
1
Definitions . .
.
Cartesian Reference Frame
Polar Reference Frame. .
Moving Reference Frame .
Summary.
The Radius of Curvature
Graphic Differentiation and Integration .
.
Method of Finite Differences .
.
.
. .
Absolute and Relative Motion; Relative Motion of Separate Particles
Problems.
.
.
.
.
Chapter 3.
3-1.
3-2.
3-3.
3-4.
3-5.
3-6.
3-7.
3-8.
3-9.
3.:10.
3-11.
3-12.
Scalars and Vectors .

. .
. .
Vector Notation; Unit Vector; Representation of Vectors.
Composition, Subtraction, and Resolution of Vectors . .
Multiplication of a Vector by a Pure Number or a Scalar .
The Vectorial, or " Cross," Product of Two Vectors . .
The Scalar, or " Dot," Product of Two Vectors . .
.
Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to Time . . .
Problems . . .
.
. .
Chapter 2.
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
2-7.
2-8.
2-9.
2-10.
Engineering System of Units
Chapter 1.
Original from
15
15
16
18
19
20
23
28
29
30
32
32
34
35
38
38
40
43
44
44
46
47
49
CONTENTS
Vlll
3-13. Acceleration of the Velocity Pole Ps .

.
3-14. Acceleration of the Center of Curvature of the Moving Polode
3-15. Problems .
.
.
.
. .
Chapter 4.
Kinematics of Simple Mechanisms .
52
55
56
4-1. Definitions .
4-2. Degree of Freedom of a Mechanism .
.
.
.
4-3. Inversions of a Linkage .
4-4. Relative Motion of Two Planes; the Relative-velocity Pole . . . .
4-5. Relative Motion of Three Planes; Kennedy's Theorem . . . . .
. .
. .
4-6. Velocity Poles in Mechanisms .
4-7. Velocity Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Velocity Poles . . .
4-8 . Velocity Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Orthogonal Velocities .
4-9. Velocity Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Relative Velocities . .
.
4-10. Comparison of the Three Methods of Velocity Analysis . .
4-11. Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Relative Accelerations
.
.
4-12. Analysis of Mechanisms with Rolling Pairs . . .
4-13. Analysis of Mechanisms with Sliding and Slip-rolling Pairs in Motion;
Coriolis Component.
. .
.
.
4-14. Problems . .
.
Chapter 5.
Kinematics of the Slider-crank Mechanism
5-4.
5-5.
5-6.
5-7.
5-8.
5-9.
5-10.
. .
Conventional Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams .

Simplified Construction of the Velocity Diagram .
Klein's Construction of the Acceleration Polygon .

Ritterhaus's Construction of the Acceleration Polygon
.
.
Harmonic Analysis of the Slider Acceleration of In-line Mechanisms .
Approximate Expressions for the Slider Displacement, Velocity, and
Acceleration in In-line Mechanisms .
. . .
. . .
Graphical Determination of the Slider Displacement
. .
The Acceleration-Displacement Curve . . . .
.
Problems.
.
Chapter 6. Kinematics of Complex Mechanisms

6-1.
6-2.
6-3.
6-4.
6-5.
6-6.
6-7.
Complex Mechanisms; Low and High Degree of Complexity .

Goodman's Indirect Acceleration Analysis
Method of Normal Accelerations .
Hall's and Ault's Auxiliary-point Method
Carter's Method .
Comparison of Methods
Problems .
Chapter 7.
7-1.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
7-6.
7-7.
Coogle
106
107
108
109
112
113
115
116
117
119
122
131
133
140
141
142
145
100
94
88
121
83
121
Fundamental Principles of Dynamics and Statics.
Dynamics of a Particle; Laws of Motion .

Dynamics of the Plane Motion of a Rigid Body
Equivalent Mass Systems .
Work, Power, Energy; Conservation of Energy; Virtual Work

D' Alembert's Principle; Inertia Force
Some Simple Problems of Statics.

Friction .
Digitized by
80
82
82
106
5-1. Nomenclature and Conventions .

5-2.
5-3.
59
59
61
63
68
69
70
76
Original from
145
146
152
156
160
162
165
CONTENTS
Chapter 8.
8-1.
8-2.
8-3.
8-4.
8-5.
8-6.
8-7.
8-8.
Dynamic Motion Analysis
Nomenclature and Conventions

The Energy-distribution Method .
The Equivalent-mass-and-force Method .
The Rate-of-change-of-energy Method
Effects of Friction
Summary and Conclusions .

Problems.
Chapter 10.
Introduction .
Free-body Diagrams
lllustrative Examples
Friction in Link Connections
Forces in Nonsymmetrical Linkages .

Stress Determination in Moving Members
Gyroscopic Effects .
Problems.
Chapter 9.
9-1.
9-2.
9-3.
9-4.
9-5.
9-6.
9-7.
Forces in Mechanisms .
lX
Advanced Kinematics of the Plane Motion .
167
167
168
181
184
188
190
193
199
167
199
200
205
207
209
213
214
217
10-1.
10-2.
10-3.
10-4.
-5.
10-6.
10-7.
10-8.
10-9.
10-10.
The Inflection Circle; Euler-Savary Equation .
Analytical and Graphical Determination of d,

Bobillier's Construction; Collineation Axis .
Hartmann's Construction . .
The Inflection Circle for the Relative Motion of Two Moving Planes .
Application of the Inflection Circle to Kinematic Analysis
.
Polode Curvature (General Case).
Polode Curvature (Special Case); Hall's Equation .
Polode Curvature in the Four-bar Mechanism; Coupler Motion .
Polode Curvature in the Four-bar Mechanism; Relative Motion of the
Output and Input Links; Determination of the Output Angular Acceleration and Its Rate of Change .
.
10-11. Freudenstein's Collineation-axis Theorem; Carter-Hall Circle .
10-12. The Circling-point Curve (General Case)

.
10-13. The Circling-point Curve for the Coupler of a Four-bar Mechanism .
Chapter 11.
11-1.
11-2.
11-3.
11-4.
11-5.
11-6.
11-7.
11-8.
11-9.
11-10.
11-11.
11-12.
Introduction to Synthesis; Graphical Methods
217
222
224
225
232
233
235
239
241
243
245
248
251
254
254
The Four-bar Linkage .
262
Guiding a Body through Two Distinct Positions .
266
Guiding a Body through Three Distinct Positions .
267
The Rotocenter Triangle . .
277
Guiding a. Body through Four Distinct Positions; Burmester's Curve
281
Function Generation; General Discussion .
284
Function Generation; Relative-rotocenter Method.
289
Function Generation; Reduction of Point Positions
295
Function Generation; Overlay Method .
.
300
Function Generation; Velocity-pole Method.
304
Path Generation; Hrones's and Nelson's Motion Atlas
Path Generation; Reduction of Point Positions (Fixed Pivot Coincident
305
with Rotocenter) .
. . . . .
. .
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
CONTENTS
11-13. Path Generation; Reduction of Point Positions (Moving Hinge Coincident with Rotocenter) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 309
11-14. Path Generation; Roberts's Theorem.
. . . . . . . . . 314
Chapter 12.
Introduction to Synthesis; Analytical Methods .
319
12-1.
12-2.
12-3.
12-4.
12-5.
Function Generation; Freudenstein's Equation. . . . . . . .

Function Generation; Precision-point Approximation . .
. .
Function Generation; Precision-derivative Approximation . . . .
Path Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Synthesis of Four-bar Mechanisms for Specified Instantaneous Conditions; Method of Components. . . . . . . . . . . . .
12-6. Synthesis of Four-bar Mechanisms for Prescribed Extreme Values of the
Angular Velocity of the Driven Link; Method of Components . . .
Chapter 13.
Introduction to Synthesis; Grapho-analytical

Methods . . . . . . . . . .
319
321
322
323
324
330
. 336
13-1.
13-2.
13-3.
13-4.
Function Generation; Precision-derivative Approximation . . . . 336

Function Generation; Precision-point and Precision-derivative Method 344.
Path Generation; Coupler Curves with Approximately Circular Elements 346
Path Generation; Symmetrical Coupler Curves with Approximately
Straight Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
13-5. Path Generation; Coupler Curves with Extended Rectilinear Portions;
Ball's Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Bibliography
Index.
Digitized by
Coogle
..
359
361
Original from
INTRODUCTION
The design of a new machine or device for the performance of an operation, or sequence of operations, associated with some particular industrial
process, usually involves the following steps:
1. An assessment of the problem
2. A conception of a suitable mechanism in its skeletal form
3. A kinematic analysis, or examination of the mechanism's motion
characteristics from a purely geometrical point of view, which may reveal
the need for a modification of the layout
4. A static analysis, or determination of the nature and magnitude of
the forces associated with the primary function of the device
5. A choice of suitable materials of construction, based on technological
and economic considerations, and a tentative proportioning of the members
6. A dynamic analysis, or determination of the inertia forces and their
effects on safety and operational requirements, which may disclose the
need for redesign
The chief purpose of this book is to provide the student with the
proper tools for carrying out steps 3, 4, and 6 and to give him a basis
for a rational approach to some problems of synthesis. It is also hoped
that the book will prove a useful source of reference to the practicing
engmeer.
Before proceeding to the detailed investigation of the kinematic and
dynamic behavior of mechanisms, it will be necessary to select a suitable
and consistent system of units and it will be advisable to review some
fundamental notions, usually discussed in basic courses in mathematics,
physics, or general mechanics.
Because the concept of force is of more immediate interest to the
engineer than that of mass, force is chosen as one of the three fundamental
quantities in the engineering or gravitational system of units, the other
two being displacement and time. The fundamental units of measure
adopted in this book are, respectively, the pound (lb), the inch (in.), and
the second (sec). The reasons for selecting the inch, rather than the foot,
as unit of displacement are threefold:
1. Relative displacements of machine parts are generally of the order
of a few inches, and sometimes amount to only fractions of an inch.
1
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS
2. Dimensions of machine elements are usually given in inches.

3. Quantities used in the analysis of stress and strain are based on the
inch, e.g., modulus of elasticity (lb/ in. 2) and moment of inertia of cross
section (in. 4). The accompanying table lists the most important quantities
and their units of measure.
ENGINEERING SYSTEM OF UNITS
Quantity
Symbol
Unit
Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s, x
.,.
F, R
m.
sec
lb
Velocity, speed . . ....... .. .. .. .. .

Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular displacement . . . ...... .. .
Angular velocity ......... .. . ... .
Angular acceleration ... ...... . . .
Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear momentum .. .. . . ...... .. .
Torque ... .. .. .... . . .. . . ... . .. .
Moment of inertia. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular momentum . .... .. ... . . .
Work . .............. .. .. ... .... .
Energy ..... . ... .. ..... .. .. .. . .
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v, s,
:z;
a, s, .i
8, cp
in./sec
in./sec 1
rad
rad/ sec
rad/sec1
lb-sec 2 /in.
lb-sec
in.-Ibt
lb-in.-sec 2
in.-lb-sec
lb-in. t
lb-in.
lb-in./sec
w
a
M
mt
T
I
g
s
<P
t The reasons for choosing the in.-lb as unit of torque and the lb-in. as unit of work
are given in Sees. 1-4 and 1-5.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTALS OF VECfOR ANALYSIS
1-1. Scalars and Vectors

Physical quantities are divided into scalars and vectors. Scalars,
examples of which are mass, time, and work, are completely defined by
magnitude and units of measure. Vectors, such as force, velocity, and
acceleration, require, in addition, the specification of direction.
Provided that the physical nature of vector quantities is kept in mind,
vector analysis, or mathematical manipulation of vectors, becomes a
powerful tool in the investigation of many physical phenomena and helps
greatly in their proper understanding.
1-2. Vector Notation; Unit Vector; Representation of Vectors

Vector Notation. Vector quantities will be denoted by bold-faced symbols; their magnitudes, and scalar quantities in general, will be designated
by italics:
F, F; r, r; v, v; etc.
Unit Vector. A very useful concept in vector analysis is the unit vector,
a directed element of length one, having no physical units. It will be
denoted by the symbol i with an appropriate lower-case suffix:
i, denotes a unit vector in the direction s
Representation of Vectors. A vector quantity is depicted conveniently

by a directed line segment, or arrow, of a length representing, to some
suitable scale, the actual magnitude. In the case of translative or lineal
vectors, such as force or velocity, the line vector is drawn parallel to the
line of action of the quantity considered and pointing in its direction.
In depicting rotational vectors, such as torque or angular velocity, the
line vector is usually 1 drawn parallel to the axis around which the action
takes place, pointing in the direction in which a right-hand screw would
1
When dealing with the balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses, a different
convention is adopted.
3
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
advance if turned in the sense of the particular quantity. In the special

case of a two-dimensional system, the simple device of a curved arrow is
,---I-f-Plane of action
......
'------::;"-Sense .of action

Lineal vector
Rotational vector
FIG. 1-1
frequently used to indicate the sense as clockwise (cw) or counterclockwise (ccw), and the magnitude is stated separately.
1-3. Composition, Subtraction, and Resolution of Vectors
Resultant. By definition, the resultant of a vector system is a vector
obtained by the process of composition, or geometrical addition.
Parallelogram Method of Composition. The resultants of two vectors
a and b is constructed by setting off the vectors from a common origin, or
pole, and then completing the parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 1-2. The
diagonal which originates at the pole represents the resultant in magnitude and direction.
0
FIG. 1-2
The construction may be extended progressively to any number of

vectors. In Fig. 1-3, the resultant s of a, b, and c is found by first constructing the resultant s' of a and b and then combining it with c.
Polygon Method of Composition. Examination of Fig. 1-3 reveals that
the same result would be obtained by arranging the individual vectors
"in order," i.e., tail to tip, and then joining the initial point, or tail, of
the first vector with terminal point, or tip, of the last vector. Furthermore, it is evident that the sequence in which the vectors are taken has
no effect on the result; i.e., the commutative law is valid in the geometri-
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
FUNDAME~TALS
OF VECTOR
A~ALYSIS
s'
FIG. 1-3
cal addition of vectors, just as it is in the algebraic addition of scalars:
+ b +c
= b
+ a + c, etc.
B
0
FIG. 1-4
Free, Sliding, and Fixed Vectors. It is important to realize that,

although in the mathematical sense two vectors are considered equal if
they have the same magnitude and direction, they may produce, or be the
result of, different physical effects. (For instance, two equal parallel
forces applied in turn to a given rigid body would produce the same
acceleration of its center of gravity but different angular accelerations.)
For this reason, three types of vector are distinguished in mechanics,
viz., the free, the sliding, and the fixed . A free vector is tied neither to a
specific point of application nor to a particular line of action. The
velocity and acceleration of a rigid body in translation are examples of
free vectors, because in this type of motion all particles have the same
motion characteristics. A sliding vector is tied only to a specific line of
action. The dynamic effect of a force acting on a body is not affected by
oig1tized by
Go gle
Original from
a disp]acement of the force along its line of action. Hence, in dynamics,

forces are regarded as sliding vectors. Another example of a sliding
vector is the following. In a rigid body the distances between the particles do not change. Consequently, collinear particles of such a body
have the same velocity component in the direction of the line containing
them. Thus this velocity component is a sliding vector. A
fixed vector is tied to a particular point of application. The
velocity of a specific point or particle is an example of a fixed
Ft
vector. A second example is illustrated in Fig. 1-5.
'
Although F 1 and F 2 are equal and act along the same line,
their static effects differ: Ft causes compression of the upper
part of the pin, while F 2 produces tensile stresses in the portion

below the collar. Hence, if the distribution of direct stresses
Fz
due to a given force is to be investigated, the force must be
Fm. 1-5
regarded as a fixed vector.
Position of the Resultant of Concurrent Vectors. The
resultant of a system of concurrent vectors passes through the common
point of intersection.
Position of the Resultant of Coplanar Nonconcurrent Vectors. The
resultant of a system of coplanar nonconcurrent vectors has physical
significance only if the vectors concerned are forces or momenta. As
indicated in Fig. 1-3, its line of action may be found by a gradual addition
of the sliding component vectors. Alternatively, the line of action may
be determined from the condition that the torque of the resultant about
any point in the plane is equal to the algebraic sum of the torques of the
component vectors with respect to the same reference point. Experience
shows that the effect of the resultant is equal to the combined effect of the
original system. For instance, a body in motion under the action of a
two-dimensional force system will acquire a definite acceleration of its
center of gravity and a definite angular acceleration. Identical dynamic
effects would also be produced by a single force, equal to the resultant,
applied along the proper line of action.
Subtraction of Vectors. The subtraction of a vector is equivalent to
the addition of its negative, i.e., of a vector having the same magnitude
but opposite direction:
~,,
=a- b =a+ (-b)
Resolution of Vectors. The individual vectors which together form the

resultant are called its components. Resolution of a given vector is the
process of finding its components in specified directions.
A vector can be resolved uniquely into only two related components.
If more than two directions are prescribed, the number of possible combinations of components becomes infinite.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
FUNDAMENTALS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS
In determining the components, the procedure of the parallelogram

method is reversed, as shown in Fig. 1-6.
Direction a
Direction n
Direction t
Direction b
0
FIG. 1-6
FIG. 1-7
Of great practical importance are mutually perpendicular components,

or projections, of a vector. Projections will be denoted by the same letter
as the vector, with appropriate lower-case suffixes, as shown in Fig. 1-7.
Occasionally, as in the kinematic analysis of complex mechanisms, a
vector may be specified by two projections in independent directions.
The corresponding construction of the vector is shown in Fig. 1-8. The
difference between it and the ordinary composition should be noted
carefully.
Direction p
Direction l
.,
0
.F'IG. 1-8
Analytical Composition of Vectors. The vectors are referred to a

cartesian system of coordinates, and their components in the x and y
directions are calculated as shown in general terms for the vector q:
(1-1)
and
The components Bz and s11 of the resultant are computed by adding algebraically the corresponding component projections:
(1-2)
and
The magnitude of the resultant is given by
3 = (8z2
Digitized by
Coogle
+ 8v2)1
(1-3)
Original from
and its directional angle is calculated from
t an 8,
Su
= -
(1-4)
s~
In order to obtain the correct algebraic signs of the components, the

directional angles are measured in the counterclockwise sense from the
positive x axis, as indicated in Fig. 1-9.
+.)'
+.)'
8 ;y
+z
0 s..,
FIG. 1-9
1-4. Multiplication of a Vector by a Pure Number or a Scalar

From a formalistic point of view the product M a is a vector which has
the same direction as a and a magnitude },tf times as great, irrespective of
whether 1\f is a pure number or a scalar. From the physical point of view,
however, there is a considerable difference in the nature of the two resulting vectors, because a pure number does not change the physical character
of the original vector, while a scalar quantity does: if, in the product
A = lr! a, M is a pure number and a an acceleration, then A is also an
acceleration; if, however, M represents mass, then A becomes a force.
It follows, therefore, that a vector quantity may be expressed as the
product of its magnitude (a scalar) and the appropriate unit vector; e.g.,
q =
mlr
signifying that the vector q has a magnitude m and acts in the direction r.
(It is not necessary to denote the magnitude and direction by the same
letter as the vector itself.)
.
1-5. The Vectorial, or "Cross,"

Product
of Two Vectors
.
.
.
.
The vectorial product of a and b, denoted by a X b, is defined as a
rotational vector of magnitude (ab sin 8~), normal to the plane of a and
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
band pointing in the direction determined by the shorter rotation of a (the

first vector) to b (the second vector) . The angle (Jab and the sense of
rotation are found from an auxiliary diagram in which the vectors are set
off from a common origin.
a X b
= ab( sin
Oab)in
--
axb
Arrow of (Jab indicates

sense of rotation
FIG. 1-11
FIG. 1-10
The following properties of the vectorial product may be deduced from

the definition:
1. a X b = - (b X a).
2. If a and b are parallel, a X b = 0.
3. If a and b are mutually perpendicular, mag (a X b) = ab.
4. If a X b = a X c, the components of b and cat right angles to a are
equal, b sin Dab = c sin Oac (Fig. 1-11).
The vectorial product may be expressed in terms of the cartesian components of the vectors in the following manner:
a X b = (a:~:
a 11) X (bz
b 71)
= (az X hz)
(az X b 71)
+ (a
11
X bz)
+ (a
11
X by)
According to rule 2, the products az X bz and a 11 X b 71 vanish, so that

a X b = (az X b 11 )
+ (a
11
X bx)
In Fig. 1-12 the positivez axis is so directed

as to represent the rotation +x to +y. Consequently, a rotation +y to +x would be
represented by a vector pointing in the direction of the negative z axis. Noting this, and
applying rule 3, the expression for a X b is
simplified to
or
a X b = (azb 11
mag (a X b) = azb11 -
aybz)iz
a11bz
(1-6)
An important example of the vectorial

product is the torque, or turning moment, of
a force about an axis.
Digitized by
Coogle
b.c
FIG. 1-12
Original from
10
Complete description of the torque in Fig. 1-13 requires specification of

its magnitude,
T = lF = r(sin Br, )F
and of its counterclockwise sense.
Both statements are incorporated in

the vectorial notation
= r X
(1-7)
Sense of torque
/l
It should be noted that if the prodr Point of

uct is to indicate the sense correctly,
application
Torque axis o
r must appear as the first vector.
ofF
This is the reason for choosing the
FIG. 1-13
inch-pound (in.-lb) as unit of torque.
Other physical examples of the vectorial product are the velocity and
linear and angular momenta of a particle in a rigid body which rotates
about a fixed axis.
Velocity:
~I
I
v=wxr
Linear momentum, defined as the product of mass and velocity:
dmt
dM(w X r)
where dM is the mass of the particle.

Angular momentum, defined as the moment of the linear momentum
with respect to the axis of rotation:
dd. = r X dmt = r X dM (w X r) = dMr X ((o) X r)

z
r
I
I
I
M888dM
FIG. 1-14
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
11
Illustrative Example.
A force F, of 20 lb magnitude, is inclined to the
x axis at an angle of 120. Its point of application is defined by the

cartesian components of the position vector, rz = 6 in. and r 11 = -2 in.
Calculate the torque about the origin of the coordinate system. Make a
scale drawing of the configuration, and check the result obtained. Compute, and check by measuring, the angle between the position and force
vectors.
Solution. By Eqs. (1-7) and (1-6),
where
Fz
F cos 120
T
Hence
-10 lb
F11 = F sin 120 = 17.32 lb
and
(6)(17.32)- (-2)(-10) = 83.92 in.-lb
The positive result indicates counterclockwise sense.

+y
+.r
I
I
I
I
-- - --------------FIG. 1-15
In Fig. 1-15 the force arm (perpendicular distance of 0 from the line of
action of F) l measures 4.2 in., so that
T = (4.2)(20)
84 in.-lb
The angle between the position and force vectors may be calculated by
using the concept of the vectorial product:
T = rF sin Orl'
With T = 83.92 in.-lb, r = 6.32 in., and F = 20 lb, the angle is computed
as Or, = 12514'. The measured angle is 12515'.
1-6. The Scalar, or "Dot," Product of Two Vectors

The scalar product of a and b, denoted by a b, is, by definition, a
scalar quantity of magnitude (ab cos Ooo).
ab
Digitized by
Coogle
ab cos Ooo
(1-8)
Original from
12
As in the case of the vectorial product, the angle Oob is determined by

setting off the vectors from a common origin.
The following properties of the scalar product may be deduced from the
definition:
1. a b = b a.
2. If a and b are parallel, a b = ab.
3. If a and b are mutually perpendicular, a b = 0.
4. If a b = a c, the projections of b and c in the direction of a are
equal, b cos Oob = c cos Oac (Fig. 1-16).
c
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Bab :
0
FIG. 1-16
The scalar product may be expressed in terms of the cartesian components of the two vectors in the following manner:
a b = (a.z + a") (b.z + b")
= (a.z b.z) + (a.z b") + (a" b.z)
(a" b")
By the use of rules 2 and 3, the foregoing expression is simplified to

(1-9)
An important practical example of the scalar product is the concept of

work. If the point of application of a force F experiences a displacement
s, then the amount of work done in the process is equal to the product of
the force component in the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of the displacement:
or, in vectorial notation,
(1-10)
'W=Fs
By common usage the force appears as the first vector in the product,
particularly if elemental displacements are considered:
d'W
Fds
This circumstance was the reason for choosing the pound-inch (lb-in.) as
unit of work.
Digitized by
Google
Original from
13
1-7. Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to Time

A vectorial change may involve a change .bot.h in magnitude and in
direction. Such a condition is illustrated in Fig. 1-17, where the line

vector 0 ~ A represents a certain vector quantity
q = m1,.
at the time ,., and 0 ~ A', t he same quantity after a time interval Ar.
The vector A ~ A' represents, therefore, the total change Aq which has
taken place.
q' = q + ~q
Direction of i 1 obtained by
turning i,. 90 in the
sense of increasing eq
0
FIG. 1-17
The vector Aq may be resolved into two perpendicular components,

viz., Aq,. in the original radial direction rand Aqz in t he lateral direction l:
and
If the time interval considered is infinitesimal, the above expressions

reduce to
dq,. = dm i,.
and
dqz = m dfJq iz
so that
dq = dm i,. + m dfJ 9 iz
(1-11)
dq _ dm
dT - dr lr
and
mi,.
dfJ q
m dr l z
+ mwq iz
(1-12)
This first term on the right-hand side of th e equation represents th e rate

of growth of the vector, and the second, the rate at which it changes
direction.
The Time Derivative of the Unit Vector. Because t he length of the
unit vector is constant and has the value one, Eq. (1-12) simplifies to
di,.
dT =
oigit1zed by
Go gle
(1-13)
Will
Original from
14
Thus the time derivative of a unit vector is another vector, of a length

numerically equal to the rotational speed Wi of the unit vector, which
leads the unit vector by 90 in the sense of rotation.
1-8. Problems
1. Determine analytically and graphically the resultant of the following force
system: F1 - 50 lb at 45, Ft - 100 lb at 150, Fa .,. 100 lb at 270, and F4 =- 80 lb at
300.
i. The point of application of the above resultant has the coordinates r,. == -5 in.
and r 11 = 4 in. Determine analytically and graphically the torque of the resultant
R with respect to the origin 0.
3. The point of application of the resultant of Probs. 1 and 2 experiences a displacements, the components of which ares,. = 10 in. and 8 11 ... 3 in. Determine the work
done by (+ ) or against (-) the resultant.
4. Using the concepts of the cross and dot products, calculate, respectively, the
angles between the position vector rand the resultant Rand between the resultant R
and the displacements. Check by measurement.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
CHAPTER
KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION OF A PARTICLE
This chapter reviews very briefly basic kinematic relationships and

describes some simple methods of motion analysis.
2-1. Definitions
Position. Location of the particle within a given reference frame.
Path. Locus of successive positions of the particle.
Displacement. Change in position. Displacement is a vector quantity
whose magnitude, often called distance, is measured in inches. (The
term distance is also used to denote the extent of space between fixed
points.)
Velocity. Time rate of change of position, or time rate of displacement.
It is a vector quantity whose magnitude, called speed, is measured in
inches per second (in./sec).
Acceleration. Time rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity
whose magnitude is expressed in inches per second per second (in./ sec2 ).
2-2. Cartesian Reference Frame

This coordinate system consists of two perpendicular axes, fixed in
space (Fig. 2-1).
Position. The position of the particle is defined by the x and y projections of the position vector r, with the directions indicated by the algebraic signs + or - .
Displacement. The magnitude and direction of the elemental displacement ds may be expressed in terms of its x and y components, as follows:
ds = [(dx) 2
+ (dy) ]i
2
tan q, = '!:1!.
dx
Velocity. The x andy components of the velocity vector are the time
rates of the corresponding projections of the elemental displacement:
V:e
dx
.
=-=X
dT
and
Vu
dy
.
= (I; = y
(2-1)
15
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
16
The speed and the direction of the velocity are given by
(vx2
+ vll2)t
dy
tan q," = - = Vx
dx
V11
Since 4>" = 4>, it follows that the velocity vector is tangent to the path.
y
FIG. 2-1
Acceleration. The acceleration components ax and a11 are obtained by

differentiating the corresponding velocity components with respect to
time:
dv11
dvx
..
(2-2)
and
au = = y
ax= =x
dr
dr
Alternatively, by combining Eqs. (2-1) and (2-2),

(2-3)
and
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector follow from
a
tan cf>a
(ax 2
+ ai)l
all
=-
az
2-3. Polar Reference Frame
This reference frame consists of a fixed point, or pole, and a fixed axis
originating at the pole (Fig. 2-2).

Position. The position of the particle is defined by the radius vector
r =
Digitized by
Google
Tlr
Original from
17
i.e., by its distance r from the pole, and the angle 8 which the radius
vector makes with the reference axis. 8 is measured from the axis in a
counterclockwise sense.
Displacement. Since displacement is the change in position, it may be
expressed, in accordance with Eq. (1-11), as
ds
dr
+ r d8 iz
dr ir
Its magnitude and direction are given by
+ (r d8)2]l
r d8
8 + A = 8 + arctan dr
ds = [(dr) 2
and
cp
where cp = angle between reference axis and displacement

A = angle between position and displacement vectors
FIG. 2-2
Velocity.
Since velocity is the time rate of displacement,
ds
dr
dr
d8
v = - = - = - lr + r - lz
dT
dT
dT
dT
= iir + r8iz = Vr + Vz
(2-4)
where f = Vr is the magnitude of the radial, and rO = vz that of the

lateral, velocity component.
The magnitude and direction of the velocity are given by
V
and
= (vr 2
cl>v = 8
+ vz2 )t
+ Av =
Vz
+ arctan Vr-
Acceleration. The acceleration is obtained by differentiating Eq. (2-4)

with respect to time:
a = -dr lr
dT
Digitized by
+ r. -dir + -dr Ull +

A!
dT
Coogle
dT
r -dO lz.
dT
+ r 8. -diz
dT
Original from
18
By observing the rules for differentiating unit vectors, derived in Sec. 1-6,
the above expression is reduced to
a = (r - r8 2 )ir
+ (r8 + 2r8)i, =
&r
+ ar
(2-5)
where r - r8 2 = ar is the magnitude of the radial, and r8 + 2r8 = a 1,

that of the lateral, acceleration component. The term 2r8 is known as
the Coriolis acceleration. It will be dealt with more fully in Sec. 4-13.
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration are given by
a = (ar2
and
tPa = 8
+ a,2)l
+ Xa
= 8
a,
arctan ar
2-4. Moving Reference Frame

This very important coordinate system consists of two mutually
perpendicular axes which move with the particle in such a manner that
one remains tangent to the path, pointing in the direction of motion,
while the other points away from the center of curvature. (The center of
curvature is located at the intersection of two normals to the curve,
through points an elemental distance ds apart and straddling the given
point. It is the center of the so-called osculation circle, which, since it has
three infinitely close points in common with the curve element, approximates more closely to the curve, in the vicinity of the given point, than
other tangent circles. The radius of the osculation circle is called radius
of curvature; Fig. 2-3.)
i,.
FIG. 2-3
Displacement.
The elemental displacement may be expressed as

ds = ds i, = p dq, i,
where p = radius of curvature of path at point considered

dq, = change in direction of motion
Velocity. Since velocity is the time rate of displacement,
V =
Digitized by
Coogle
S1c
pWplt
(2-6)
Original from
19
Acceleration. By differentiating Eq. (2-6) with respect to time, the

following expressions for the acceleration are obtained:
... + s. di,- =
a =
Sic
...
. .
swp1,.
Sic -
dT
whieh, combined with Eq. (2-6), and s = v dvjds, gives
...
= 81t -
2
v.
ln
dv.
= v d 1t
8
2
v.
ln =
+
a, a,.
(2-7)
Alternatively,
a=
di,
. + pw,. )"1t + fJWp dT
(pwp
(2-8)
In the foregoing equations wp and ap are, respectively, the angular speed
and angular acceleration of the radius of curvature.
The component along the t axis is called tangential acceleration. It
represents the rate of change of speed. It should be noted that the
expressiOn
a,=
pa
familiar from elementary mechanics, is valid only if p = 0, that is, if p

is either constant (circular motion) or has, at the point considered, an
extreme value.
The component along then axis is called normal, or centripetal, acceleration. The second name, meaning "center-seeking," is due to the fact
that this component is always directed toward the center of curvature,
as evidenced by the minus sign in Eqs. (2-7) and (2-8). It is important to
note that the normal acceleration is independent of the rate of change of
the radius of curvature. This fact permits the use of the concept of
equivalent mechanisms in kinematic analysis, an application of which is
illustrated in Sec. 4-13.
The magnitude of the acceleration and its direction relative to the
velocity vector are determined from
a
and
(a,2
a,.
+ an )l
2
tan '1 = -
a,
2-5. Summary
The important relationshipB derived in the preceding paragraphs are
summarized in Table 2-1.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
20

TABLE
2-1.
S UMMARY OF KI NEMATIC RE L ATIONSHIPS
Cartesian
Coordinate
Polar
v., =X
Velocity
(speed )
VII
Acceleration
a.,= x
= y
dv.,
= v.,
dx
av = ti
dv 11
= VII
v,. =
v, ==
t
r(J
a,. =
r -
a1 = rB
Moving
v=
=pwp
r8 2
a,
= v= 8
dv
= vds
= pwp +pap
v2
+ 2t(J
a.. = -
dy
2-6. The Radius of Curvature

Figure 2-4 shows the velocity and acceleration vectors of a particle,
resolved into their cartesian and moving components. It can be seen that
an = a Sln 11
van = va Sin 11
Hence
y
a,.
t
v
At
n
FIG. 2-4
However, by Eq. (1-6),
va sin 11
mag (v X a)
= v:za11 - v11a:z
Hence
and
p = -----
v;zall - v11a:z
(v:z2 + v112)f
v:za11 - v11a:z
(2-9)
A positive result indicates that the center of curvature lies in the direction
obtained by turning the velocity vector through 90 in the countetclock
w1se sense.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
21
In Eq. (2-9), the radius of curvature is expressed in terms of the

cartesian velocity and acceleration components. However, since p is a
geometrical property of the path, and thus independent of the other
motion characteristics of the particle, it may be obtained directly from
the path equation, y = f(x) orr = f(O).
The following expressions are known from the study of analytical
geometry:
Cartesian coordinates, with y = f(x), y' =
[1
p=
.
.
h
f(
)
,
Po1ar coordmates,
w1t r = 8 , r
P =
Illustrative Example 1.
r2
y" -
~~:
(y')2]f
y"
(2-10)
2
dr
,
d
r
= do' r = d() 2 :
rr"
*'
+ 2(r')
(2-11)
A particle moves as follows:
direction, az = 2 in./sec 2, Vz,O = 0, Xo = 0

y direction, a11 = -3 in./sec 2 , v11 ,o = 21 in./sec, Yo
X
=0
Determine:
(a) The path equation, y = f(x)
(b) The acceleration of the particle
(c) The velocity at T = 4 sec
(d) The radius of curvature of the path at the point occupied by the
particle at T = 4 sec
Solution. (a) The displacement components x andy are first expressed
as functions of time. By eliminating T from the resulting equations, the
path equation is obtained:
Vz
f az dT
+ C1
With the boundary condition T = 0, vz = 0,

Vz
= 2r
X =
fvz dr
(a)
+ C2
With the boundary condition T = 0, x = 0,

X = T2
(b)
(c)
v11 = - 3T + 21
y = -jr 2 + 21r
Similarly
and
(d)
Elimination ofT from Eqs. (b) and (d) yields the path equation:
y
Digitized by
Coogle
-!x + 21 Vx
Original from
22
(b) Since both

direction:
a~
and
a = (a~2
tl>a
are constant, a has constant magnitude and
+~}
2
arctan~
as
=-= 3.61
in.jsec 2
= arctan ( -1.5} = 30339'
(c) From Eqs. (a) and (c), vz. = 8 in.jsec and v11 . = 9 in.jsec.
Hence
v. = 12.04 in./ sec

q,,,. = arctan t = 4822'
and
(d) Substitution of the known values into Eq. (2-9) yields

p, =
-41.5 in.
The minus sign shows that the velocity vector v, is to be turned in the
clockwise sense to indicate the location of the center of curvature. It
is left to the reader to verify this result by means of Eq. (2-4) and the
path equation established in part a.
ruustrative Example 2. The rigid bar of Fig. 2-5 revolves about its
pivot at a constant speed of 1.2 rad/ sec in the counterclockwise sense.
- Guiding groove
~---"---+---
Xu
Rod
FIG. 2-5
The bead, free to slide on the bar, is guided by a spiral groove, defined by
the equation
r = 4.25
where fJ is in radians.
from the pivot:
(}
+-
11'
Determine, for the instant when the bead is 6 in.
(a) The velocity of the bead
(b) The acceleration of the bead

Solution. In order to determine the velocity &nd acceleration components it will be necessary to express r and fJ as functions of time.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
23
In the present case,
6=w
1.2 rad/sec, const
Differentiation with respect to time yields
(a)
and integration leads to
8 = 8o
+ 1.2T
(b)
Substitution of Eq. (b) into the path equation yields

4.25
T =
leading to
(c)
const
(d)
7r
= 1.2 ,
11"
r = 0
and
+ 8o + 1.2T
(a) In polar coordinates, the general expressions for the velocity
components are
Vr
and
Hence the following values, corresponding to r

the present case:
Vr
1.2.In. I sec
vz = 7.2 in./sec
11"
<Pv = 8 + Xv = 8 +
arctan~
Vr
6 in., are obtained in
7.21 in./sec
1.7511" rad + arctan 611"
18716'
(b) The general equations for the acceleration components are
and
al =
re + 2r8
From these equations, the following values, corresponding tor = 6 in.,

are calculated:
ar = -8.64 in./sec 2
a,= 0.92 in./sec 2
a = 8.69 in./sec 2
<l>a = 8 +arctan~= 611" rad +arctan ( -0.1065) = 27413'
ar
2-7. Graphic Differentiation and Integration
In practice, it is often difficult to express the time dependence of the

position of a moving point in a form which would lend itself to an analytical determination of its velocity and acceleration. However, it is
usually possible to construct, without undue trouble, time graphs of the x
and y coordinates. From these curves, the corresponding velocity and
acceleration components can be determined either by means of graphic
differentiation or by the method of finite differences, described in Sec. 2-8.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
24
The distance s covered by the moving point (measured along the path)
can also be represented graphically as a function of time. This curve
permits the determination of the speed and the tangential acceleration
(v = s, a, = 8).
Graphic Differentiation. Figure 2-6 shows the x displacement of a
particle as function of time.
Scale factor&
Displacement, 1 in. ks in.
Time, 1 in.-= k., sec
1:::
L.,
'T
FIO. 2-6
Since V:t = x, it follows that, for any given instant, vz is proportional

to the slope of the X-T curve at the corresponding point:
(2-12}
where the lengths lz and l" are measured in inches, and the scale factors
kz (in./in.) and k" (sec/ in.) ensure dimensional correctness. By repeating
this calculation for a sufficient number of points, the velocity curve
(Fig. 2-7) may be developed. Similarly, since az = Vz, it follows that, at
any given time, az is proportional to the slope of the vz-T curve at the
corresponding point:
(2-13)
As in the previous case, l" and l~ are measured in inches. The velocity
scale factor k" is expressed in (in.jsec}/ in.
After this computation is repeated for a sufficient number of points, the
acceleration curve (Fig. 2-8} may be drawn.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
25
Vs
Scale factors
Velocity, 1 in.-iv in./aee
Time, 1 in.-=~ sec
2
lu
~~
5 T
FIG. 2-7
Equation (2-12) shows that if l,. is made the same for all points of the
curve, then the values of Vz are represented directly by the corresponding
intercepts lz, which may therefore be used immediately in plotting the
velocity diagram. With this constant value of l,. denoted by L,., the
velocity scale factor becomes
(in.fsec)/ in.
Similar considerations apply to the determination of the acceleration
from the velocity curve; i.e., if z: is made constant L:, then the intercepts
l. represent directly the corresponding accelerations to a scale defined by
k
1 k"
o=v-k
T
(in./sec2)/in.
Further simplification is achieved if the slope triangles are not drawn

on the graphs but are constructed externally, as shown in Figs. 2-6 and
2-7. This procedure has been fo11owed in developing the graphs of
Figs. 2-7 and 2-8.
Scale factors
.,.
FIG. 2-8
Digitized by
Go gle
Original from
26
The application of the general principles, discussed above, to a practical problem is illustrated by Fig. 2-9, which
shows a mechanism whose crank q is assumed to rotate at a given constant speed. Required are the motion characteristics of the point B.
The orientation of the superposed coordinate system and the position
of its origin are completely arbitrary. For convenience, the origin has
been placed at the outermost left-hand position of B, with the axes
inclined at 45 to the extreme chord of the path, so that Ymax = Xmax
Dlustrative Example.
'
,,'
7A
11
,,
/Oq
,
,
"
,5, ,
10
,/
-- -- --
,------- --
_,
---
_,
--
,-
FIG. 2-9
The positions of B correspon~ing to the 12 equiangular position~ ?f the

crank have been marked on the path. Figure 2-10 shows the x andy
components and the path length s as functions of the crank rotation or
of time. (Because the crank speed w is constant, the angle turned
through by the crank is directly proportional to the time elapsed.)
Since the total length of the abscissa represents one crank revolution,
i.e., an angle of 21r rad, Ar = 2~/12w sec, which determines the time
scale. Successive graphic differentiations of the curves of Fig. 2-10
would yield, respectively, Vz and az, v11 and a11 , v and a,.
Graphic Integration. Occasionally, the inverse problem is encountered
in practice; the acceleration-time relationship is known, and the velocity
and displacement characteristics are to be determined. Integration of
a% yields vz;
Vz - Vz 0 =
a% dr
r
lo
which shows that. the change in vz from its initial value vz.o is proportional
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
to the area .under the

considered; i.a, . ..
. .'
az-T
27
curve, up to the ordinate through the point
(2-14)
Thus, in Fig. 2-8, where Vz,o = 0, the stippled area Aa,3 is a measure of the
speed, in the x direction, 3 sec after the start.
Evaluation of areas for a sufficient number of points yields data for
the construction of the velocity-time curve.
%,
y, s (in.)
I (crank angle)
10
11~12~ ., (time)
ll-r =..!..sec
6r
FIG. 2-10
A second integration leads to the displacement-time graph :

(2-15)
where A, is the area under the velocity curve.

The areas A a and A , are measured in square inches. They may be
evaluated by any one of the standard procedures, such as the use of a
planimeter, true graphic integration, Simpson's rule, midordinate method,
or simply by drawing the curve on graph paper and counting the squares.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
28
The Velocity-Displacement Curve. Another graph of interest in the

kinematic analysis of mechanisms is the velocity-displacement curve, an
example of which is shown in Fig.
C1a
2-11.
Since
j..
it follows that, at any given instant,

az is proportional to the subnormal
la of the velocity-displacement curve
at the corresponding point:
l,
FIG. 2-11
la =
Vz
tan
= Vz
dvz
dx
With the scale factors taken into consideration, the acceleration becomes
(2-16)
where la is measured in inches.
2-8. Method of Finite Differences
The accuracy of the results obtainable by graphic differentiation
depends on the accuracy with which the displacement curve can be
constructed, on the choice of scales, and on the skill of the individual in
placing tangents. Since errors are usually magnified by successive
differentiations, the resulting acceleration-time curve represents, at best,
only a close approximation to the true conditions.
The method of finite differences overcomes to a large extent some of the
difficulties.
If a function p = p(T) and its derivatives are continuous in the vicinity
of a point p~, then, for any value of p close to p~, the function may be
represented by Taylor's series. Since this condition is satisfied by the
displacements of points in any real mechanism, p = p(T) may be taken to
represent the time dependence of the position of any given point. (p = x,
x coordinate; p = y, y coordinate; p = s, path lengths.)
Taylor's series, with the higher-order terms neglected, may be written
as
(a)
B. W. Shaffer and I. Krause, 14The Kinematic Analysii of a Specific Point in a
Mechanism by the Use of Finite-difference Expressions," New York University,
Research Division, College of Engineering, New York, November, 1957.
1
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
29
or
(b)
where P-r and P-r are, respectively, the values of the first and second time
derivative of p at the point P-r
Subtraction of Eq. (b) from (a) yields
(2-17)
and the addition of the two equations gives
(2-18)
Figure 2-12 represents a portion of the X-T curve of a particle. The x
components of its velocity and acceleration may be calculated by means
of Eqs. (2-17) and (2-18), as follows;
X-r+~-r
Vz,-r =
and
az,-r =
X-r-~-r
2 AT
x,.+~-r -
2x,.
AT2
+ X-r-~"
In the above equations, the ordinates

x are measured in inches and AT is
expressed in seconds.
T
T
Theoretically, the error in the apFIG. 2-12
proximation by finite differences will
be smaller, the shorter the time interval AT. On the other hand, the
shorter this interval, the greater will be the percentage error in the
differences of the measured ordinates. Thus the choice of a suitable AT
is a matter of compromise. By retaining the third and fourth derivatives in Taylor's series, theoretically more accurate expressions for P-r
and p,. may be obtained. For practical reasons, however, this refinement
is not recommended. Firstly, the resulting expressions are rather
cumbersome, and their evaluation becomes very time-consuming.
Secondly, the inevitable errors involved in the measurement of the
ordinates (five, for each point) make it extremely doubtful whether the
results obtained would actually be more accurate than those calculated
with the simpler equations.
2-9. Absolute and Relative Motion; Relative Motion of Separate Particles

The motion of a particle or body can be described only in relation to
some reference system. ,I f the particular reference frame is stationary
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
30
relative to the earth, the motion is called absolute. Motion with respect
to a moving reference frame is called relative.
Figure 2-13 shows two separate, i.e., physically disconnected, particles
A and B within a stationary reference frame x-y. Their absolute instantaneous positions are defined by the radius vectors r A and r n, while the
vector rnA defines the position of B relative to A. The coordinate system
~-71 is a reference frame attached to A and moving with it in translation,
i.e., with the axes remaining parallel to
y
their original attitude.
7J
vB
The relationship between the three
position vectors is given by the
equation
(2-19)
FIG. 2-13
FIG. 2-14
Differentiation of this equation with respect to time yields the velocity

relationship
(2-20)
VB= VA+ VBA
which is represented graphically in Fig. 2-14.
If the two velocities are set off to scale from a common origin o, so
that o ~a = VA and o ~ b = v 8 , then the line vector a~ b represents
VnA, the velocity of B relative to A.
This is the velocity that B appears
to have in the moving system ~-71.
Differentiation of Eq. (2-20) leads to the acceleration relation
(2-21)
which may be represented graphically in a similar manner.
The concept of relative motion is a very important one in kinematics.
It will be dealt with extensively in the next chapter.
As a mnemotechnic aid in establishing relative-motion equations, it
should be noted that the suffix characters alternate; for example, B, A,
BA.
2-10. Problems
lr The path of a particle is .defined by .the equations
Digitized by
= O.Sr' - 0.01T'
Coogle
and
y ;. 5 - 0.4-r
Original from
31
(a) Plot the path, y = f(x), for the first seven seconds.
(b) Derive expressions for the velocity and acceleration components.
(c) Calculate the radius of curvature of the path forT = 2 and 4 sec.
2. For the particle of Prob. 1:

(a) Plot the X-T and y-T graphs for the first 6 sec.
(b) Determine, by graphic differentiation, the values of a% and a 11 forT = 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5 sec, and draw the velocity-time curves. Compare the graphically obtained
values with those calculated in Prob. 1.
3. For the particle of Pro b. 1:
(a) Plot the X-T curve for the first 6 sec.
(b) Using the method of finite differences, calculate vz and az forT = 2 and 4 sec,
with 6T = 0.2 sec.
(c) Using the graph, Prob. 1a, plot the 8-T curve for the first 5 sec, and determine,
by means of finite differences, the values of v and a, at T = 2 and 4sec.
4. For the particle of Prob. 1:
(a) Plot the v%-x curve for the first 5 sec.
(b) Det ermine graphically the values of a% at T = 2 and 4 sec, and compare them
with the results obtained in Prob. 1.
6. A particle moves along the logarithmic spiral
T
= 10e0.02B
with a constant speed of 10 in./sec.

(a) Calculate the radius of curvature of the path at the point corresponding to
8 = 50 rad.
(b) Determine, in the above position, the magnitude of the acceleration and its
direction relative to the radius vector.
6. The following is an approximate expression for the acceleration of the slider in a
slider-crank mechanism:
a = rw 2 (cos wT
where r
n
+ ~ cos 2WT)
= length of crank
connecting rod-crank ratio

w = crank speed
(a) Derive general expressions for the slider velocity and displacement, based on
the initial conditions vo = 0 and xo = 0.
(b) Determine, for the particular case of r = 12 in., w = 20 rad/sec, and n = 4, the
time, velocity, and acceleration corresponding to x
7.5 in.
(c) Plot the v-x curve, and check graphically the results of part b.
(d) Plot the a-T curve and determine, by measuring the appropriate area, the maximum value of the slider velocity. Check the result analytically.
7. The following are particulars of the mechanism shown in Fig. 2-9 : p = 9 in.,
q = 3 in., r = 13.5 in., 8 = 8 in., w = 15 rad/sec, ccw.
(a) Plot the 8-T curve for the point B in the vicinity of the position defined by
~ O,OqA :a 90.
(b) Determine in this position, by the method of finite differences, the speed aHd
tangential acceleration of B.
(c) Calculate the normal acceleration of B, in the above position, and determine
the direction of the acceleration vector with respect to the fixed link OvO,.
=
::::::1
Digitized by
Google
Original from
CHAPTER
KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION

OF A RIGID BODY
3-1. Definitions and Basic Concepts

The present chapter introduces a number of new kinematic concepts.
The definitions of the more fundamental ones follow.
Rigid Body. A body in which the distances between the particles do
not change. (Although real bodies are not absolutely rigid, the elastic
deformations encountered in engineering applications are generally
negligibly small from the standpoint of kinematics.)
Plane "A! otion. A type of motion in which all particles move in parallel
planes.
Angular Position. In plane motion, angular position is defined as the
angle between a line fixed in the reference system and a given line on the
body, both lines being parallel to the plane of motion.
Angular Displacement. A change in angular position. It is a vector
quantity, and is measured in radians (rad).
1r
rad = 180
The angular-displacement vector has the following peculiarity. Whereas

in plane motion the vector sum of a number of finite angular displacements is equal to the actual resultant angular displacement, in threedimensional motion the vector sum of finite angular displacements has no
physical meaning. The limitation does not apply to infinitesimal
displacements.
Angular Velocity. The time rate of angular displacement. It is a
vector whose magnitude, called rotational speed, is measured in radians
per second (rad/sec). An alternative unit, frequently used in engineering, is revolutions per minute (rpm).
1 rpm=
1r
30
rad/sec
32
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
KINEMATICS OF PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODY
33
The time rate of the change in angular velocity.

It is a vector quantity, and is measured in radians per second per second
(rad/sec 2).
The assumptions of rigidity and plane motion have important
corollaries:
1. Since kinematics is concerned solely with the geometrical aspects of
motion, it is sufficient to view, for the purpose of kinematic motion
analysis, a single lamina of the body, cut parallel to the plane of motion.
Angular Acceleration.
so
, ,,
p..
''
8'
,.,.. .. ----4
A' --'
'
''
'
' B'
3-1
FIG.
Moreover, since the actual physical boundaries of the body do not

influence the geometry of motion, the lamina may be regarded as large
enough in area to embrace any desired point in the plane. Thus, in the
kinematic analysis of the plane motion of a rigid body, the terms moving
plane, lamina, and body are synonymous.
2. The plane motion of a rigid body is completely described by the
motions of any two points. In Fig. 3-1, the positionS' of the pointS is
uniquely determined, because A'S' = A oso, B' S' = BoSo, and the
vc ''\
\
\
'
\
FIG.
3-2
symmetrical position S* is incompatible with the stipulation of plane

motion.
3. Rigidity ensures that particles lying in a straight line have equal
velocity components (projections) in .the direction of this line (Fig. 3-2).
Digitized by
Google
Original from
34
3-2. Types of Plane Motion

Three types of plane motion may be distinguished:
1. Translation. All points move along identically shaped paths, so
that a given line AB remains parallel to its initial position throughout the
motion (Fig. 3-3).
From
drA = drB
it follows that
Further, since PA = PB and sA = BB,
Hence, in translation, at any given instant, all points of the body have
equal velocities and equal accelerations.
FIG.
3-3
FIG.
3-4
--
2. Rotation About a Fixed Axis. In this motion the particles move

along circular arcs, concentric with the axis, in a plane perpendicular
to it. From the congruence of the triangles OA oBo and OA 'B', it follows
that
~oa
~ob
~~
and for an infinitesimal displacement,

dOa = dOb = d~
so that
and
Digitized by
Oa
Ob
Oa = O,
Coogle
(3-1)
(3-2)
~ = (,)
=~=a
Original from
KINEMATICS 01'' PLANE
MOTIO~
35
OF RIGID BODY
Equations (3-1) and (3-2) show that, for the purpose of determining w
and a, ..it is completely immaterial whether the body line considered
intersects the axis of rotation or not (Fig. 3-4).
Given w and a, the velocity and acceleration of any point may be
computed by means of the equations derived in Chap. 2. Since, in
fixed-axis rotation, the center of rotation 0 coincides with the center of
curvature of the path of any pointS, rs = ps, where rs is the distance OS,
and ps, the radius of curvature. Moreover, since rs does not change,
fs
Ps
=0
and
fs
ps
=0
Consequently, both polar and moving coordinates yield the same
expressions:
(3-3)
Vs = wrs
vs 2
(as)n = wvs =
= w2rs
rs
(as)t = ars
(3-4)
(3-5)
The velocity vector Vs and the tangential acceleration vector (as)t are
perpendicular to the position vector r s = 0--+ S and point in directions
governed, respectively, by the sense of w and a. The normal, or centripetal, acceleration component (as)n acts along rs and points toward 0.
The foregoing statements are expressed conveniently in vectorial notation:
Vs = w X rs
(as)n = w X Vs
(as)t = a X rs
(3-3a)
(3-4a)
(3-5a)
w X ((a) X rs)
3. General Plane Motion. A type of motion which is neither a translation nor a fixed-axis rotation. It will be shown in subsequent sections of
this chapter that, as far as velocities alone are concerned, general plane
motion may be replaced by an instantaneous rotation about a virtual
axis, and that, as regards velocities and accelerations, it is equivalent to a
superposition of a translation and a rotation.
3-3. The Velocity Pole, or Instant Center of Rotation
Figure 3-;j shows that the finite displacement of the body from the
position AoBo to the positionA'B', accomplished by moving A and B along
prescribed paths, could also be brought about by a rotation ~a = ~cp,
about an axis through R, the point of intersection of the normal bisectors
of A oA' and BoB'. Of course, with the large displacements depicted, the
discrepancy between the actual paths and the corresponding circular arcs
is rather appreciable. The closest approximation to the true paths is
obtained in the limiting case of an infinitesimal displacement, suggested in
Original from
36
Fig. 3-6. Here the virtual axis of rotation passes through P u, the point
.of intersection of the two path normals. This point is known as the
velocity pole, or instant center of rotation.
As indicated by the double suffix, P12 is a dual point: P 1 is the intersection of the virtual axis with the stationary reference plane 1, and P2,
its intersection with the moving plane 2. Pt and P2 may be visualized
as instantaneous bearings of a virtual shaft. This mental picture enables
one to realize quite readily that, at the instant of their coincidence at
\ PathofA
B
il.t/1
FIG.
3-5
FIG. 3-6
P12, Pt and P2 have zero relative velocity.

that P2 is instantaneously at rest also.
Since Pt is at rest, it follows
Returning to Fig. 3-6, it can be seen that the elemental path segments
and the corresponding circular arcs have common tangents. Hence
TA d8a = ds...t
Consequently,
From Eq. (3-1),
so that
or generally,
T A.(Ja = VA
and
and
(Jo = (Jb =
TB d8b = dsB
TB(Jb = VB
W2
and
(3-6)
The velocity v s is perpendicular to the instantaneous radius vector

rs = P12---+ S, and its direction is determined by the sense of (1)2. In
vectorial fonn,
(3-6a)
Vs = (1)2 X rs
The results obtained thus far may be summarized as follows:
1. In any plane motion there exists a point which, at a given instant,
has zero velocity. This point coincides with the velocity pole.
Digitized by
Google
Original from
37
2. As far as velocities are concerned, general plane motion may be

replaced by a momentary rotation, with the actual angular velocity (I)
about an axis through the instantaneous velocity pole.
The equivalence of the two motions does not extend to accelerations
because the velocity pole does not coincide with the centers of curvature
of the actual paths of all points, so that in general
For instance, in Fig. 3-7, where A is constrained to move in a circle while

B is guided along a rectilinear path, Pu is located at the intersection of
the path normals a and b, whereas the centers of curvature of the two
paths are, respectively, at 0 and at infinity, along b.
Path of A
-Path normal b
2
Path of B
3-7
FIG.
Location of the Velocity Pole in Special Cases.
Occasionally, the
simple construction of the velocity pole by means of path normals fails,
and other considerations must be used to locate its position.
a. Parallel Unequal Velocities. If v A. and Vs are parallel but unequal,
either in magnitude or in direction, they are ipso facto perpendicular to
AB (otherwise their projections along AB would differ), and consequently
the path normals coincide. The velocity pole is best located by means of
the construction shown in Fig. 3-8, which is based on Eq. (3-6).
''
A
''
' ',
VA
'''
va
'
'
\
\
'
',,
--
''
' ' ,,
__
-"4C)..
pll
,p12
'
\.
Vs
F1o. 3-8
Digitized by
Google
Original from
38
b. Parallel Equal Velocities. If v A and VB are parallel and equal in

magnitude and in direction, the path normals intersect at infinity.
Hence, as far as velocities are concerned, translation may be regarded as
a rotation about an axis at infinity, with zero angular speed.
c. Rolling Bodies. Figure 3-9 shows a body 2 which rolls, without
slipping on the stationary track 1. The velocity pole coincides with the
point of contact because this is the only point on body 2 which has zero
velocity at the given instant.
~----"""' v s
~~~~~~::r~
s~~:JS
""--- - --------- ---- - ---A
FIG. 3-U
FIG.
3-10
3-4:. Determination of Velocities by Means of the Velocity Pole

Given the position of the velocity pole and the velocity of one point,
the velocity of any other point may be found either by computation or by
construction.
By computation, from Eq. (3-6),
Vs
VA
- =- =
rs
rA
W2
Thus, with VA, r A, and rs known, both vs and w2 can be calculated. The
sense of w2 and the direction of v s are determined by inspection.
By construction, as shown in Fig. 3-10. The procedure is based on
Eq. (3-6) and is self-explanatory.
3-6. Determination of Velocities by Means of Orthogonal Velocity Vectors 1

An alternative construction, also based on Eq. (3-6), is shown in Fig.
3-11. It may be used to advantage if the velocity pole is located off the
drawing paper but the general direction of the desired velocity is known.
The known velocity vector v A is turned through 90 into its path normal
a. The turned velocity vector is called the orthogonal velocity of A and is
denoted by oVA A line drawn through the terminal point of oVA, parallel
N. Rosenauer and A. H. Willis, "Kinematics of Mechanisms," p. 115, Associated
General Publications Pty. Ltd., Sydney, 1953.
1
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
39
r--------
v8
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
FIG. 3-11
to AS, cuts off on the ray, or path normal, s the orthogonal velocity
vector oVs. Consideration of similar triangles shows that
thus proving the correctness of the construction. The direction of v 8 is

obtained by turning V s through 90 in the sense VA~ VA
Illustrative Example 1. In Fig. 3-12 the velocity of A is given.
Required are the velocities of B and C. The sketch shows both graphic
methods of solution.
0
--- - -
-------~
FIG. 3-12
illustrative Example 2. In Fig. 3-13 the velocity of M is given.

Required are the angular velocity of the disk and the velocities of A and B.
Solution
W2
VM
TM
VM
'CW
and
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
40
Figure 3-13a and b shows the two alternative graphic solutions.
B
I
VA
............
IVM
rM
...
_.... _
(a)
(b)
FIG.
3-13
3-6. Polodes
As the motion of the body progresses, the instantaneous center of rotation changes its position within the fixed reference system and in relation
to the moving body itself. The traces of the velocity pole in the stationary and moving planes are known as polodes, or centrodes. The locus
of P1 is the fixed, or space, polode, and that of P2, the moving, or body,
polode. Both curves are of importance in the study of motion and
synthesis of mechanisms. Since P. and P2 have no relative velocity at
P u, it follows that the relative motion of the two polodes is pure rolling.
Because a finite displacement of a body may be visualized as a succession
of infinitesimal rotations about the respective instantaneous velocity
poles, it is obvious that the paths of the points in a moving plane can be
reproduced in all details by replacing the actual guides, or constraints,
with a pair of toothed segments in the shape of the polodes (with the
teeth preventing slip), one of which is held stationary while the other is
attached to the moving plane. (An application of this device is shown in
the next illustrative example.)
The converse is also true. If the motion of a body is produced by the
pure rolling of one curve upon another, the two curves are the polodes of
the motion. An example is the rolling wheel: the circle representing the
wheel is the body polode, and the line representing the ground is the space
polode.
Occasionally, when the actual motion constraints are not positive
enough, portions of the polodes may be used to assist the body over an
awkward in-line, or dead-center, position. For instance, such polode
segments would be useful in the mechanism shown in Fig. 3-26 (Sec. 3-16,
Digitized by
Google
Original from
UNIVERSI1Y OF MICHIGAN
41
Prob. 3), where otherwise, after the in-line position, the motion of the
link AB could continue either with crossed or with parallel guiding arms.
Construction of the Fixed Polo de. The fixed pol ode 1r1 is constructed
by locating the velocity pole in various phases of the motion, by means of
intersecting path normals.
Construction of the Moving Polode. The moving polode 1r,. may be
found by two methods. The first method is illustrated in Fig. 3-14.
Path of B
FIG.
3-14
At the instant when the body A B is in its phase A 11 B 11 , the velocity pole
is at P~ 1 In order to locate the corresponding point P~1 on the body in
its initial phase AoBo, the triangle A 11B 11 Pi1 is referred back, i.e., reerected
on the base line A aBo. After this construction is repeated for a sufficient
number of phases, the moving polode may be drawn.
(~AoBoP~1
~AIIB 11 Pp; ~AoBoP~
~A 1 B 1 P~;
etc.)
The second method of construction is that of kinematic inversion. The

moving body is considered temporarily fixed, and the reference frame is
moved relative to it, with the actual motion constraints retained. The
fixed polode for the inversion is the required body polode.
Illustrative Example. Construct the polodes for the link ABC of the
ellipse-trammel mechanism of Fig. 3-15a. (The name of this mechanism is
derived from the property that, if the pins A and B move along the
guiding grooves in the frame, points, such as C, describe true ellipses.)
Original from
42
Fixed Polode. In the phase shown in Fig. 3-15a, the velocity pole Pu
lies at the intersection of the path normals a and b. It can be seen that
the distance 01P12 = AB. Since this is true for any other position of the
link ABC, the fixed polode is a circle of radius AB, centered at 01.
Moving Polode. The construction of the moving polode, by the method
of inversion, is shown in Fig. 3-15b. The bar ABC is considered fixed, and
the frame movable. In the initial position the velocity pole is at P12.
'I
I
I'
I'
--
I
o1
- --o--
I
'
AI
I
(a)
p~
(b)
(c)
FIG.
3-15
As the frame moves around the bar, with the guide grooves sliding on the
pins A and B , the velocity pole describes a circle with the center at the
midpoint 02 of AB and radius AB/ 2. (The correctness of the statement
will be recognized from the fact that the angle A P B equals 90 in all
po~Sitions of the frame.)
The two polodes are shown in Fig. 3.. 15c. If a gear wheel of n external
teeth and pitch diameter AB were attached to the arm ABC, and then
rolled inside a stationary wheel of 2n internal teeth (and pitch radius A B),
points A and B would describe rectilinear paths and C an ellipse. Thus
the two circular polodes replace completely the rectilinear guides.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
KIXEMATICS OF PLANE
MOTIO~
43
OF RIGID BODY
3-7. Relative Motion of Physically Connected Particles

Other than in translation, points or particles of a rigid body in motion
have either different velocities or different accelerations or they differ in
both aspects. They have therefore relative motion with respect to each
other. In the following discussion, equations are derived which relate
the motion characteristics of any given
point to those of a particular reference
point and to the angular velocity and
acceleration of the body. These relations form the basis of the most generally applicable method of kinematic and
dynamic analysis of mechanisms.
Figure 3-16 shows a body AB in motion, with the angular velocity wand the
angular acceleration a assumed to have
positive sense. (In mechanics it is conventional to regard the counterclockwise
sense as positive.) n denotes the direction from A (the reference point) to B
FIG 3-16
(the point whose velocity and acceleration are to be determined). The direction t is obtained by turning n
through 90 in the positive sense.
With the position vector of B relative to A denoted by rBA, the following
relation is self-evident:
fB
or
fB
(3-7)
(3-7a)
= fA+ fBA
= fA+
rBAin
The velocity equation is obtained by differentiating Eqs. (3-7) and

(3-7a) with respect to time, bearing in mind that rBA is constant:
and
or
VB = VA+ VBA
VB = V.A
wrBAit
VB = VA+ (w X fRA)
(3-8)
(3-8a)
(3-8b)
is the velocity B appears to have in a reference system attached to

the point A and moving with it in translation. Hence vBA is called the
velocity of B relative to A. Equations (3-8) show that the relative
velocity of two points on a body is perpendicular to the line connecting
them (pointing in a direction determined by the sense of the absolute
angular velocity w of the body) and that the relative speed is equal to the
product of wand the spacing of the points:
VBA
VBA
(3-9)
= wrBA
Original from
44
Differentiation of Eqs. (3-8) and (3-8a) yields the acceleration relation
= &A
&BA
&B = aA - w 2rBAin
&B
and
or
&B
+ arBAi,
aA + (w X VBA) + (a X rB.A)
(3-10)
(3-lOa)
(3-10b)
The last two equations may also be expressed in the following more
general tertns:
(3-10c)
is the total acceleration of B relative to A. It consists of the two

mutually perpendicular components (aB...t)n and (aBA),.
(aB...t)n is the relative normal acceleration. As indicated by -in in
Eq. (3-10a), it is directed from B to A. Its magnitude is given by
&B...t
(3-11)
(aB.A)t is the relative tangential acceleration.

rBA, and its direction depends on the sense of a .
by
(aBA), = arBA.
It is perpendicular to
Its magnitude is given
(3-12)
Hence the magnitude of the total relative acceleration is

aBA
[(aBA)n2 + (aBA)t2]i
= rBA(w 4
a 2)i
=
and its direction with respect to the vector
(3-13)
rBA,
-a
,.,. = arctan 2
w
(3-14)
3-8. General Motion as Superposition of Translation and Rotation

By means of Eqs. (3-8a) and (3-lOa) the motion of any point on the
body may be expressed in terms of the velocity and acceleration of an
arbitrarily selected reference point A and the rotational velocity and
acceleration of the body itself.
It follows, therefore, that the instantaneous motion of the body, as a
whole, may be regarded as a superposition of a translation vA and &...t. and
a rotation w and a about an axis through A.
In dynamics, for reasons to be discussed in a later chapter, the reference
point is usually placed in the center of gravity of the body.
3-9. The Velocity Image
Figure 3-17a shows a body ABCD in motion.
w, and a are known.
It is assumed that
Original from
VA.,
45
Figure 3-17b, the so-called polar velocity diagram, represents the

graphic solution of the velocity equation (3-8). The name of this
diagram is due to the fact that all absolute velocity vectors originate at a
common pole o. If the absolute velocity of A, v A, is represented to scale
by the line vector o ~a, and the relative velocity vector VBA = a~ b
(VBA = wrBA) is added to it vectorially, then o ~ b represents the absolute
velocity of B, VB.
Equation (3-8) may now be applied in turn to the point pairs C,A and
C,B:
and
Vc = VA+ VcA
Vc =VB+ VcB
represented by a~ c, is perpendicular to rcA; VcB, represented by
b ~ c, is perpendicular to reB; thus point c is easily located by construction. The line vector o ~ c represents the absolute velocity of C.
VcA,
(b) Polar velocity

(a) Configuration diagram
d'
diagram
o'
.,
aD
'
(c) Polar acceleration diagram

FIG.
3-17
Since the corresponding sides are mutually perpendicular, it is obvious

that the triangles abc and ABC are similar. The same result is also
obtained from Eq. (3-9), which states that
ab
ac
be
AB = AC = BC = w
Digitized by
Google
AB
TBA,
AC
rcA,
etc.
Original from
46
. . As the above argument may be extended to any other point on the

b ody, the following laws can be deduced.
In the polar velocity diagram, the terminal points of the absolute
velocity vectors form a polygon which is similar to the configuration and
out of phase with respect to it by 90 in the sense of (a). This polygon is
called the velocity image of the body.
The sides and diagonals of the image polygon represent relative velocities of the corresponding points.
The velocity image of a straight-line segment, such as ABD, is a
similar line segment; i.e.,
ad - AD
ab
AB
The velocity image of a body in translation is a point. (Because
VA = VB = vc, etc., points a, b, c, etc., coincide.)
The pole o is the velocity image of the instantaneous center of rotation.
Hence the triangles ABP12 and abo are similar.
3-10. The Acceleration Image

Figure 3-17c, the so-called polar acceleration diagram, represents the
graphic solution of the acceleration equation (3-10). The absolute
acceleration of A, aA, is represented by the line vector o' -+ a'. Added
to it geometrically is the vector a'-+ b', which represents aBA, the relative
acceleration of B with respect to A. (aBA is known in magnitude and
direction because its normal and tangential components are determinable
from the data.) The resultant vector o'-+ b' represents the absolute
acceleration of B, as.
Equation (3-10) may now be applied in turn to the point pairs C,A
and C,B:
and
ac =as+ acs
In conformity with the notation used to represent asA, acA would be

shown on the diagram as a' -+ c', and ac s as b' -+ c'.
Equation (3-13) shows that
a'b' - a' c'

b'c'
AC = BC = (w4
AB
+ a2)!
proving that the triangles a'b'c' and ABC are similar. Hence point c'
may be located either by transferring the angles 'Y A and 'Y B to the base
line a'b' or by calculating the distances a'c' and b' c', bearing in mind that
the circulatory sense a'-+ b'-+ c'-+ a' is the same as A-+ B-+ C-+ A.
Since the same argument may be extended to any other point on the
body, the following laws are easily established.
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
47
In the polar acceleration diagram, the terminal points of the absolute

acceleration vectors form a polygon, known as the acceleration image of
the body, which is similar to the configuration and turned relative to it
by an angle Jl. = arctan (- a/w 2 ).
The sides and diagonals of the acceleration-image polygon represent
the total relative accelerations of the corresponding points.
The acceleration image of a straight-line segment is a similar line
segment; i.e.,
a'd' - AD
a'b'
AB
The acceleration image of a body in translation is a point.
3-11. Graphical Solution of the Velocity and Acceleration Equations

Velocity Equation
Figure 3-17b illustrated the solution of this equation in the relatively

trivial case of fully specified velocities v A and v BA Of much greater
importance in practice is the case where VA is completely defined and only
the general direction of motion of another point B is known. The
velocity equation may be solved graphically by using the fact that VnA.
is perpendicular to the line AB.
aA=o'- a'
as=o'- b'
\\ Direction of v B
\
\
a'
asA=o'- b'
\B
\
~b
,. , ,
o'
"VBA
v \
B \
.....
'
',
'\
'
F1o. 3-18
FIG.
3-19
The construction shown in Fig. 3-18 yields the magnitudes and specific
directions of Vn and VnA, and thus permits the determination of the
angular velocity of the body. (w = VnA/TnA = ab/ AB, sense by inspection.)
Acceleration Equation
as= aA
Digitized by
Coogle
aBA
Original from
48
Figure 3-17c illustrated the solution of this equation for fully specified
accelerations aA and aBA In practice, the acceleration equation is
encountered much more frequently in a form in which the three vectors
appear resolved into their normal and tangential components:
+ (aB)t =
(aB)n
(aA)n
+ (aA)t + (aBA)n + (aB~)t
Because each component has magnitude and direction, 12 variables are

involved in the equation. Since the equation can be solved only if 10 of
the variables are known, full information regarding the following items
must be available:
1. VA, VB, and VBA
2. (aA)c
3. The positions of OA and OB, the centers of curvature of the paths of

A and B. [This particular piece of information is required for the determina tion of the components (aA)n and (aB)n; for example (a.A)n = V.A 2 / PA,
directed from A to 0 A]
The above data, coupled with the fact that (aBA)n = VBA 2/ rBA, directed
from B to A, and that the tangential acceleration components are perpendicular to the appropriate normal components (i.e., parallel to the
TABLE 3-1. SoLUTION oF THE AccELERATION EQUATION
Nor mal a cceleration
Tangential acceleration
T erm
Magnitude
as = o' -+ b'
vs 2
PB
&A
o'-+ a'
VA 2
PA
&sA
= a' -+ b'
(ob) 2
Direct ion
Vector
Magnitude
Direction
Vector
B to Os
o' -+ bo
Unknown
II
bo-+ b'
too~
o' -+ ao
Given
II
a'-+ bo
Unknown
II
PB
(oa) 2
PA
VsA 2
B to A
TBA
VB
VA
in
gtven
sense
a.-+ a'
VsA
bo-+ b'
(ab) 2
AB
NOTES: The symbol II signifies "parallel to."

The characters in the vector notation alternate, e.g., o'-+ ao-+ a' and
a'-+ bo-+ b'.
corresponding velocities), reduce the number of unknown quantities to

two, viz., the magnitudes of (aa)e and (aa.A)e. It should be noted that the
as yet undetermined specific directions of these components are not
Original from
UNIVERSI1Y OF MICHIGAN
49
classed as "unknowns." They correspond to the algebraic signs + or and are yielded automatically by the vector solution. The calculations
are best set out in tabular form, as shown in general terms in Table 3-1.
Upon completion of the acceleration diagram (Fig. 3-19), the angular
acceleration of the body may be computed. [a = (aBA)t/rBA = bab'I AB,
sense by inspection.]
3-12. The Acceleration Pole, or Instantaneous Center of Acceleration
There always exists, on a body in general plane motion, a singular
point which, at a given instant, has zero acceleration. This point is
known as the acceleration pole, or instantaneous center of acceleration. In
the following discussion, the acceleration pole will be denoted by I. The
most outstanding characteristic of the acceleration pole is the fact that
the acceleration of any point S is proportional to the point's pole distance
rsr and that the direction of the acceleration relative to the corresponding
radius vector rsr is the same for all points, as shown by the following
reasoning:
as = ar + asr
and, since ar = 0,
as = asr
However, by Eq. (3-13),
asr
rsr(w 4
+a
)l = krsr
where k is a constant, and by Eq. (3-14),

-a
p. = arctan 2
w
independent of position of S
s
I
FIG. 3-20
The acceleration image of I obviously coincides with o'. Hence, if the

accelerations of any two points, say, A and B, are known, point I may be
located on the configuration diagram by constructing the triangle ABI
similar to the triangle a'b'i', as shown in Fig. 3-17a.
In contrast to the velocity pole P 12, the acceleration pole I is only a
single point; its projection on the stationary plane has no physical
Digitized by
Google
Original from
50
significance. Another important difference between the characteristics

of the two points is the following. Whereas the position of Pais a purely
geometrical property of the motion, i.e., determined solely by the. motion
constraints, this is not true of the point/. Although the latter is always
located on the inflection circle (Chap. 10), which is a geometrical property
of the motion, its position on the circle is determined by w and a.
a
OAA=2 in.
AB=1 in.
AG=3 in.
200 in./sec
t
(a)
(c)
50,000 in./sec
I
(d)
FIG.
3-21
Illustrative Example. In Fig. 3-21, point A moves with a constant

speed of 500 in./sec in a circle of 2 in. radius, while point B moves along
a rectilinear path. For the phase shown, determine:
(a} The velocity of G, using the relative-velocity method
(b) The angular velocity of the bar AB
(c) The location of the velocity pole and va
(d) The acceleration of G, using the relative-acceleration method
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
51
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
The
The
The
The
angular acceleration of the bar

position of Oa (center of curvature of the path of G)
position of the acceleration pole and aa
acceleration of the point P2
Solution. (a) Since the direction of motion of G is not known at this

stage, the equation va = VA + VaA cannot be solved. It becomes
necessary to determine, first, the velocity of B, and thus to establish the
velocity image of the moving body.
The solution of the equation V B = VA + VBA is shown in Fig. 3-2lb.
(vA is specified in magnitude and direction, v n acts along the path of B,
and VaA is normal to AB.) The line ab is the velocity image of the line
AB on the moving plane. Point g divides ab in the same ratio as G
divides AB. The vector o ~ g is the required (absolute) velocity of G.
It measures 415 in./ sec.
(b) w = ab/ AB = 390/ 7 = 55.6 rad/sec. Since VaA has the direction
a ~ b, w is clockwise.
(c) P12 is located at the intersection of the path normals a and b.
va = wP12G = (55.6)(7.48) = 415 in./ sec, which agrees with the previous
solution.
(d) As the position of Oa is not known at this stage, the acceleration
equation ao = aA + aaA cannot be solved directly. It becomes necessary
to determine, first, the acceleration of B and to construct the acceleration
image of the moving body.
The numerical solution of the acceleration equation aa = aA + aHA is
set out in Table 3.2.
TABLE
3-2.
AccELERATION EQUATION, SEc.
3-12,
ILLUSTRATIVE ExAMPLE
Normal
acceleration
.
Tangential acceleration
Term
Magnitude
as = o'-+ b'
VB 2
Direction
None
=0
Vector
Magnitude
Direction
-+ bo
Unknown
II
-+ ao
Zero (VA
const)
None
Vs
Vector
bo-+ b'
PB
(PB =
&...t
= o'-+ a'
co)
VA 2
A to
OA
PA
= 125,000
.
.
&s...t = a'-+ b'
(ab) 2
B to A
AB
=
21,700
ao-+ a'
a'-+ b11
Unknown
II
VsA
b(l-+ b'
Original from
52
The acceleration diagram is shown in Fig. 3-21c. The line a'b' is the
acceleration image of the line AB. Point g' divides a'b' in the same ratio
as point G divides AB. The vector o'--+ g' represents the required
(absolute) acceleration of G. It measures 108,000 in./sec 2
(e) a= bab'/AB = 77,700/7 = 11,100 rad/sec 2 Since (a8 A}, has the
direction ba --+ b', o is counterclockwise.
(f) Figure 3-21c shows the vectors va and aa, with the latter resolved
into its normal and tangential components.
From (aa)n = va 2/ pa, pa = 415 2/91,000 = 1.9 in. The direction of
(aa)n indicates that Oa is located below the bar, as shown in Fig. 3-21a.
(g) The acceleration pole is located on the configuration diagram by
constructing the triangle ABI similar to the triangle a'b'i'. Hence
aa = aar = IG(w 4 + a 2)i = (9.4)(11,500) = 108,000 in./sec 2 , which
agrees with the previous solution, and the direction of aa, found by means
of the angle E ( E = p. - 180), is parallel to o' --+ g', as should be.
(h) The acceleration image of P2 is located by constructing the triangle
a'b'p~, in Fig. 3-21c, similar to the configuration triangle ABP 12 The
required acceleration is then represented by the vector o'--+ p~.
3-13. Acceleration of the Velocity Pole P2
Figure 3-22a shows the fixed and moving polodes associated with the
motion of plane 2. 01 and 02 are the centers of curvature of the polodes
at their point of contact P12, and Pt and P2 are the corresponding radii of
curvature.
At the instant of their coincidence at Pn, the points P2 and P1 have
zero relative velocity. However, an infinitesimal time interval thereafter, the two points separate. Obviously, the two points have relative
acceleration, which, because of the nonslipping, must be directed along
the pole normal Pn Since P1 is stationary, the relative acceleration of P2
with respect to P1 is identical with the absolute acceleration of P2. The
objective of the present investigation is the determination of the magnitude and specific direction of ap, .
The following kinematic properties of the velocity pole P2 have already
been established:
1. P2 is instantaneously at rest; i.e.,
Vp 2 =
2. The speed of any point on the body is proportional to its distance
from P 2; for example,

=
Vo, =
Vs
and
Digitized by
Google
w2(Pu.S)
w2(P u02)
(a)
= W2P2
Original from
KI~EMATICS
53
OF PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODY
The accelerations of 02 and P2 are related by the equation
Resolution of each vector into components parallel, respectively, to the

pole normal Pn and the pole tangent Pt yields
along Pn,
or
and along
(ao,)n = ap, + (ao,P 2)n

ap, = (ao,),.- (ao,P,)n
(ao,), = (ao,P,)t
p,,
(b)
(c)
ap, will be determined by evaluating the two terms on the right-hand side
of Eq. (b).
"'2
...
P2
ip,.
p2
P1 +pz
tp
II
11"1
pl
r2
P,
(b)
02
11"1
Pt
,.1
---....~~ ~~- ,.2
(a)
(c)
FIG.
3-22
The first term is the absolute normal acceleration of 02. Because of

the rolling motion of the polode, 02 describes a trochoidal path with the
instantaneous center of curvature at Ot. The instantaneous radius of
curvature of its path is therefore
Po,= Pl
+ P2
Original from
54
Consequently,
Vo 1 2
(aot)n =
Po,
w2 2
P2 2
-~Pl
P2
"
. .
. ..
(d)
and the vector is directed from 02 to 01.

The second term represents the normal acceleration of 02 relative to P 2
Consequently,
(e)
and the vector is directed from 02 to P 2

Substitution of Eqs. (d) and (e) into (b) and consideration of the directions result in
Similar investigations for the polode combinatiqns of Fig. 3-22b and c

lead to the general expression
(3-15)
in which the plus sign applies in the case of a double-convex contact and
the minus, in the case of a convexo-concave contact, and where ip" is the
unit vector along the pole normal, directed away from the fixed polode.
The meaning of "away from" is clarified in Fig: 3-22b and c, where the
polodes have purposely been drawn slightly :apart.
The term di will be met again in Chap. 10, which deals with advanced
kinematics of the rigid body. It will be shown that di represents the
diameter of the so-called inflection circle.
Equation (3-15) reveals the very interesting and important fact that
the acceleration of the velocity pole P2 is independent of the angular
acceleration 2 of the moving plane. This unique kinematic property
forms the basis of Carter's analysis of complex mechanisms, discussed in
in Chap. 6.
In the special case of Pl = oo (rectilinear fixed polode), Eq. (3-15)
reduces to
rectilinear fixed polode
(3-16)
The acceleration of any point S in the moving plane may be expressed

now in terms of ap 2, w2, and 2 in the following manner:
+ asP 2
+ (asp2)n + (asp2)e
diip + (w2 X Vs) + (a2 X rs)
as = ap2
= aP 2
= w2 2
(3-17)
where r8 = P 12 ~Sis the position vector of S with respect to P12.
Original from
55
3-14. Acceleration of the Center of Curvature of the Moving Polode

The relations derived in this section are very useful in the kinematic
analysis of rolling bodies.
The acceleration vector ao may be resolved into its normal and tangential components (ao )n and (ao )t.
By Eq. (d) of Sec. 3-13, considering the direction:
2
For double-convex contact:

For convexo-concave contact:
By Eq. (c),
(ao,) n -(
ao ) n
2
(ao,)t
W2
W2
2
+
Pt
P22
P2
(3-18a)
(3-18b)
lp..
P2
PI-
lp,.
P2
= a2(Pu02) =
a2p2
(3-19)
Equation (3-19) gives the magnitude of the tangential acceleration component. Its direction depends on the sense of a2. Hence, in vectorial
notation,
(3-19a)
If the fixed polode is rectilinear (or P1 happens to be a point of inflection), PI = oo, p0 , = oo, and consequently the normal acceleration of 02
vanishes:
rectilinear fixed polode
(3-20)
Illustrative Example. Figure 3-23a shows a disk, 8 in. in diameter,

which rolls sliplessly on the horizontal ground. Its instantaneous
angular velocity and acceleration are, respectively, 2 rad/ sec and 3
rad/ sec 2 , both clockwise. Draw the velocity and acceleration images of
the disk, and hence determine the motion characteristics of A and B.
Solution. The circle and the straight line are the polodes, P 12 is the
velocity pole, and M ( = 02) is the center of curvature of the moving
pol ode.
In order to construct the images, the velocities and accelerations of two
points are needed. Here, the most convenient points are P 2 and M.
VELOCITY IMAGE (Fig. 3-23b). Vp = 0; point p coincides with 0.
VM = w2PuM = 8 in./ sec; VM is represented to scale by the vector o ~ m.
The velocity image of the disk periphery is a circle of radius mp and
center m. Points a and b are located on this circle by laying off the
angles -y A and 'Y n from the line mp in the counterclockwise sense. v A is
represented by the vector o ~a; by measurement, VA = 13.8 in./ sec.
Similarly, Vn = o ~band VB = 11.3 in./ sec.
ACCELERATION IMAGE (Fig. 3-23c).
By Eq. (3-16),
2
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
56
(a)
b
p
0
a:---..___...--(c)
(b)
FIG.
3-23
ap, is represented by o'----+ p~. By Eq. (3-20), (aM)n = 0. By Eq. (3-19),

(aM)t = a2 P12M = 12 in./sec 2
The total acceleration of Misrepresented by the vector o'----+ m'. The
acceleration image of the disk periphery is again a circle. Its radius is
m'p~, and its center is at m'.
Points a' and b' are located by transferring
the appropriate angles. aA, represented by o'----+ a', measures 18.9
in./sec 2 , and a8 , represented by o'----+ b', measures 30.4 in./sec2
3-16. Problems
1. Locate the velocity pole and determine

VB, in Fig. 3-24, if (a) w2 = 3 rad/sec, ccw, and
(b) ws = 3 rad/sec, cw.
%8XlS
AB-4 in.
VA =15
FIG.
in./sec. at 15
3-24 (Prob. 1)
Original from
57
2. Construct the polodes for the body

AB in Fig. 3-25.
0AA=0BB=2 in.
O..t OB =AB=4 in.
B
FIG. 3-25 (Prob. 2)
3. Construct the polodes for the body AB in Fig. 3-26. Assume that the guiding
arms remain crossed after passing the dead-center position.
B
O..t0B=AB=2 in.
O..tA= OBB=4 in.
OBB= 1.5 in.

AB = 3 in.
--4fl.!::
--Path of A
FIG. 3-26 (Prob. 3)
FIG. 3-27 (Prob. 4)
4. Construct the polodes for the body AB in Fig. 3-27.

5. Point A in Fig. 3-28 has a constant speed of 125 in./sec. Using the method of
relative velocities and accelerations, determine vs, vc, (,)2 and as, ac, a2 . Check vc by
means of the velocity pole and a c by means of the acceleration pole.
. .
..
: ' .
.. ..-:..._: : . :.::. : .. . . .. ...

.
. . . . . .... . ... :: . . ... .. ... . . .:.. .
.:
.
: .
:.. . .
'
. -.-~ . -: .
B ...---Path of B
. ..:: :- .._
=.:: :. ~-. ..:. . :
'
... .. .
.' : ':
:: -~
I'
I
I
I
Path of A
,,
135
~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,/ !
OA0s=4 in.
OAA = 1.25 in.
OsB=2.5 in.
AB=5 in.
AC=2 in.
BC=4 in.
OB
FIG. 3-28 (Prob. 5)
Digitized by
Coogle
Original from
58
6. Construct the velocity and acceleration images of the wheel of Fig. 3-29, and
thus determine VA, vs, vc, vn and aA, as, ac, aD. Check the velocities by means of the
velocity pole. Locate the acceleration pole, and check the accelerations. Compare
the calculated value of the angle p. (or E) with the angle obtained graphically (Fig.
3-21).
MA=2 in.
D
VM=lOO in./sec at 0
2
aM""' BOO in./sec at 180
Fw. 3-29 (Prob. 6)
F1o. 3-30 (Prob. 7)
1. The angular velocity of the small wheel in Fig. 3-30 is 10 rad/sec, ccw, const.
Draw its velocity and acceleration images, and thereby determine vA and aA.
Digitized by
Go
Original from

Advance Mechnics of Machines M Tech Basics

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Advance Mechnics of Machines M Tech Basics

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS

A ssociafe Professor of Mechanical Engineering

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

Fundamentals of Vector Analysis

Kinematics of the Plane Motion of a Particle .

Kinematics of the Plane Motion of a Rigid Body .

Definitions and Basic Concepts .

Types of Plane Motion. .

The Velocity Pole, or Instant Center of Rotation

Determination of Velocities by Means of the Velocity Pole . . .

The Velocity Image.

The Acceleration Image

The Acceleration Pole, or Instantaneous Center of Accelerations .

Scalars and Vectors .

Engineering System of Units

3-13. Acceleration of the Velocity Pole Ps .

Kinematics of Simple Mechanisms .

4-2. Degree of Freedom of a Mechanism .

Kinematics of the Slider-crank Mechanism

Conventional Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams .

Klein's Construction of the Acceleration Polygon .

Chapter 6. Kinematics of Complex Mechanisms

Complex Mechanisms; Low and High Degree of Complexity .

Method of Normal Accelerations .

Hall's and Ault's Auxiliary-point Method

Fundamental Principles of Dynamics and Statics.

Dynamics of a Particle; Laws of Motion .

Work, Power, Energy; Conservation of Energy; Virtual Work

Some Simple Problems of Statics.

5-1. Nomenclature and Conventions .

Dynamic Motion Analysis

Nomenclature and Conventions

Summary and Conclusions .

Forces in Nonsymmetrical Linkages .

Advanced Kinematics of the Plane Motion .

The Inflection Circle; Euler-Savary Equation .

Analytical and Graphical Determination of d,

10-12. The Circling-point Curve (General Case)

10-13. The Circling-point Curve for the Coupler of a Four-bar Mechanism .

Introduction to Synthesis; Graphical Methods

Introduction to Synthesis; Analytical Methods .

Function Generation; Freudenstein's Equation. . . . . . . .

Introduction to Synthesis; Grapho-analytical

Function Generation; Precision-derivative Approximation . . . . 336

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS

2. Dimensions of machine elements are usually given in inches.

Velocity, speed . . ....... .. .. .. .. .

FUNDAMENTALS OF VECfOR ANALYSIS

1-1. Scalars and Vectors

1-2. Vector Notation; Unit Vector; Representation of Vectors

Representation of Vectors. A vector quantity is depicted conveniently

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS

advance if turned in the sense of the particular quantity. In the special

'------::;"-Sense .of action

The construction may be extended progressively to any number of

cal addition of vectors, just as it is in the algebraic addition of scalars:

Free, Sliding, and Fixed Vectors. It is important to realize that,

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS

a disp]acement of the force along its line of action. Hence, in dynamics,

part of the pin, while F 2 produces tensile stresses in the portion

=a- b =a+ (-b)

Resolution of Vectors. The individual vectors which together form the

FUNDAMENTALS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS