United Publishers Mangalore- 515003

HISTORY -II
HISTORY OF INDIA
700 - 1707 A.D.
First BA - II Semester
(According to the Revised Syllabus of Bangalore University)
Smt. B.R. Parineetha, M.A., M.Phil., Head of the Department of History
National College, Jayanagar Bangalore
UNITED PUBLISHERS MANGALORE - 575 001.

I.

First Edition

: December, 2005

Second Edition December, 2006

COPYRIGHT
Price

: Author

130/

Published by

: P.V. KRISHNAN,

Mis. UNITED PUBLISHERS, Alaiman Compound, Jeppu, Mangalore - 1 .

PREFACE
The present book, "The History of India from 700 to 1707 A.D. has been written bearing in mind all the
topics to be covered for the I BA Second Semester course as prescribed in the Syllabus of Bangalore
University. Surely this work will prove to be useful to the students of other universities also as some of
the latest interpretations on medieval Indian history have also been included in this book.
Efforts have been made to trace the political history of India from 800 to 1707 A.D with due importance
to the social, economic and cultural developments in the history of India. The study of history is not
confined only to the expeditions of different rulers. The impact of their policies on the economy and
society have been traced. Definitely it is interesting to reconstruct the impact of the Arab, the Turk and
the Mughal invasions on India. Moreover it has also led to several interpolations in History. There have
been diverse interpretations and has led to the emergence of several controversies . and debates.
Efforts have been made to throw light on the latest interpretations to prevent the reflection of
subversive history. It has only added to the dynamism of history as a subject matter of study. From this
point of view sincere efforts have been made to analyse all such topics in this work.
In this work several other topics which are relevant have been discussed so as to make the book
comprehensive in its approach. Above all I hope that this book will be beneficial to the students as well
as the teachers as a lot of effort has gone into the writing of this work. I am confident that this humble
effort will prove to be useful to the community at large and amount to interesting reading.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not thank Prof. G.K. Ranganath for having initiated me into this type of
writing work. But for his persuation and encouragement, my efforts in writing this book would have
been futile. My sincere thanks to him .
. I also thank Prof. P. Venkatarama of M/S United Publishers, Mangalore for encouraging in all my
endeavours and Mr. V. Krishnan for having come forward to publish this book.
- B.R. Parineetha

SYLLABUS FOR SECOND SEMESTER - II HISTORY OF INDIA - II

UNIT 1 : Survey of Sources - Advent of Islam - The Sultanate:

Foundation and Consolidation - Political structure (litutmish, Razia, Balban) - Turkish Nobility and the
Ulema - Inflence of Persian Culture - Architectural Growth.
UNIT 2 : The Khiljis - Allaud-din's Policy of Expansion - AdministrationEconomic Reforms. Tughlaqs Mohammad Bin Tuglaq Political and Economic Experiments (including Deccan PolicyFeroz Shah Tughlaq
" Economic Measures.
UNIT 3 : The Mughals - Babur - Shershah - Consolidation under Akbar - The Rajputs - Akbar's Rajput
Policy - Religious Policy Administrative Structure - Mansabdari system - Aurangazeb and the
DeccanPolicy - Decline of the MUghal Empire.
UNIT 4 : Society, Culture, Economy under the Mughals: Emergence of new Social classes - Status of
Women - Emergence of a composite Culture - Bhakti and Sufi Movements (Mira, Chaitanya, Kabir,
Nanak, Ramananda, Ramdas, Moin-ud-din Chisthi) - Architecture and Fine Arts under the Mughals
Mughal Economy - Trade and Commerce.
UNit 5 : Rise of Marathas - Shivaji - Administration Maps : Extent of Empires of
1.

Allaud- din - Khilji

2.

Akbar

3. Shivaji
PLACES OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE:
1. Delhi, 2. Devagiri, 3. Warangal, 4. Dwarasamudra, 5. Agra,
. 6. Surat, 7. Panipat, 8. Rameshwaram, 9. Shivneri, 10. Poona, 11. Ahmednagar, 12, Fathehpur Sikri, 13.
Chittor, 14. Haldighat, 15. Amritsar, 16. Mewar, 17. Mathura, 18. Ranthambhor, 19. Pandharapur, 20.
Jinjee.

CONTENTS
UNIT 1 :

Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate(1-104)

1.1

Sources of Medieval Indian History (1 - 9)

L2

Muslim invasions on India - Political Background (7th to

12th centuries) Age of the Rajputs - Advent of the Arabs
- Turkish Invasions - Mahmud Ghazni - Mohammad
Ghori. (10 - 40

1.3

The Delhi Sultanate - Slave dynasty - lItutmish - RaziyaBalban (41 - 55)

1.4

Khalji Dynasty - Ala-ud:din Khalji (56 - 73)

-1.5

The Tughlaqs - Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq - FirozTughlaq

- Sayeed dynasty - Lod i dynasty (74 - 104)

UNIT2:

South India during the Sultanate period(1 05-20'6)

2.1

Southern expansion oJ Delhi Sultanate (105 - 108)

2.2

Hoysal of Dorasamudra (109 - 111)

2.3

Pandyas of Madhurai (112 -115)

2.4

Kakatiyas of Warangal (116 -119)

2.5.

Decline of the Kampili Kingdom (120)

2.6

Viiayanagar empire (121-150)

2.7

Bahmani Kingdom 151-163)

2.8

The Adil Shahis of Bijapur (164 - 173)

2.9

Indian during the Delhi Sultanate - Administation - Cultural

contributions of the Delhi Sultanate (174 - 198)

2.10
UNIT3:

Bhakti movement (199 - 206)

The Mughals (207 - 314)

3.1

Babur (207 - 215)

3.2-

Humayun (216 - 221)

3.3

. Shershah and his successors (222 - 236)

3.4 Akbar (237 - 263)

3.5

Jahangir (264 - 272)

3.6

Shahjahan (273 - 283)

3.7 Aurangazeb Alangir (284 - 296) .

3.8 The Mughals after Aurangazeb (297 - 308)
3.9 The Decline of the Mughal empire in 1707 AD (309 - 314)
UNIT 4:

The political policy of the Mughals (315.D 351)

4.1

The Deccan policy of the Mughal (315 - 324)

4.2 The North-Western policy of the Mughals (325 - 329) . 4.3 The Central Asia policy of the Mughals
(330 -331) 4.4 Society and economy under the Mughals (332 - 342) 4.5 The Mughal policy (343 - 351)
4.6 -. The cultural contributions of the Mughals (352 - 366) 4.7 The emergence of he Sikhs (367 - 372)
4.8 The rule of Shivaji (373 - 386)
PLACES OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE

UNIT - I
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DELHI SUTANATE
1.1 SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY
The history of medieval India cannot be regarded as Muslim history of India. It was a period when there
were several Indian rulers from martial background or those who took to arms whatever Class to which
they might have belonged to who ruled in different parts of India.
However, the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 A.D. marked the beginning of a new era in
Indian history.
As early as the 8th century A.D. India witnessed Muslim invasions. It was in 1526 A.D. that the Mughal
rule was established in India. During this period, the Indo-Islamic culture developed under the rule of
the Delhi Sultans) It continued to progress under the Mughals.
It has greatly influenced the History of India. The reconstruction of the History of medieval India is
possible due to the availability of sources in abundance.
It is interesting to note that the Muslims were highly interested in chronicling major event) Hence they
had a genuine interest in the art of writing history. (Moreover even the Muslim Sultans encouraged
scholars and poets.

Under their patronage a number of literary works and historical works were written) At that time (Hindu
literature also flourished.A variety of
literature was produced in a number of vernaculars As the Muslims had produced works of historical
importance, they throw light on the history of India from 1206 to 1761 A.D.There are several indigenous
literary works supplemented by foreign accounts to reconstruct the history of Medieval India.
2
INDIGENOUS SOURCES

A large number of works written in Persian and Arabic have provided immense information about the
expansion of the rule of the Muslims in India.
Those works were written by Turks or Afghans who came to India. They began to produce works
narrating the victorious of famous Muslim rulers and enjoyed their patronage.
At the same time they also reflected the progress of culture in medieval India. Especially they have
thrown light on the various aspects of Muslim culture that evolved in India.

LITERARY SOURCES OF DELHI SULTANATE

The conquest of Hindustan by Muhammad of Ghor and the history of the Turkish kingdom till 1206 A.D.
have been narrated in the work called Tabaqat-i-Naziri written by Minhas-us-Siraj.
He was the chief Qazi of Delhi under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud.
Another famous poet of the Delhi Sultante period was Amir Khusro. He is regarded as the Prince of
poets. He was renowned as Tuti-i-Hindior the Parrot of India. He lived between 1290-1325A.D.
He wrote the famous work Khazain-ul-Futuh.
This work is almost the court history of Ala-ud-Din'Khalj0 He has written the work in praise of his patron,
Ala-ud-Din Khalji.
However he was an eye-witness to the events of the age, his works have been regarded as highly
valuable to reconstruct the history of India of Sultanate period.
Another noteworthy scholar of the age was Zia-du-din' Barani.
He was the contemporary of the first three Tughlaq rulers.
He held the post of revenue department.

He wrote the work, Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi.

The work commences with the narration of the accession of Balb;n and traces the political
developments till the sixth regional year of Firoz Shah.
This work is deficient in details pertaining to dates and details0 but it throws immense light on the
revenue administration.
Another famous work of Barani has been the Fatwah-i-ahandari.
This work throws light on the secular and religious policies of the Muslim Government and was written
as an ideal political code for Muslim rulers.
Sams-I-Siraj Afif composed the Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi after Timur's invasions.
It is a narration of the rule of Firoz Shah Tughlaq We secure information about his rule from his
contemporary,Yahya- bin Ahmed, who wrote the work, Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi.
He has provided information on the Sayyid dynasty.
This work is historically important as the work contains accurate dates and events. Ahmed Yadgar lived
during the time of Akbar and wrote the work, Tarikhi-Salatin Afghanis. It is an account of. the Afghans,
the rise and fall of the Lodis and the Surs. MirMohammad Bhakkar wrote the work, Tarikh-i-Sindh)which
was written in about 1600 A.D. It provides information about the history of Sindh from the Arab
conquest to the time of Akbar .
Ferishta is the most famous historian of the Delhi Sultanate period. He was a Persian and a Shia Muslim.
He came to Ahmednagar in 1582 A.D. and started his military career. Later on he migrated to Bijapur
where he joined the army again. He did not remain for long in the army and once again he took to
writing, At the instance of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, he wrote 'The History of the Rise of Muhammadan
Power. This work was completed in 1606 A.D. It is a comprehensive work on the spread of Islam in India.
It throws light on the relations between the Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms. Ferishta's account is
defective in certain ways. He confused the names and events in the history of Vijayanagara.
In reconstructing the rule of the Bahamani Sultans, Futtih-usSalatin, the work written by Isami is highly
valuable. It is a contemporary work on the history of the Bahmani Sultans written in 1358-59. It narrates
the events leading to the establishment of the Bahmani kingdom and the reign and character of the
Bahmani Sultan. Taba Taba lived in the court of Burhan Nizam Shah II (1591-1595). He wrote the work,
Burhan-i-Nazir which provides information about several aspects of the five Bahmani kingdoms. Shiraji
was also patronized by the Adil Shahis. He rote his Tazakirat-ul-Mulk between 1608-1610. It throws light
on the history of Bijapur.
In reconstructing the history of the Mughals a number of sources have proved to be highly valuable.
The Mughal period witnessed intense literary activity. The Mughal emperors themselves were great
scholars and they have left behind records of their reigns.

Apart from it, there are several archaeological sources and numismatics which provide information
about the Mughals rule in India. The Mughal emperors maintained court historians and chroniclers.
So starting from Akbar to the period of Bahadur Shah I number of sources have been available.
Abul Fazl was the favourite of Akbar and he wrote the Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari.
Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote the Padshah Nama under the patronage of Shah Jahan. Mohammad Kasim
wrote the Alingir'Nama and it provides an account of the first decade of Aurangazeb's reign and
Mohammad stopped writing after Aurangazeb banned the writing of official history .
Regarding the reign of Humayun, the Humayun Nama written by Gulbadan Begum has thrown immense
light.
The Tazkirat-ul- waqiatwas written by Jauhar.
Nizam-ud-din Ahmed wrote the 1'abaqat Akbari.
The Tarik-ul-Shershahi was written by Abbas.
Mention may be made of Muhammad Sadiq's Tawarikl-I-Shahjahani and, Khafi,Khans Muntakhab-ulLabab willch were important non-offlclal histories. The Munwkhab-ul-Labab was secretly written tracing
the reign of Aurangazeb and provides a lot of information about the Deccan affairs.

The letters of Aurangazeb, Jai Singh and Afzal Khan throw light on some of the great historical events
of the age. Of the royal biographies, mention may be made of Tuzuk-i-Babari of Babur and
Tuzuk.z-Jahangiri of Jahangir.

A lot of indigenous works were also written between the 12th and,.the 18th centuries. The indigenous
literary.sources of Vijayanagara history may be classified as Chron'icles, General Literature and official or
administrative records, Among the chronicles, at the outset mention may be made of Kalajnanas,
However they are regarded as the prophecies of inspired saints and they supply important clues to the
real course of history. The Vidyaranya Kalajnana, Vidyaranyavrittanta and the Virapayya Kalajnana
describe the circumstances leading to the establishment of the city and empire of Vijayanagara. Many
literary works of historical significance were written during this period, (Gangadevi wrote the Madura
Vijayam narrating the expedition of Kampana against -Madura and its occupation and the restoration of
worship in the temples of the South.
. Some of the important works of Vijayanagara period are the Krislmarajavijayam of Kumara Dhurjati,
Varadambika Parinaya of
5

Tirumalamba and Achyutarayabhyudayam of Rajanatha Dindima. The Tamil Chronicle, Kongudesha

Rajakkal Charitam and the Kannada chronicle Keladi Nripa Vijaya are also useful sources.
The establishment of the Vijayanagara empire also stimulated literary activity in an unprecedented
manner. A large number of commentaries, . poems and dramas contain a lot of historical inforination.
(rhe works of Sayana and Madhva Mantri throw light on the history of.Sangam age. Lakshmana Pandita
who was the court physician of Bukka II wrote the Vaidyarajavallabham) In this work he describes the
history of his patron's family. Lakshminarayana wrote the famous work, Sangitasuryodayarn. He
describes the political events of Krishnadevaraya's reign. The information in this work is corroborated by
the accounts of Nuniz enhancing it authenticity. The Sarasvathi Vilasam of Prataparudra Qajapathi of
Orissa provides information about the history of his family.
Especially Telugu literature flourished during the Vijayanagara period. They have thrown immense light
on the socio-economic conditions of the age. Many.literary works have thrown light on the history of
the Wodeyars of Mysore. Mention maybe made of Chikkadevaraja Vamshqvali: The Ramarajana
Bhakhair that is in both Marathi and Kannada describes the events leading to the battle of
RakkasaTangadi. The administrative records or the Dandakaviles maintained in the villages of the Telugu
country contain information about the social, economic and political conditions of the respective
villages. They were maintained by the. village Karanams and grew from generation to generation. Later
on the digest of the Dandakaviles known as the Kaifiyats were prepared.
In tracing the history of the Marathas a number of literary works have been valuable. In reconstructing
the history of Shivaji.
Sources available in eight different languages such as Marathi, Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian, English, French,
Dutch and Protuguese have been useful.
The Bhakhairs or the chronicles and the correspondence letters are important sources on the history of
Shivaji and his successors.
Of all the Bhakhairs, the Subasad Bhakhair written in 1694 at Jinji at the. instance of Raja Ram is highly
valuable.
The Radhamddhava Champu of Jayaram Pindye, the Siva Bharat of Para man and and Siva
Rajyabhisekha Kalpawru are the Sanskrit Kavyas which deal with the victories of Shivaji.
The Rajyavyavahara Kosh, a Persian-Sanskrit dictionary of political terms compiled at the instance of
Shivaji throvs light on Shivaji's administration.
The Kannada works like Linganna's Keladi Nripa Vijayam and Govinda Vaidya's Kantirava Narasaraja
Vijayam provide information about the careers of Shahji, Shivaji and his successors.

The Persian histories and especially Khafi Khan's works are very valuable for Maratha history. The
records of the English, Dutch, French and Portuguese factories at Bombay, Surat, Madura an?
Pondicherry contain imressions of events connected with Shivajis campaigns and wars.
The Maratha official records are known as Peshwa Daftars and the English Residency records are the
most valuable sources for the period of the Peshwas. The Maratha records end with the treaty of Salbai
in 1782. From then onwards the English Residents were appointed to the Maratha courts. The
correspondence between the English and the Maratha courts or Residency records are related to the
political affairs and they deal with the events of different parts of the' country. They provide information
about Tipu Sultan, the Nizam, the Rajput states and the members of the Maratha confederacy.
The most important Persian record for the Peshwa period is the Tarikh-i-Manazilu-Futuh of Mohammad
]afar Shamlu who was an .eye-witness to the third battle of Panipat.) Another Persian work on the battle
is the Nigar-Nama-I-Hind of Said Ghulam Ali, which was based on the account of a certain Rao Krishna
Rao of Deccan. The Hyder Nama which is an excellent Biography of Hyder Ali in Kannada is also helpful
not only to trace his carrer but also for the history of the Marathas during the 18th century.
.
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
Th/,persian, Arabic and European writings are the main sources to reconstruct the history of medieval
India. Alberuni was the earliest Arab writer. He marks the transition from the ancient to the medieval
times. He wrote the Tarikh-i-Hind in Arabic anGl this work throws light on the invasions of Ma,h11lud
Ghaznifter Alberuni, the famous
historians and geographers were Ibn Said (1214-1286), Abulfeda (1273-1331) and Ibn Batuta whose
writings furnish valulable information about the socio-economic conditions of the age.
Ibn Batuta the Moorish traveler, stayed in India between 1333 to 1342.
He was appointed as the Qazi of Delhi by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and was later sent as ambassador to
China. After returning to his country in 1349, Ibn Batuta wrote an account of his journey called Kitab-urRahla) This work of travels is an ,enjoyable work on the life and times of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. Ibn
Batuta also describes the expansions of Harihara's authority as far as Quilon and other kingdoms of the
west coast
Abdul Razaak was the Persian ambassador sent by Shah Ruk to the court of Zamorin of Calicut. He
visited Vijayanagara in 1442-43. He gives a splendid description of the city of Vijayanagara and also
throws light on the topography, administration and social life of the Vijayanagara kingdom.
Marco Polo is regarded as the Prince of medieval travellers.
He was the first and most interesting European who visited India.

He described the populous cities and prosperous industries of India. By this, \he Europeans were
attracted by the wealth of India and a number of sailors and merchants traveled to India and settled in
the coastal areas.
The rise of the Vijayanagara empire in South India and the establishment of the Portuguese colonies on
the west coast also attracted a number of foreigners to India. A number of European travellers,
missionaries and merchants flowed into India and and they have left behind accounts about
Marco
Polo South India.
Nicolo Conti, an Italian traveller started from Damascus, passed through Persia and sailed along the
coast of Malabar. He visited Vijayanagara in 1420-21 A.D. He has left behind valuable information about
the court, its festivals, its currency and other matters) The
Russian trader, Athanasius Niketin visited the Deccan region in 1470 A.D. and remained here for some
time and he travelled in the Bahmani kingdom) He made minute observations about the social life of the
people In the Bahmani rule. He observed the wide gap between the wealth of the nobility and the
misery of the peasants.
0-udovico De Vathema of Bologna, an Italian soldier travelled in India between [he years 1502 and 1508
A.D. He provoides an account of Goa, Calicut and other ports of the west coast. He described the city of
Vijayanagar in an interesting manner. The Portuguese traveller, Durate Barbosa stayed in India from
1500 to 1516 A.D.) His writings have been considered as highly valuable. He wrote on the geography,
ethnography and historical matters of South India. His accounts have been regarded as highly authentic.

Louis Friar was a Portuguese officer. He was sent to the court of the Vijayanagara ruler by
Albuqi.lerque in 1510. At that time the prosperity of Vijayanagara was at its height under the able rule of
Krishnadevaraya. He elucidates the expeditions of Krishnadevaraya before his Kalinga expedition.; The
chronicles of Domingo Paes and Nuniz throw much light on the history of the Vijayanagara emprie.
Nuniz throws im.mense light on the history of Vijayanagara. Nuniz was a horse dealer who spent three
years (1535-1537) at Vijayanagara. He composed his chronicle in 1537. Nuniz and Domingo Paes have
given a vivid description of the rule of Krishnadevaraya. Caesar Frederick visited Vijayanagara JUSt after
the battle of Rakkasa Tangadi. He has lamented about the ruins of the once mighty Vijayanagaa empire.
The contemporary Jesuit letters from South India contain references to the political developments of
the 1 th century A.D., mostly related to the Bahmani Sultans and the Nayakas of Madura, Tanjore and
others.
A number of foreign trayellers and merchants visited the Mughal empire and have left behind
interesting accounts of the society, culture and Government of the Mughals. The accounts of some
other travellers are also useful. Mention may be made of the (accounts of Ralph Fitch, (1512-91), John
Mindenhall (1599-1606), William Hawkins (1608-13), Edward Terry (1616-19) and Sir Thomas Roe who
were Engl'ishmen.

Similarly De Laet (Dutch), Pietro Della Valle (1623-27), Peter Mundy (1628-36), Mannuci (Italian
travellers),
Bernier, Travenier and Thevnot (French Travellers) have also left behind valuable accounts) (Their works
throw light on the socioeconomic conditions of the people, the' growth of trade and commerce,
industrial development and the history.of the Christian churches in India) However it is difficult to
consult these documents at face value. Most of the writers recorded the rumours that they heard and
the popular legends and stories.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
A number of archaeological sources also throw light on the history of medieval India.
There are a lot of inscriptions, coins and monuments that speak volumes about the general conditions
prevailing in India and the political developments.
The inscriptions on Vijayanagara history are more in number than those of the Muslim rulers.
They provide useful clus to determine the extent of the kingdom, and about the geneology and
chronology of its dynasties) Most of the Muslim inscriptions are in Persian whereas those of
Vijayanagara are either in Sanskrit or in anyone of the South Indian vernaculars. The study of coins of
the age is also useful. The Vijayanagara Rayas and the Sultans of Delhi and the Bahmanis sultnas have
been found in abundance. Gold Silver and copper coins were in circulation) They throw light on the
economic condition of the age. As far as @onuments are concerned several temples, mosques,
mausoleums and tombs were constructe.d and they are a testimony to the growth of Indo-Islamic style
of architecture in India) and they throw immense light on the culture of the medieval times in the
history of India.
1.2 MUSLIM INVASIONS OF INDIA
POLITICAL BACKGROUND (7th to 12th centuries) RAJPUT PERIOD
After the death of Harsha till the 12th century A.D., the destiny of India was shaped by the different
Rajput dynasties. The Rajput rulers were constantly engaged in mutual rivalry and wars. There was a
struggle for supremacy among the Rajputs. So India lacked a 'strong central authority; Earlier during the
ancient period the Magadha empire emerged as a strong politicaL unit that appeared to be formidable
even to the Greeks who invaded India under the leadership of Alexander. So the Greek solidiers refused
to move further igto the heart of India and forced Alexander to retreat. But when the Turks invaded
India, there was lack of a strong central authority to check their advance. There was no sense of national
unity and the frontiers of India remained neglected. Such a political Situation in India proved to be
harmful to India. It ultimately led to the subjugation of India to the rule of the Truks who entered India
from the North-western region.
THE RAJPUT STATES

In North India some of the Rajput states emerged politically strong. Mention may be made of the
Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi, the Gahadwalas or Rathors of Kanauj, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the
Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar, the Paramaras of Malwa, the Tomars of Delhi, the Pratiharas or Gurjaras
of Kanauj and the Palas of Bengal. The Hindushahi kingdom and the kingdom of Kashmir were the two
other important Hindu kingdoms of North India. By that time in Multan and Sindh two Muslim kingdoms
had been established. In the Southern region in India the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Chalukyas of
Kalyana as well as the Cholas of

11

Tanjore constituted the important ruling families. Similarly in other parts of India there were small
kingdoms such as Thaneshwar, Kangra and Gwalior.
THE CHAUHANS OF DELHI AND AJMERThe Chauhans were the feudatories of the Pratiharas of Kanauj. Later on they declared their
indeRendence and- established their kingdom, initially at Ajmer in the 11th century AD. In the beginning
of the 12th century, they defeated the Paramaras of Malwa and captured Ujjain. Later they captured
Delhi from the Tomars and shifted their capital to Delhi. The most outstanding ruler of the Chauhans of
Delhi was Prithviraj Chauhan. Several legends are connected to the life of Prithviraj. His military exploits
have been immortalized in the epic poem, 'Prithviraj Raso' composed by Chand Bardai.
The relation between Prithviraj and Jaichand, the ruler of Kanauj was not very cordial. A deep rivalry
existed between Prithviraj and Jai Chand. According to a popular legend, Prithviraj carried away
Samjukta, the daughter of Jai Chand from her Swayamvara function. The bitter enemity between these
two Rajput rulers continued and it ultimately resulted in-the destruction of both the Rajput kingdoms of
Delhi and Kanauj when Mohammad of Gho.ri invaded India.
THE TOMARS OF DELHI
The Tomars established their kingdom at Delhi in 736 AD. They were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
Later on they declared their independence and began to rule in Delhi. In 1043, Mahipala Tomar

caRtured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot. In the middle of the 12th century they came under the
suzereignty of the Ch;whans who captured Delhi from them.
THE PRATIHARAS OF KANAUJ
According to legendary accounts Nagabhatta (725-40 AD.) was the first famous Pratihara ruler who
captured Kanauj after the death of King Harsha and he carried 0n a successful expedition against the
Arab invaders of Sindh an9 prevented them from extending their kingdom. The Pratihara rulers had
several parts of India under their control. They maintained the best cavalry in India. It was

12

Mohammad Ghazni who gave a severe blow to the Pratiharas of Kanauj in 1019 AD.
GAHADVALAS OR RATHORS OF KANAUJ
After the decline of the Pratiharas they were a period of confusion. Ultimately the Gahadvalas
established themselves as the rulers of Kanauj and Tuled between 1090 to 1194 AD. Jai Chand was the
last great ruler of this dynasty. Usually most of the historians have made derogatory remarks about the
attitude of Jai Chand when Mohammad Ghori invaded India and when he came into conflict with
Prithviraj Chauhan. In 1194 AD.he was killed in a battle with Mohammad Ghori. Earlier he had supported
Mohammad Ghori against Prithviraj Chauhan.
THECHANDELAS OF BUNDELKHAND
Bundelkhand was a part of the Pratiharakingdom of Kanauj.
It was established tn the 9th century. Mahoba was the capital of Bundelkharid and KaHrijor was an
important fort. The Chandelas built a numher of beautiful temples of which the Kandariya Mahadeva
temple built in 1050 A.D. is the most famous temple.
THE GUHILAS OR TIIE SISODIYA OF MEWAR

Bapa Rawal was the founder of the Sisodiadynasty with his, capital at Chittor. Rana Ratan Singh of
Mewar was defeated by Ala-ud-din Khaji in 1307. It ended with Rani Padmini committing Jauhr to save
her honour. Later on Rana Sanga and Maharana Pratap Singh, carried on a relentless struggle against the
Mughals.
THE PARAMARAS OF MALWA
The Paramaras were the feudatories of the Pratiharas when they began their political career. Taking
advantage of the weakness of the Pratiharas, they established their kingdom during the 10th century
AD. in Malwa. Dhara in Madhya Pradesh was their capital and Raja Bhoja was the most outstanding ruler
of this dynasty. He was a man of letters and he also patronized several scholars and poets. He founded,
the famous Sanskrit college at Dhara. He constructed a beautiful lake near Bhopal. The last ruler of this
dynasty was killed by one of the generals of Ala-ud-din Khalji in 1305 AD.

13

THE PALAS OF BENGAL

The Palas established their kingdom at Bengal in the middle of the 8th century. Their rule lasted for
about four centuries. The Pala dynasty consisted of 17 rulers. The Pala kingdom reached the zenith of its
power and prestige during the 10th century and most parts of Bengal came under the control of the
Palas. The kingdom of the Pal as comprised of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam. The Pala reputation
transcended the boundaries of India into Tibet and East Indies. The Palas heralded a new era of cultural
renaissance in Bengal. The Vikramashila University was established in 8th century. Under the Palas
Buddhism flourished immensely. During the rule of the Palas trade and commerce flourished, between
India and South East Asia countries and it contributed to economic prosperity.
THE RASHTRAKUTAS OF MALKHED (SOUTH)
The Rashtrakutas remained in power between the 8th and 10th centuries. Their rule of nearly three
centuries was indeed remarkable. During the middle of the 8th century, the Rashtrakuta is established
their control over central and Southern Gujatat. They also extended their sway over whole of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and most parts of Bihar and Karnataka.
The contribution of the Rasthrakutas to art and architecture is also remarkable. The rock cut shrinis of
Elephanta and Ellora belong to this period. The Jainas temple at Ellora built bv Krishna I is the most
famous temple of the Rashtrakuta period. Mention maybe made of the sculptured reliefs of Nataraja at
Elephanta. Moreover the most renowned sculpture has been the Trimurthi or Maheshamurthi in which
God is depicted in Triple form as Creator, Protector and destroyer.

The political unity of India received a severe blow due to the emergence of small kingdoms. These small
kingdoms were constantly involved in petty quarrels amongst themselves. It added to the confused
politics of the age. Indian rulers failed to understand the gravity of the foreign invaders who were
threatening to establish their supremacy in India. The wealth of India attracted the foreign invaders like
Mahmud Ghazni and Mohammad Ghori.

14

THE RAJPUT POLITY

At the time of the advent of the Arabs and the Turks there were a number of Rajput states in India. They
had established their own peculiar political system which contributed to their failure in checking the
invasions of the foreigners like the Arabs and Turks. The Main features of the Rajput polity were as
follows1.
Petty kingdoms- The period between 1000 to 1200 A.D. is referred to as the age of the Rajputs
in Indian history. During this period several independent states came to be established. India did not
have a strong central authority to bring about unity among these small states. Multan and Sindh were
the two Arab (Muslim) states of India. In the North-west, was the Hiridushahi kingdom whose ruler at
the time of the invasion of Mahmud Ghori was Jayapala. Kashmir was also an independent state. Other
important Rajput states were the Chauhans of Ajmer, the Gahadvalas or Rathors of Kanauj, the
Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Guhilas or the Sisodiyas of Mewar, the Paramaras of Malwa; the
Pratiharas of Kanauj and the Palas of Bengal. The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed, the Chalukyas of Kalyana
and the Cholas of Tanjore ruled over the southern parts of 'ndia. These kingdoms were independent and
there was no sense of unity among these states.
2.
Internal Rivalry- The Rajput states were constantly involved in petty quarrels. They indulged in
wars with their neighbours. Each Rajput state was following the policy of aggression and expansion.
Their resources were drained due to the constant wars in which they were involved. So in the face of
foreign invaders the Rajputs failed to protect their kingdoms.
3. Feudal nature of Rajput polity- The feudal nature of the Rajput political organization was rather
peculiar. Jagirs were allotted to the nobles. They became the feudal lords or they Jagirdars. They paid
annual revenue to the king and rendered military service during times of war. The Jagirdars were usually
the members of the royal family only. They were highly ambitious. They allotted some portions of the
land to Sub- Jagirdars. So the system led to subletting of land. It was very difficult for the Rajput ruler to
infuse a sense of loyalty among the

15

feudatories. They rather remained independent in all administrative matters. Moreover it led to the
growth of internal rivalry among the Rajput feudatories. They hardly had any feeling of patriotism or the
idea of a unified nation. They personal differences became more acute and it led to only the growth of
disruptive forces in the country. As the Rajput army was constituted by the armies of a number of feudal
lords, there was no sense of co-operation and co-ordination. So each group followed an independent
war strategy and failed to check the advent of the Arabs and the Turks.
According to Dr.Ishwari Prasad, "There was no dearth of military talent or fighting skill in the country, for
the Rajputs were the finest soldiers scarcely inferior in the qualities of courage, valour and endurance to
men of any other coutry. But they lacked unity and organization. Pride and prejudice also forbade
obedience to a common leader and in critical moments when concentrated action was essential for a
victory, they renewed their individual plans and thus neutralized the advantages they possessed over
the enemies.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
The social condition in India between the 8th and 10th centuries constituted a diaspora of various clans
and tribes that lacked political unity and social coherence. The feudal character of Indian society was the
most predominant-feature. Here was a great disparity ip the standard of living of the people. The
ministers, officials, feudal chiefs and those having the opportunity to accumulate wealth lived in luxury
and splendour. They were fond of costly clothes, Chinese silk, Jewels and ornaments. The grandeur and
pomp of the royal family was indeed amazing. The nobles also lived in imposing many storied houses
and they even competed with the grandeur of the royal palace. A large number of servants attended to
the needs and comforts of the nobility. While the nobility enjoyed a life of opulence, the condition of
the common people was contrary to it with the people just being contented with vegetables and rice.
The peasants were burdened with land revenue and other taxes levied by the state.
The caste system prevailed during the Rajput period. The condition of the lower castes was rather
deplorable. The condition of weavers, barbers, and fishermen was also pathetic. A new caste

16

appeared in the form of Rajputs in Indian society. Gradually all ruling families came to be classified as
Rajputs although they belonged to different castes. It appears that at that time the Hindu society had a
great absorptive capacity. Several foreign races were absorbed into Hindu society. For instance the
Greeks, theSakas, the Hunas etc. embraced Hinduism.Gradually with the increasing Muslim invasions
the Rajput society became more rigid.

The Rajputs were great fighters. They followed the concept of Dharma even in warfare. They valued
certain specific ideals. They were generous and magnanimous. They also had a great sense of pride
about their descent. They were brave and had a feeling of self-respect. They gave shelter to the refugees
and they vanquished foes. They also nurtured the ideals of sacrifice and valour. In this regard they were
highly emotional. The position of women was rather peculiar. Although women were accorded a
position of honour in Rajput society, in reality several evil practices had crept in. Women were deprived
of the. right of studying the Vedas. However women of higher families were provided the right of
securing education. They followed high ideals. They followed the policy of Sati and immolated
themselves along with the dead bodies of their husbands. Earlier the practice of ]auhar was popular. The
women folk immolated themselves on a buring pyre to save their honour Swayamvara type of marriage
was followed by the members pf the royal family. During this period even female infanticide and early
marriage of girls started in Indian society.
During the period between 8th and 10th centuries, Nalanda in Bihar emerged as a center of higher
education. Vikramashila and Uddandapura emerged as popular educational centres. Several Shaiva
centers of learning flourished in Kashmir. Religion and philosophy were the popular subjects of study
and discussion. Philosophy and language were the popular subjects studied by the people. The progress
of science was rather negligible.
Hinduism remained as the predominant religion in India. In Hinduism Shaivism and Vaishnavism were
revived. Buddhism had lost its popularity. It was patronized only by the Palas uf Bengal. ]ainism was
patronized by the Chalukyas in Karnataka in South India.

17

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The Rajput rulers encouraged the enhancement of
agricultural production. Dams and canals were constructed. Irrigational facilities were promoted by the
State. Although the agricultural production increased and the income of the state was enhanced, the
condition of the peasants was deplorable due to the feudal economic structure. The peasants were
exploited by the landlords. Land revenue was the chief source of income to the state. Land was classified
according to the fertility of the soil and the irrigational facilities. Land revenue was paid mainly in kind
and a part in cash. Gifts, fines, mines, forests and leased-out lands provided additional sources of
income to the State. Different types of Industries flourished. However there were signs of decline in the
industrial sector. Cotton and Woollen, clothes were manufactured on large scale. Manufacture of salt
and weapons emerged into a major industrial enterprise. The manufacture of several artistic articles
which included carving statues of Ashtadhatus or eight metals developed during this period . Different
types of ornaments were, carved. Similarly a variety of pottery was manufactured. Along with inland
trade, foreign trade also declined. India imported condimen:ts from South East Asian countries.

However it did not contribute much to the economic prosperity of India. Horses and wine were
imported from western countries. Silks came from China and Grapes and some other articles came from
Cambodia. India exported Sandalwood; Camphor, Cloves, Indigo, Ivory, coconut, herbs, black pepper,
cardamom and woollen clothes.
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS
The Rajputs were patrons of art and architecture. They constructed a number of dams, canals, forts,
palaces, temples and towers. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and forts of Chittoor, Mandu, Jodhpur
and Gwalior are the finest specimens of Rajput architecture. The Lingaraja temple was constructed at
Bhubaneshwara and the Sun temple was constructed at Konark. Durihg the rule of the Chandelas the
famous Kandariya Mahadeva temple. was constructed at Khajuraho. No less was the contribution of the
Rajputs to the field of literature. The Rajput rulers patronized several scholars and poets. Kalhana wrote
the history of Kashmir, titled, Rajatarangini and Chand Bardai wrote the famous work, Prithviraj Raso.

THE ADVENT OF THE ARABS

The Islamic or Muslim culture in India was introduced by the Arabs, after the Caliphs undertook the task
of spreading Islam in different parts of the world. The first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and Ali
were. the pioneers who took up the cause of propagating the principles of Prophet Mohammad. The
entire region extending from the Sassanid and Byzantine empire and including Syria, Iran and
Mesopotamia were influenced greatly by Islamic. culture. The Arabs and the Turks were the forerunners in spreading the precepts of Islam in different parts of the world. According to Wolseley Haig,
the rise of Islam is one of the marvels of History.
ARAB INVASION
The Arab traders and Muslim saints were the chief propagators of Islamic religion. The Arab armies
raided the frontier regions of India by 'the Seventh century A.D. itself. At first the Muslim Arabs
. settled down on the Malabar coast. By the eight century A.D. the Arab fleets' attacked Broach and
other harbours on the Kathiawar coast. Initially the Arabs entered India through the Sind region.
Abdullah-bin-Omar defeated the rulers of Makram and Sind. The conquest of Sindh was not considered
as profitable because Sind was an area that was economically poor due to the scarcity of water.
By 711 A.D. the Caliph despatched Ubaidullah to capture Sind but his expedition ended in failure. In 712
A.D., a large army was sent under the command of Mohammad-bin-Qasim to conquer Sind. He occupied
Makran and Debal. It was not easy to occupy Debal as the Brahmanas had made a powerful Talisman
and placed it near the red flag. However a Brahmana disclosed the secret about the Talisman to the
Arabs. When the flag was destroyed, the Hindus surrendered. Many of them were forced to accept
Islam.

Mohammad-bin-Qasim advanced further towards Nerun. He occupied Multan, the chief city of upper
Indus. 'Multan was called as 'the city of God' by the Arabs as it was extremely prospe;ous. After crossing
the Indus, Qasim confronted the army of Dahir. The

19

Muslims had to face stiff resistance of a powerful army consisting of elephants and Horses.
Unfortunately the elephant of Dahir was frightened. Dahir got down from the elephant and mounted a
horse. His soldiers lost heart and went helter-skelter by assuming that their "S leader was dead. Dahir
was defeated and killed in the battle. His widow, Ranibai tried to defend the fort of Rawar. Her efforts
proved to be futile and Rawar was occupied by the Arabs. Qasim also occupied Brahmanabad which was
under the control of Jai Singh, son of Dahir. Qasim aspired to occupy the whole of India and establish the
Arab hegemony.
The dream of Mohammad-bin-Qasim of establishing the supremacy of the Arabs in India appeared to be
fulfilled when Qasim had defeated Dahir and occupied Rawar. The daughters of Dahir, Suryadevi and
Parmaladevi were sent to the Caliph as presents by Qasim. The Caliph chose Suryadevi but Suryadevi
wanted to avenge the insult inflicted by Qasim. She informed the Ca1iph that she was unworthy to
become the companion of the Caliph as Qasim had dishonoured her sister and herself before sending
them to the Caliph. This annoyed the Caliph who ordered the death of Qasim. According to the order
Qasim was sewn up in a wet hide and was killed in a terrible manner. Later on, Suryadevi revealed to the
Caliph that the allegation which she had made against Qasim was false. The Caliph ordered both the
sisters to be tied to the tails of horses and dragged until they were dead. Another view is that some of
the rivals of Qasim poisoned the ears of the Calipha against Qasim and the Calipha ordered the death of
Qasim.
The Arab invasions had a profound impact. The principles of Islam began to spread from Sind and Punjab
in the frontier areas of India. The advent of the Arabs also resulted in cultural exchange. The Arabs were
awestruck seeing the advancement of the Hindus and Buddhists in the fields of Astronomy, Philosophy,
Mathematics and medicine. A large number of people in Sind converted themselves to Islam. The
practices unknown to the Hindus were adopted by them in North India due to the influence of the
Arabs. There is no unanimity of opinion among the scholars about the Arab conquests. There are
evidences that none of the temples were destroyed by the Arabs. Moreover the Brahmanas were
appointed to administrative posts. In all probability, the Arab invasions must

20
have been caused due to the attraction of the immense wealth of India which was renowned since
times immemorial. The Arabs were disappointed when they entered through Sind but they rejoiced

when Multan was captured as the Arabs secured immense amount of gold and they named it as the city
of gold.
CAUSES FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE ARABS
The Arabs were successful in Sind as it was economically a poor
country which did not consist of a long standing army. The people of Sind were unable to meet the
challenge of the invaders. Moreover there was lack of unity among the people of Sind.
The Jats, Meds and others joined hands with the invaders due to their deep resentment against the
Brahmin ruler. Dahir was the son of Chacha. Chacha had been only a minister of Sahasi. He usurped the
throne after the death of the king and married the widowed queen. He was regarded as a tyrant. The
condition of the Jats was deplorable. Chacha had passed strict orders prohibiting the Jats from wearing
silk robes. The people resented Dahir as he was the son of Chacha.The Arab forces were well-equipped
and well trained in the art of warfare. The Arabs were adventurous and enthusiastic. The people of Sind
lacked the fighting spirit as it had been isolated from the mainland of India and was away from internal
politics.
The Arabs were inspired by a definite cause. Their religious fanaticism imbibed in them enthusiasm and
zeal to ensure victory. Even when the news reached Dahir that the Arabs had advanced, he did not take
adequate measures to check them. He was a passive specatator when Qasim attacked the neighbouring
territories. Moreover, Dahir did not adopt a definite strategy or war tactics to taekle the enemy. He
confronted the Arabs in a pitched battle. No wonder that the rule "Might is right' prevailed in the war
and the Hindus were outnumbered easily by the Muslim Arabs.
FAILURE OF THE ARABS

Several factors prove that the Arabs were initially successful in establishing their empire in India.
However, they failed to establish their hegemony permanently in India. The death of MohammadbinQasim at a crucial moment was unfortunate. The Arab expansion

21

in India was brought to a complete halt due to lack of competent persons who could lead the Arabs.
The Arabs also entered India from the wrong region. Sind was economically a poor country. The Arabs
could not secure any support to proceed with their conquests due to lack of resources. The capture of
Sind did not prove to be profitable. The Arabs were not rewarded in such a big way so as to strengthen
themselves to embark on the conquest of the whole of India .

India was a heterogeneous empire consisting of several kingdoms. The whole of India was not under the
authority of any one ruler. So the Arabs could not defeat one ruler and gain control of the entire region.
They had to confront the attack of several Hindu Rajas.
Many of the Arabs settled down in India and they married Indian women. They did not pursue religious
fanaticism. They did not destroy temples and discrinlinate against the Hindus. They were also attracted
by Indian philosophy. The impact of Islam was not so strong to absorb the Hindus. More so, an
intermixed culture evolved in the frontier areas.
The Rajputs resisted the attack of the Arabs with all their might.
Cultural differences also added to the Rajputs refusal to accept an alien culture and rule. After the death
of Qasim, there were no fresh reinforcements. So the Arab conquest has merely remained as an episode
in the history of medieval India.
CONDITION IN INDIA
The Arabs had conquered Sindh and Multan. The Hindu Rajas did not make concerted efforts to oust the
Arabs from India due to mutual jealousy. Upper Sind with the capital, Multan and Lower Sind remained
under the Muslim chiefs who paid allegiance to the Calipha.
The Hindushashi kingdom which extended from the river Chenab to the Hindukush mountains resisted
the onslaught of the Arabs. ]aipal was the Hiriduruler who resisted the Arab attacks, but he could not
confront the Muslim forces effectively.
The Pratiharas ruled over Kanauj. They were constantly engaged in wars with the Palas and
Rashtrakutas. The Pratihara

22

kingdom extended including major parts of Rajasthan and Mahya. Gradually their feudatories declared
their independence. The Pratiharas were succeeded by Gahadwalas of Kanauj. The eminent rulers in this
line were Chandradeva, Govinda Chandra and J ai Chandra. During the rule of Jaichandra, Prithviraj
Chauhan emerged as his arch rival. Due to their rivalry, the Muslims benefited and it resulted in the fall
of both Jaichandra and Prithviraj Chauhan.
The Chandelas ruled over the Bundelkhand region. They were fired with the spirit of independence and
tried to resist the Muslim onslaughts. Vidyadhara resisted the Muslims. Madanavarman extended his
empire. During the rule of Paramardin, the hostility between the Chandelas and Chauhans continued to
persist. The Tomars ruled over Delhi and established their control over Hansi, Thaneshwar and
Nagarkot. They were constantly engaged in wars against the Rajputs. The Tomars supported the
Muslims against Rajputs.

The Chauhans of Ajmer and Sambhar were the formidable enemies of the Muslims. The Tomars of Delhi
were converted as the feudatories of the Chauhans. Prithviraj and Vyaghraraja realized the danger of
the Muslim onslaught and tried to check their advance. The Chauhans remained hostile towards the
Chandelas of Mahoba, Paramaras of Malwa and the Gahadvalas of Kanauj. Jaichandra Gahadvala and
Prithviraj Chauhan III were bitter rivals and Prithviraj III tried to resist the attack of Mohammad
Ghoriand failed to accomplish his task. The Chalukyas of Gujarat rose to power due to Mulraj, the
founder of the dynasty by 10th century A.D. The Chalukyas did not realize the danger of the Muslim
invasions. They always tried to remain neutral.
The Paramaras of Malwa fought with the Northern and Southern powers. By the 10th century the
Paramaras did not enjoy an important position in India. The Kalachuris were ruling at Gorakhpur and
Tripura. They were engaged in wars against the Chandelas and the Paramaras. The Palas ruled in Bengal
and they fought against the Pratiharas of Kanauj. The Rashtrakutas and Cholas of South India, the
Chalukyas of Kalyana, the Cholas of Tanjore and the Pandyas of Madhurai continued to struggle for
power.

23
THE TURKISH INVASIONS
THE GHAZNAVAIDS
The Arabs were the first Muslim invaders to threaten the peace and security of India. However, they
were unsuccessful in establishing their supremacy in India. The Turks undertook the task of invading
India, spreading Islam and establishing their paramountcy in India. They were more aggressive than the
Arabs. Lane Poole describes the expansion of the Turks as "The master movement in the Mohammaden
empire in the tenth and eleventh centuries".
The earliest Turkish adventurer who embarked on an invasion of India was Alaptgin. He was a slave of
Abdul Malik, the Samanid king of Bhukara. After the death of Abdul Malik, Alaptgin settled down in
Ghazni with a few of his trusted soldiers and exercised his authority in Ghazni and the neighbouring
areas. Alaptgin died in 977 A.D. He was, succeeded by Subuktgin as the ruler of Ghazni. Subuktgin was
also a slave bought by Alaptgin from a merchant and was brought from Turkestan to Bukhara. Alaptgin
also gave his daughter in marriage to Subuktgin. Initially, Stibuktgin occupied Lamgham, Sistan and
Khorasan. Later on, he turned his attention towards India. He had to confront J ayapala of the
Hindushahi dynasty. Subuktgin attacked India in 986 A.D. Jayapala retaliated against the raids of
Subuktgin. A war ensued but Jayapala faced serious reverses in the war and was forced to sue for peace.
Jayapala paid a heavy war indemnity of one million Dirhams, 50 elephants and also surrendered many
cities and forts. However very soon Jayapala organized a confederacy of rulers of Ajmer, Kalinjor and

Kanauj to end the rule of Subuktgin. Jayapala was defeated and he was forced to accept the sovereignty
of Subuktgin. In 997, Subuktgin died and was succeeded by Mahmud Ghazni
MAHMUD GHAZNI (997-1030 A.D.)
Subuktgin was succeeded by his son, Mahmud as the ruler of Ghazni. According to Sir Henry Elliot,
Mahmud led as many as 17 expeditions against India. Initially, Mahmud played an important role in the
battle of Lamghan, Kharasan was placed under his charge. Subuktgin did not have much affection for
Mahmud and he

24

nominated his younger son, Ismail as the successor. Mahmud led an expedition against Ismail, defeated
him and ascended the throne. The Caliph also recognized the authority of Mahmud. Mahmud attacked
the frontier areas of India in 1000 A.D.
During his second expedition, he defeated Jayapala in the battle of Peshawar. Jayapala and his relatives
fell into the hands of Mahmud Ghazni. He. signed a peace treaty by which he agreed to pay 2 lakh Dinars
as ransom and also agreed to give 50 elephants. Mahmud eliminated Jayapala completely from the
political scene as Jayapala committed suicide when he was unable to' bear the humiliation. The third
expedition of Mahmud resulted in the subjugation of the Raja of Bhira. In the fourth expedition;
Mahmud captured Multan successfully. In the fifth expedition, he invaded Punjab to subdue Sukhpal or
Nawas Shah (Grandson of Jayapala) who had turned out to be a recalcitrant viceroy.
During the sixth expedition Mahmud broke down the confederacy of Anandapal and the rulers of Ujjain,
Kalinjor, Kanauj, Ajmer and Delhi. By 1009, Mahmud occupied the region of Nagarkot in the Kangra hills.
A large treasury fell into the hands of Mahmud. Ferishta says that Mahmud secured about 7 lakhs of
Gold Dinars, 700 mounds of Gold and silver plates, 200 mounds of pure Gold ingots, mounds of jewels,
pearls, diamonds, rubies and other precious stones.
Meanwhile Anandapal was succeeded by Trilochanapal. Mahmud defeated Trilochanapal in a battle
near Ram Ganga. Trilochanapal was succeeded by Bhimpal. By 1026 A.D., the Hindushahi dynasty was
completely extirpated. Mahmud also led a successful expedition against Thaneswar. The city was looted
and the image of Chakraswami was sent to Ghazni where it was thrown in the public square. Mahmud
turned his attention towards Kanauj. He started from Ghazni in 1018 A.D. and captured all the forts on
the way. The ruler, Haradatta surrendered and converted himself along with 10,000 men to Islam. Later
on, Mahmud marched against Kulachand, the ruler of Mahawan. Kulachand was unable to face lhe
Muslim army and he killed his wife and committed suicide.
The siege of Mathura by Mahmud was a spectacular event as it was the sacred city of the Hindus. The
resistance of the Hindus

25

proved to be futile. Mahmud ordered that the temple has to be burnt with Naphtha and fire. The
temple consisted of six idols made out of pure Gold. Mahmud secured 98,300 Mithquals of Gold by
melting the images. He plundered many other temples and forts and secured immense booty. In Kanauj,
nearly 10,000 temples were destroyed. Although the Gonds tried to resist Mahmud, they were unable to
face the superior forces of Mahmud and they sued for peace. Mahmud also laid siege on the fortress of
Gonds by proceeding towards Kalinjor. The ruler of Gonds also realized the futility of fighting against
Mahmud and sued for peace.
The most significant and remarkable expedition of Mahmud was against Somnath. Mahmud made
elaborate preparations for the journey through the desert region of Rajputana. By 1025 A.D. Mahmud
arrived at Anhilwara. Bhima Rao fled from his capital. Certain remaining soldiers were defeated and the
city was plundered. The Lingam at Somnath was believed to be one of the 12 Jyotirlingams that had
descended from heaven. The temple consisted of 56 pillars set in rows, all carved in an exquisite manner
and inlaid with gems. The huge bell was swung on a .solid gold chain which weighed about 1500 pounds.
The Son:nath temple was plundered by Mahmud and a large booty consisting of Diamonds, Rubies and
pearls fell into his hands. The Brahmanas requested Mahmud to spare the idol of Someshwara. But
Mahmud broke the idol of Someshwara as he preferred to be known as "Mahmud, the Ghazi; or the idol
breaker". However there are differences of opinion among the historians regarding the meaning of
Ghazi. Lastly, Mahmud defeated the Jats. He gave up the idea of transferring his capital from Ghazni to
Anhilwara. He died by about 1030 A.D.
Dr.lshwari Prasad says that, to the Mussalmans of his day, he was a Ghazi, a champion of the faith who
tried to extirpate infidelity in the pagan lands. Prof.Habib tells us that Mahmud had cherished a secular
outlook of life and he did not follow the Ulema blindly. He was not a fanatic. But there are evidences of
Utbi, the court historian of Mahmud.Utbi reveals that Mahmud undertook several expeditions to India
as Jihad or Holy war which was waged for the destruction of the Hindus and the spread of Islam. The
view of Dr.Tarachand provides a new dimension to the object of Mahmud

26

to invade India. He holds the view that the object of Mahmud was not the propagation of his faith or the
exaltation of the glory of Islam but purely territorial aggrandizement and plunder. The contributions of
Mahmud to administration and other arts of peace are negligible. He was an eminent warrior but he
lacked the vision of the future and hence did not possess the qualities of a statesman. The Successors of
Mahinud ruled from 1030 to 1118 A.D. This period was characterized by internal dissensions and

degeneracy. After Mahmud, nearly 15 rulers came to power. The longest reign of 40 years was that of
Ibrahim. Behram Shah ruled for 35 years and Khusru Malik ruled nominally for 26 years. Mahmud was
succeeded by his son, Masud who proved to be a worthy son. By 1037 A.D. Masud led an expedition
towards India and reached HansL The Hindus tried to defend the fort of Hansi, but it was futile. Masud
occupied Hansi. The Hindus tried to defend the fort of Hansi, but it was futile. Masud occupied Hansi. All
the people were massacred, including the Brahmanas and women and children were also converted to
slaves. The ruler of Sonipet, a place near Delhi surrendered unconditionally and Masud later on returned
back to Ghazni with a huge booty. When Masud was busy in India, the Saljuq Turks attacked Ghazni.
They conquered Nishap]Jr and Khorasan. In 1040, Masud was defeated by the Turks at Merv. Masud was
imprisoned and killed in 1041 A.D. The successors of Masud were weak and incompetent and the rule of
the successors of Mahmud came to an end by 1186 A.D.
ESTIMATE
Mahmud invaded India seventeen times. The first invasion took place in 1000 A.D. and the last
important invasion on the Somnath temple took place in 1025 A.D. There are divetse opinions regarding
the nature and object of Mahmud's invasions. Some scholars hold the 'view that Mahmud invaded India
as he was attracted by the wealth of India and his main intention was to loot the wealth of India. This is
further corroborated by his behaviour towards the famous poet, Firdausi whom he refused to pay the
promised amount for writing' the epic, 'Shahnama'. Mahmud asked Firdausi to write the epic for which
he promised to pay Firdausi a Gold 'Mohar' for each couplet but later on he went back on his word

27

and wanted to pay him 60,000 Silver coins. This view is not contradicted by any historian. Havel has
rightly remarked, Mahmud would have sacked Baghdad with a little compunction as he plundered
Somnath if the undertaking had seemed as profitable.
According to Prof. Habib, plundering the wealth of India was the real motive, while the other motives
were subsidiary. According to him, it was not unusual that like the Catholic Church of Europe, the Hindu
temples attracted powerful invaders to loot the wealth contained therein.
According to historian, Utbi, a contemporary of Mahmud, the chief objective of Mahmud was to spread
Islam in India and to break the idols of non-believers. Mahmud's invasions have been termed as 'Jihad' Crusade to spread Islam in India. According to the contemporary historians of Mahmud, he had vowed
at the beginning of his reign that he would carry out an annual invasion on India to propagate Islam.
Many historians also share this view and opin that on account of this motive he carried on seventeen
invasions on India; the important invasions being on important temples. They argue that had wealth
been the only objective, Mahmud would not have broken idols. He forced non-Muslims to embrace

Islam. Prof.Ishwari Prasad is very emphatic that wealth and not territory, extirpation of idolatory and
not conquest were the objects of his raids."
The historians like Habib, Khalid Ahmed Nizami and Zaffar have rejected the view that Mahmud's
invasions were motivated by his desire to promote Islam. They have put forth the view that there is no
principle of Islamic law which supports the acts of temple destruction or encourages them. According to
Prof.Habib, "Islam sanctions neither vandalism nor plundering motives of the invader". Mahmud
destroyed the temples of the Hindus not because he wanted to crush idolatory. It was because the
temples were storehouses of wealth. According to Prof.Nizami, "it was due to the invader's fury that
some people left their religion and embraced Islam." Nizami also points out that Mahmud not only
harassed the Hindu Rajas but he did not spare the Muslim sovereigns of Iran and Tranxoiana.

28

Some historians are of the opinion that the motive of Mahmud was to conquer India. However this view
does not hold good when it is seen in the context that he made seventeen successful expeditions on
India but still did not annex those tern tones. He only annexed Punjab. According to Lane Poole,
"Mahmud did not aim at permanent conquest. Time had not yet come when Turks could think seriously
living in India." .
Mahmud Ghazni was a great patron of art and literature. Under his rule, Ghazni emerged as a great
cultural center. He patronized several artists, poets, scholars and architects. As observed by Lane Poole,
"Napoleon imported the choicest work of art from the countries he subdued to adorn his palace,
Mahmud did beuer, he brought the artists and poets themselves to illuminate his court." Aniong the
important scholars of his court mention may be made of two historians Alberuni and Utbi. The famous
poets and scholars of his age were Firdausi and Ansari and Baihaqi.
Mahmud Ghazni founded a university at Ghazni and also maintained library of valuable books in various
languages. He established a museum at Ghazni. He also awarded scholarships to scholars. Miothmud
built a number of Madrasas or institutions of higher learning and mosques. The most famous monument
of his age is the 'Celestial Bride', the great Jama Masjid of Ghazni. It is regarded as the 'wonder of the
east' and it attracted people from far and wide places.
RESULT OF MAHMUD GHAZNI'S INVASIONS
According to AI-Beruni, "Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country and performed those
wonderful deeds by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust, scattered in all directions." Prof. Habib
says "the worst enemies of Islam had been its own fanatical followers of which Mahmud was one. He
showed to the philosophical Hindus the darker and the more tyrannical side of Islam and the Hindus,
who would naturally judge a creed from the character of its followers, began to hate Islam for all times

to come." According to Wolseley Haig "He was the first to carry the banner of Islam into the heart of
India and to tread the path which so many followed him."

29

The invasions of Mahmud Ghaini exposed the weakness of the Rajput rulers. In fact Mahmuddid not
face any serious resistance and he took from India whatever he could and destroyed the rest. It actually
exposed the military weakness of India. His invasions resulted in a drain of the wealth of India. He
destroyed some of the most famous temples, idols and beautiful places. It resulted in devastation and
disaster in different places in India. The invasions of Mahmud also paved the way for the other foreign
invaders to attack India. It laso led to the spread of Islam in India. Along with Mahmud a number of
Muslim saints came to India. They preached lofty ideals of life. The Muslim saints called Sufis started a
movement to develop amity between the Hindus and Muslims. It led to a reformation movement in
medieval India. Efforts were made to emphasis on the importance of love and brotherhood among the
various communities.
Along with the invasions of Mahmud, came the famous historian, Alberuni. His accounts provide useful
information about the various aspects of life in Medieval India. Apart from it a new chapter began in the
history of India. Earlier all the invaders like "the Sakas, the Kushans and the Hunas were absorbed into
the mainstream of India's life and gradually they lost their separate identities. However the new
Muslims who entered'India paved the way for establishing their separate identity. At the same time they
also influenced Indian way of life.
MOHAMMAD GHORI
Mohammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghor was the real founder of the Muslim empire in India. Shihabud-din Mohammad Ghori established the Muslim empire in India on a firm foundation. Ghor is situated
in the hills between Ghazni and Herat. During' the 10th century, it was independent but it came under
the authority of Mahmud of Ghazni by 1009 AD. The rulers of Ghor became the vassals of the rulers of
Ghazni. After the death of Mahmud, a period of anarchy broke out. King Behram of Ghazni ordered the
death of Malik Qutub-ud-din Hasan, a prince of Ghor. So the brother of the deceased, Saif-ud-din Suri
invaded Ghazni and defeated Behram. In retaliation, Behram killed Saif-du-din. Ala-ud-din Husain, the
younger brother of Saif-ud-din completely destroyed the city of

30

Ghazni. He was succeeded by Ghiyas-ud-din. Ghiyas-ud-din placed Ghazni under the charge of his
brother, Mohammad Ghori who began to enjoy complete independence in Ghazni.
Mohammad Ghori was an ambitious ruler. He considered himself to be the legal heir to Punjab which
belonged to the empire of Ghazni. He was attracted by the wealth of India. He aspired for glory by
subjugating the native rulers of India and spreading Islam. In 1175 A.D. Mohammad Ghori led an
expedition against Multan, and captured it easily. He proceeded further to Uch in Upper Sind and
occupied it with the help of the Queen of Sind who poisoned her husband as Mohammad had promised
to marry her daughter. Lower Sind also came under the authority of Mohammad.
Mohammad Ghori realized the strategic importance of Punjab and decided to capture it. He captured
Peshawar which was under the ruler of Punjab. He plundered the frontier regions of Punjab and he
captured the fort of Sialkot and stationed his troops there. Iil 1186 A.D. Mohammad Ghori besieged
Lahore. Mohammad Ghari was unable to defeat Khusrau Malik and Mohammad Ghori persuaded him to
pay him a visit.
FIRST BATTLE OF TARA IN (1191)
Mohammad Ghori established himself as the ruler of Punjab, Multan and Sind. He had to face the
powerful Rajputs who were determined to check the advance of the Mus'lim invaders. The most
formidable enemy of Mohammad Ghori was Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi.
Many Rajput princes extended their support to him. Only Jaichandra of Kanauj who was the archrival of
Prithviraj remained neutral. According to Ferishta, the army of Mohammad consisted of 2,00,000
horsemen and 3000 elephants. A fierce battle took place. Mohammad Ghori struck with his sword and
knocked out the teeth of Govinda Rai, brother of Prithviraj. However, Govinda Rai struck a blow on the
arm of Ghori and he was forced to retreat.
SECOND BATTLE OF TARA IN (1192)
Mohammad Ghori led another expedition against Prithviraj in 1192 A.D. He formulated a large army
consisting of 1,20,000 men and set out from Ghazni. He camped at Tarain and a terrible war

31

OTHER CONQUESTS OF MOHAMMAD GHORI

took place. The army of Prithviraj was no match to the army of Mohammad Ghori. The Rajputs were
defeated. Prithviraj tried to escape but he was captured and taken to Ajmer. Later on, he was put to
death. Prof.K.A.Nizami says "Tarain was a major disaster for the Rajputs. Rajput political prestige in
general and the Chauhan ascendancy in particular suffered a serious setback."
KANAUJ

The Muslim forces conquered Meerut, Kol and Delhi within a short time. Jaichandra of Kariauj who was
a bitter enemy of Pritviraj had rejoiced the defeat of Prithviraj. He did not realize the danger which he
would have to confront very shortly. Mohammad Ghori marched against Kqnauj in 1194 A.D., as it was
occupied a strategic position. Jaichandra was defeated in the battle of Chandwara.

Mohammad Ghori proceeded towards Benaras. Nearly 100 temples were destroyed and mosques 'were
constructed on those sites. Nearly 14 camels carried the treasure looted at Benares to
Ghazni By 1196 A.D. Mohammad Ghori occupied a part of Bihar. When Mohammad Ghori was busy
fighting against the Turks in Central Asia, Qutub-ud-din Aibak was appointed in charge of the provinces
in India. Initially he defeated Raja Bhim Deva of Anhilwara and recovered a huge booty. He occupied
Badaun and also secured a part of Malwa. In 1203 A.D., Mohammad Ghori attacked Kalinjor, the capital
of the Chandela ruler of Bundelkhand. Aibak annexed Kalinjor, Mahoba and Khajuraho. One of the
commanders of Qutb-du-din Aibak called Mohammad-binBhaktiyar Khalji undertook an expedition
against Bihar and Bengal. Bihar was captured and many Buddhist monasteries were destroyed and
thousands of Buddhist monks were persecuted. Raja Indruman of Bihar fled unable to face the Muslim
forces. Bengal was under Lakshmanasena of the Sena dynasty. He was an old man and did not make any
preparations to face the Muslims forces. When Bhaktiyar Khalji attacked the palace, the king was dining.
The Raja fled from the Palace to save his life. The entire treasury, wives of the king and the attendants
fell into the hands of Bhaktiyar Khalji. He did not try to occupy the whole of Bengal. Bhakiyar Khalji
wished to spread his power beyond the Himalayas. He set out on an

32

expedition to Tibet, Whcn he reached a strong fortress and began his sieg. he held to face stiff
resistance. Bhaktlyar KhcllJi suffered heavy losscs. He tried to retreat but the n8tiv(:c had burnt all
vegerarion anJ destroyed ,d1 the bridges and rOCids, Ir was the most .JiS;lst;cuS expeditlC)n. Bh;lkriyra
Khalji was kdLd by ,"'.Ii> lH,LLn \I'hell he by we;ll, and helpless after suffering a nervous breakdown.
ONE para to be inserted

ESTIMATE
The pcrsonality of Mohammad Ghori drew the attention of sevcral historians who have analyscd
his motivc behind his campaigns and his ability as a conqueror and ruler. Dr.Habhibulbh regards Ghori as
a practical statesman who took the fullest advantage of the rotten political structure of India. He gave

proof of his st;1tesm,mship while dealing with different Rajaput[ rulers. After his victories over
Prithviraj, instead of annexing Delhi dnd Ajmer to liis territories, he handed over the administration of
Delhi and Ajmer to the relatives of Prithviraj. Ghori did not change the status of those Hindu chiefs who
accepted his sovereignty. But he also established forts in those territories.

According to Prof.KA.Nizami, "This Hero (Mohammad Ghori) of three stupendous defeats at Andh-Khud,
Tarain and Anhihl'ara had to his credit the establishment of one of the gre8test empires of the middle
ages and in this he definitely rises above Hahmud of Ghazni". So Prof.Nizami has stressed on two
qualities of Ghori, i.e., his dogged tenacity of purpose and his grim po1itical realism.

33

According to Stanley Lane Poole, Ghori's conquests in India were wider and far more permanent than
Mahmud's. He wrote, of the two tides of Mohammadan invasion that surged into India, Mahmud's had
left little trace. It had been but a series of triumphant raids." Mohammad was well versed in the art of
administration and he selected the best men for his services. He trained the generals and administrators
like Qutub-ud-din Aibak who proved to be quite competent to maintain his empire. Ghori appointed
Governors to administer the conquered territories. Those Governors consolidated the postion of Turks
and they suppressed the rebellions. After the death of Ghori, Qutub-ud-din Aibak, his most able military
commander founded the Slave dynasty that ruled India for about one hundred years.
FACTORS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE RAJPUTS AGAINST THE MOHAMMADEN INVASIONS
1.
POLITICAL FACTORS: The political condition in India was rather peculiar. There was no powerful
central authority in India. So there was. no effective resistance to the Muslim invaders. At that time,
India was divided into a number of independent Rajput states. There was lack of political unity among
the Rajput rulers. Dr.Ishwari Prasad observes, "State fought against state for leadership and there was
no paramount power which could effectively hold them together by any principle of unity or cohesion."
The Rajput rulers fought against each other. There was a sort of constant rivarly between the Chauhans
and the Rathors. So also there existed rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pratiharas as well as the
Palas and the Rashtrakutas. According to Chand Bardai, "Ninety out of a hundred of Prithviraj's
Samantas (feudatories) fell in his conflicts with Jai Chand on account of his carrying away Samyukta." In
the wake of Muslim invasions, there was not even a single Rajput ruler with political insight to visualize
as to what was happening to all of them. Moreover the Rajput rulers failed to evolve any frontier policy.
They were immersed in their internal feuds and they failed to rise above they personal prejudices. So
they were unable to protect their territories from the Muslim invaders. The army of each Rajput ruler
was formed

34

by collecting the armies of several feudal chiefs. So the soldiers had developed only a sense of loyalty
towards their own feudal chief and they were unwilling to accept any other ruler as their soverign
despite his prowess and ability. It left the Rajput army divided and weak.

MILITARY FACTORS: The Rajputs were known for their prowess and ability, however they had not
developed the art of warfare in an advanced manner and they failed to confront the Muslim invades in
an effective manner. According to Dr.V.A.Smith, "the Hindu kings though fully equal to their assailants in
courage and contempt of death, were distinctly inferior in the art of war and for that reason lost their
independence. The Rajputs did not develop a proper military strategy. The Turks used the advanced
Guards to test the strength and weakness of the Rajputs. The reserve force was sent to the battle fray
after the Rajputs had exhausted their resources. Above all the Rajputs had not developed latest
techiniques of warfare and weapons. On the other hand, the Turkish archers shot arrows from their
horses and tlley were more than a match for the Rajput soldiers with their swords which were effective
only when the enemies were close to them. The Rajputs depended to a large extent only on elephants.
On the other hand the Turks used horses which enhanced their manoeuvring ability The strength of the
Turks lay in their efficient cavalry. Above all the Rajputs were totally dependent on their leader for
inspiration. Once their ruler was killed, the Rajputs lost heart and came to the conlcusion that they were
unable to face the enemies. For example, when the elephant of Anand Pal was hit by an arrow and
Ananda Pal had to remain away from the battle field for some time, a lot of panic was created in the
Rajput army and they having lost confidence the Rajputs lost the battle against Mahmud of Ghazni.
RELIGIOUS FACTOR: The Mohammedan invaders derived inspiration from their religion- Islam. According
to Lane Poole, "the very bigotry of their creed (Muslims) was an instrument of self preservation." The
Muslims soldiers fought against the Rajputs deriving inspiration that they were waging a 'Jihad' or

35

Holy war to protect and to spread Islam. The Muslim soldiers were prepared to sacrifice their lives for
the sake of their religion. They believed that if they died for their religion they would go to paradise and
if they were victorious they would get all the pleasures of the world and emerge as the champions of
their religion. Among the non-Muslims there was lack of feeling of religious unity. On the contrary
religious differences were acute and it left them divided. The native Indians were only peace loving
people with a sense bf resignation to fate.

4.
SOCIAL FACTORS: The caste system left the Indian society mutilated and it led to the growth of
religious hatred, humiliation, ineqality and prejudices. The practice of untouchability was a blot on
Indian society. On the contrary Islam created a sense of brotherhood among the Muslims. According to
V .C. V aidya, "Superstition acted like' a double edged sword towards the fall of Hindu India, while the
Mulsims believed that victory was bound to come to them, the Hindus believed that they were bound to
be conquered by the Muslims in 'Kaliyug', such a supertition demoralized and discouraged the Hindus."
The Muslim rulers maintained loyal and able slaves who served them with great sincereity. Such slaves
were elevated to high position in recognition of their ability.
5.
GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS: According to some historians, the hot climate of India sapped the
strength and vigour of the Indian soliders. The Muslim soldiers came from cold regions and were
naturally endowed with sturdy physique and enduring capacity. They were able to withstand the heat of
India as they were used to living in harsh climatic conditions.
6.
ECONOMIC FACTORS.: The Muslims invaders were attracted by the wealth of India. They fought
with immense zeal and enthusiasm. Along with it they also derived inspiration from their religious
fanaticism. Moreover, the campaigns of the Muslims were directed towards the temples that were
treasure houses. So they enriched themselves by looting the gold, diamonds and pearls in the temples.
It enhanced their enthusiasm to undertake new expeditions.

36

According to Jadunath Sarkar, complete unity and social solidarity, fatalism that sprang from an absolute
reliance on God and freedom from drunkenness of Muslim soldiers were primarily responsible for the
success of the Turks. According to Prof. KA.Nizami, "The real cause of the defeat of the Indians lay in
their social system and the invidious caste distinctions, which rendered the whole military organization
rickety and weak."
R.C.Dun has emphasized that the Hindus had reached the last stage of their political, religious decline at
that time and therefore, became an easy prey to the invading Turks. According to Dr.A.L.Srivastava, the
absence of political unity, social division and moral degeneration of the Hindus and the superiority of
the Turks in military organization, skill and resources were responsible far the success of the Turks.
Dr.K.S.Lal has listed three reasons for the defeat of the Rajputs social division and rivalry between the
different groups, the absence of an efficient spy system and defective and outdated military skill.
He has further observed that it was very much easy for the Muslims to get traitors from a society which
was so unjustly divided. So the important dieties of North, India were lost to the invader within fifteen
years.

Sardar K.M.Panikkar attributes the responsibility of the defeat of the Hindus to the lack of contact with
the outside world and their declined culture. According to Prof.Habibullah, "Rajput recklessness has an
element of romance in it but is of little practical wisdom." Dr.U.N.Ghoshal feels that the lack of leaders
with sufficient skill was the main reason for the failure of the Rajputs against the Turks.
IMPACT OF THE MUSLIM INVASIONS
The Arab invasions on India led to the establishment of two Muslim kingdoms of Sindh and Multan. But
the Turkish invasions led to the establishment of Muslim rule over a large part of North India. Qutub-uddin Aibak who came to power in India made Delhi as the capital of the Sultanate in India. Earlier it was
Lahore. Thus the impact of Muslim rule in India besame more pronounced during the rule of the slave
dynasty. The Turkish Sultans of Delhi were independent rulers, however they still continued to seek the
help of

37

the Caliph to ensure stability to his rule. They also began to consider themselves as part of the Islamic
world. So the administrative elements and religious elements unknown to Indians were introduced in
the Indian political life. According to Islamic law a ruler could be elected but in practice any of the sons
of the Sultan could be chosen as his successor based on his prowess and ability. 1. Even the law of
primogeniture did not work under the Turks. Only the ability of a candidate was regarded as essential to
ascend the throne. So this also affected the political situation in India. The Iqta system of administration
was introduced in India. Iqta literally means an area. The empire WaS divided into Iqtas or provinces.The
Turkish rule put an end to the independent small kingdoms and they were replaced by Iqtas. Each Iqta
was place under the control of a chief military commander. The head of each Iqta was called as Iqtadar.
The Iqtadars were appointed by the ruler. They could remain in power only on the will of the ruler. The
Iqtadars met,the expenditure of the artily stationed under him from the income of the Iqt thereafter he
sent the remaining amount to the royal treasury. The lqtadars collected the taxes and a15.o maintained
law and order in their respective Iqtas. This Iqtas system was designed to put an end to the feudal
system administration of the Rajputs. It
also brought the distant areas of the empire under one Central Government. The Military organization
also underwent certain distinctive changes in India. Recruitment in the army was no longer the
monopoly of anyone class of people such as Rajputs/ Kshatriyas. People of all classes were permitted to
join the military service.
The Muslim Sultans organized a large standing army. They digressed from the usual Rajput mode of
maintaining feudal armies and depending on feudal chiefs to supply armies at the time of crisis.
Emphasis was shifted to maintenance of an efficient cavalry from that of an infantry. Instead of the use

of elephants, the use of horses was given more importance. Efforts were made to enhance the security
of the frontier regions.
With the advent of the Turks, the importance of the caste system received set back. The Turkish society
was based on the principle of equality of all the citizens. It also exposed the weakness in the Indian
social system. The Iqtadars who were mostly urban people tried to

38

put an end to the privileged feudatories in the villages. According to Prof.Habib, the doors of the ancient
'noble cities' of the Rajputs were now opened for the different sections of society, i.e., the artisans as
well as the labourers, the Hindus and the Muslims and the Brahmanas and the so-called Chand alas
without any consideration of high and low.
The economic impact of the Muslim invasions was rather startling. According to Sir Jadunath Sarkar,
trade contacts which had broken in the st century with the countries of Asia and Africa were revived
towards the close fo the 12 th century. Indian traders started trading on a large scale with Ghazni and
China. The Turks followed the taxation policy as prescribed in the Islamic scriptures. They imposed taxes
such as Zakat, Khamsa, Jizya and Khiraj. Zakat was the tax levied on Muslims. Every Muslim had to pay
21 % of his income as tax. Khams was the war booty which constituted a source of income to the state.
Jizya was the tax levied on nonMuslims. Kharaj was the land tax. Usually 50% of the produce was,
regarded as the share of the state. According to Prof.Habib and Nizami the Turkish. conquest led to the
growth of the medieval economy which was characterised by the uniformity of the taxation system,
growth of currency system, growth of handicrafts, cities and trade.
The establishment of the Turkish rule in India led to the use of Persian as the language of administration
and in this respect a new era of cultural development came into being. The contact between the Hindus
and the Muslims led to the development of a new language called Hindvi used by Amir Khusru. At the
same time the Turks also constructed Mosques, minarets, forts and other buildings in the Persian style.
New materials with lime mixture came to be used. So stronger buildings were constructed. With the
popularization of Persian language, a new class of scholars emerged. The use of Persian language in
administration greatly helped in bringing about uniformity in administration. However the Rajput rulers
continued to use different dialects. So the Turks contributed in a remarkable way to the culture of India.

39
FAMOUS HISTORIANs OF THE AGE ALBERUNI (977-1084 A.D.) Abu Rehn Alberuni was a famous
historian, mathematician, philosopher, poet and scholar of the court of Mahmad of Ghazni. His real
name was Mohammad Bin Ahmed. He remained in India for quite some time. He wrote the famous

book, Tehqiq-e-Hind. It is a valuable source of information on the political, social, economic and religious
conditions prevailing during the' 10th and the 11 th centuries. He learnt Sanskrit and studied the
philosophical and religious works of the Hindus. He also translated the Puranas and Alberuni the
Bhagavad Gita into Persian language. He wrote a work on astronomy called "Alqanuwal Masudi".

The work of Alberuni throws light on the political conditions in India. He informs that the feeling of
nationalism among the Indians was almost absent. The country was fragmented into number of
independent states. There was mutual jealously among the Indian states and they were constantly in a
state of war. According to AJberuni, the criminal law in India was very mild. The Brahmanas were
exempted from death punishment. Serious offenders were awarded mutilation of limbs as punishment.
He observed the social conditions in India. He wrote that Indian society was caste-ridden. He also
mentions the prevalence of several social evils such as child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage,
Sati system and J auhar. The Brahmins enjoyed a high status in society. Only the Brahmins were
considered as eligible for attainment of salvation. Idol worship was prevalent. The Brahmins had the sole
right of reading the Hindu scriptures. Alberuni praised Indian philosophy. He was greatly impressed by
the Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita. He also observed that while the Indians were very much interest
in Philosophy, they paid very little attention to writing chronological history.

FIRDAUSI

Firdausi was the court poet of Mahmud of Ghazni. He was a great scholar in Persian and composed
excellent poetry. Some of the scholars have called him as 'Homer of Asia'. He wrote the epic

40

work 'Shahnama'. According to legendary accounts, this work was composed at the behest of Mahmud
of Ghazni. It is said that Mahmud promised to pay Flrdausi one God 'Mohar' for each verse of the
'Shahnama', Accordingly Firdausi composed 60,000 verses in praise of Persian rulers and Mahmud in
particular. When the monumental book was presented to Mahmud, he offered 60,000 Silver coins for it.
By this, Firdausi's self respect was hurt. He left the royal cout and returned to his hometown. In a fit to
anger he appended some verses of his Shahnama which were defamatory to the conduct of Mahmud.
When Mahmud learnt about it, he realized his mistake and sent 60,000 Gold Mohars to Firdausi. But it
was too late. By that time Firdausi had passed away. Shahnama of Firdausi is regarded as a valuable
source material to reconstruct the history of the Muslim invasions on India. It contains the events
connected to some of the important kings of Persia including Mahmud.

1.3 THE DELHI SULTANATE

The death of Mohammad Ghori in 1206 AD. ended an era of Muslim conquests in India, however it
paved the way for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate over a firm foundation and inaugurated
another novel age.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak became the sole Overlord of the provinces in India. The entire region between the
Indus and the Brahmaputra rivers came under the control of the Muslims. Thus the foundation of the
Muslim rule in India was established permanently.
Qutb-ud-DinAibak, Iltutmishand Balban were all slaves who procured their freedom and rose to a
position of pre-eminence in Irldian politics. In fact, all the rulers of the Slave dynasty were Turks. The
Delhi Sultanate remained in power in India from 1206 AD. to 1526 AD. The five major dynasties which
ruled over. India were1.

The Slave dynasty (1206-1290 AD.)

2.

The Khalji dynasty (1290-1320 AD.)

3.

The Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1412 AD.)

4.

The Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451 AD.)

5.

The Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526 AD.)

THE SLAVE DYNASTY QUTBU-D-DIN-AIBAK(1206-1210)

Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the real founder of Muslim rule in India. He laid the foundation of the slave
dynasty. He was born to Turkish parents in Turkestan. When he was mere.ly a lad, he was taken to
Nishapur and sold to a local Qazi as a slave. After the death of the Qazi, the Qazi's son sold him to
Mohammad Chori.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was endowed with an attractive personality and pleasant virtues of extraordinary
courage and generosity.
He drew the attention of Mohammad Chori. He had helped Mohammad Chori in the campaigns which
he had undertaken in India. After
the second battle of Tarain in 1192 A.D. Qutb-ud-din Aibak was placed in charge of the territories
occupied by Mohamamd Ghori.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak consolidated his position by defeating Bhim Deva of Anhilwara and amassed
immense booty. He occupied Kalinjor, Malwa, Mahoba and Khajuraho also.
He was assisted by his eminent general, Bhaktiyar Khalji in subduing Bihar and Bengal.

He suppressed the rebellions in Ajmer and Meerut.

Badaun which was one of the richest cities of India came under the rule of Aibak.
By this, major parts of Northern India came under the rule of Qutbud-din Aibak by 1206 AD Qutb-ud-din
Aibak married the daughter of Taj-uddin Yildoz.
He gave his sister in marriage to Nasir-uddin Qabacha and gave his daughter in marriage to Iltutmish.
He consolidated his position by warding off the dangers from all formidable rivalries by concluding
matrimonial alliances.
After the death of Mohammad Ghori in 1206 A.D., Taj-ud-din Yildoz, the Governor of Kirman ascended
the throne of Delhi in 1206 AD. Qutb-ud-din Aibak tried to occupy Ghazni in 1208 AD. He plundered
Ghazni and treated it as an annexed province. Taj-ud-din Yildoz attacked Aibak when he . was rejoicing
Over his victory. Aibak was miserably defeated and was forced to flee to Lahore. The victory of Yildoz
confined Aibak to India completely.
During the rule of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Bengal and Bihar tried to sever their connection with Delhi.
Ali Mardan Khan declared himself independent but the local Khalji chiefs supported the accession of
Muhammad Sheran and Ali Mardan was imprisoned.
However Ali Mardan escaped from prison, agreed to recognize the sovereignty of Aibak and requested
him to interfere in the politics of Bengal. Sensing danger, the Khaljis agreed to recognize Aibak as their
overlord and to send tribute to Delhi. Qutb-ud-din Aibak died in 1210 AD., as he fell from the horse
while playing Polo and sustained serious injuries.
The construction of the Qutub- Minar was undertaken during his rule. According to Prof.K.A.Nizami,
Aibak was a military leader par excellence.
Dr. Habibullah also expresses the same idea that Aibak was a military leader of great energy and high
merits. According to A.L.Srivastava, Aibak was the real founder of Turkish dominion in India and the first
defacto Sultan of almost entire Hindustan.
According to Prof.S.R.Sharma, "Among these (rulers) Aibak must rank with Balban as pioneer founder of
a great dynasty of rulers:
Some of his successors might have added more glory to the empire as a whole . But the groundwork and
examples were Aibak's". Dr.Ishwari Prasad rates Aibaks. Among the great pioneers of Muslim conquest
in India."
.
ARAM SHAH (1210-1211)
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was succeeded by Aram Shah. He was a weak and incompetent ruler. The provincial
Governors of Multan and Bengal refused to accept the sovereignty of Aram Shah. There was every

chance of the outbreak of a civil war. Iltutmish, the '0 Governor of Badaun was invited to assume the
reins of the Government. Iltutmish defeated Aram Shah whose reign lasted only for 8 months.
IL TUTMISH (1211-1236)

Iltutmish was one of the great rulers of the Slave dynasty. He was a Turk who belonged to the Ilbari tribe
of Turkistan. Although he was born in a noble family, he lost his home due to the jealousy of his
brothers.
He was sold to a merchant of Bhukhara who sold him to Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Iltutmish rose to a position
of preeminence by due to of his hardwork and merit. He won the heart of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and
married Aibak's daughter.
He displayed his prowess in fighting against the Khokars.
Aram Shah was defeated by Iltutmish. Iltutmish was also elected by the officials and he was formally
recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad.
When Iltutmish assumed power in 1211, he had to face a number of problems. He consolidated his
position by gaining control of the surrounding areas of Delhi. Iltutmish had to deal with Taj;.. . ud-din
Yildoz who was his archrival.
By 1214, he occupied Lahore.
He led an expedition against Yildoz and defeated him in the battle of Tarain near Thaneshwar in 1216.
Yildoz was captured and imprisoned in the fortress of Badaun and later on put to death.
Iltutmish turned his attention towards Nasir-ud-din Qabacha who ruled over Uch and Multan.
He had secured control of Punjab and refused to accept the sovereignty of Iltutmish.
Although Qabacha was defeated, he managed to escape. Iltutmish captured Uch. Qabacha sent his son
to negotiate the peace terms but he was imprisoned.
Qabacha tried to escape from Bhakkar, but he lost his life as he was drowned in the Indus river.
After the death of Aibak, Ali Mardan of Bengal had declared himself independent. His son, Ghias-ud-din
issued coins in his own name and showed scant respect to the authority ofl Iltutmish.So . Iltutmish
personally led an expedition towards Bengal and defeated Ghiyas-ud-din who was also killed in the
course of the war.
Iltutmish established his control over the whole of Bengal.
The Rajputs declared their independence after the death of Aibak and deifietl the authority of Tltutmish.
By 1226, Iltutmish attacked Ranthombnor and captured it. Mandor, the capital of the Paramara Rajputs
was also occupied.

Raja Udai Singh of Jalor was also forced to submit. He agreed to pay annual tribute to Iltutmish.
Bayana, Thangir, Ajmer and Gwalior came under the authority of Iltutmish by 1213 A.D.
He led an expedition to Malwa and also plundered Ujjain and destroyed the temple of Mahakal at Ujjain.
Although Badaun, Kanauj, Benaras and Katehar declared their independence, Iltutmish brought them
under his control successfully.
The reign of Iltutmish also witnessed the invasions of the Mongols. Chengiz Khan assumed the
leadership of the Mongols and attacked Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni of Khiva.
The Shah of Khiva caine to Punjab and sought the protection of Iltutmish. But Iltutmish found himself in
a delicate position and he politely refused to extend help to the Shah. On account of it the Shah of Khiva
joined hands with the Khokars. He defeated the ruler of Multan and also plundered Sind and Gujarat.
Very shortly the Shah returned to Persia and at the same time India was relieved from the danger of
Mongol invasions.
Iltutmish evolved an efficient administrative system. Delhi became "Second Baghdad" which indicates
the high prosperity of the age.
During the rule of Iltutmish, the construction of the famous Qutb-Minar was completed in1231-32. He
died by 1236 A.D. Minhajus-Siraj, a contemporary historian of Iltutmish wrote, "Never has a fvl
sovereign so virtuous, kind hearted and revered towards the learned \ and the divine sat upon the
throne."
Iltutmish got recognition as the Muslim Sultan of India by the Khalifa of Baghdad, Iltutmish, therefore
assumed the title of 'Amirul-Mommin" or commander of the faithfuls and had the name of the Khalifa
inscribed on his coins.
As a result of recognition by the Khalifa, Iltutmish's power and status were enhanced. According to
Prof.S.R.Sharma, "It is for this reason that Iltutmish has been considered as the real founder of the
Muslim kingdom of Delhi, though it is too much an exaggeration to call him the greatest of all slave
kings."
Iltutmish made a remarkable change by transferring his capital from Lahore to Delht and for the first
tiine Delhi became the. capital of Hindustan. With the help of Fakh-ud-din Ismani, an experienced Wazir
of Baghdad, llhitmish organized his administrative set up and provided a benign and sound
administration to the hitherto, . dis'organised and dismembered empire. He treated the corps of
FortyTurkish Slaves that was very loyal and efficient. It is beyond doubt that he was one of the successful
rulers of Delhi.
The achievement so Iltutrhish were indeed admirable. He succeeded in bringing about political
consolidation out of tuimoil. According to Dr.R.P.Tripathi, "Qutub-ud-din Aibak cannot be regarded ever
as the sovereign ruler of Muslim India because no coins of his name are available and his name is

conspicuous by its absence in the list of kings prepared by Ibn Batuta and in that prepared by Firoz-Shah
Tughlak for Khutba". He has further observed, "The history of Muslim sovereignty in India begins
properly speaking with lltutmish."
According to Dr.A.L.Srivastava, "lltutmish was a brave but cautious soldier. He was also a successful
general. He laid the foundation ofa military monarchy that was to serve later as the instrument of a
military imperialism under the Khaljis."
Prof.K.A..Nizami writes, It was he who gave the eountry a capital (Delhi), an independent state, a
monarchical form of government and a governing class.
Prof.Habibullah states, "Aibak outlined the Delhi Sultanate and its sovereign stiltus, Iltutrnish was
unquestionably its first king.. According to RC. Majumdar, "Iltutmish may justly be regarded as the
greatest ruler of the early Turkish Sultanate of Delhi which lasted till 1290 A.D."
RUKN-UD-DIN FIROZ SHAH (1236)
The sons of Iltutmish were weak and incompetent. So he appointed his daughter, Raziya as the
successor. Many nobles opposed the decision of Iltutmish. After the death of Iltutmish, the nobles
offered the throne to Rukn-ud-din Firoz Shah, the eldest son of Iltutmish. He proved to be a pleasureloving prince, who drowned himself in drinking wine and was surrounded by flatterers. He neglected the
administration of the kingdom. The Muslim nobles were disgusted by his misbehaviour and they
murdered Rukn-ud-din.
SULTANA RAZIYA (1236-1240)
.

The accession of Sultana Raziya goes down in the history of

India as a significant event as she was the first Muslim lady to assume the reins of the Government of an
Islamic state.
She was endowed with remarkable talents.
She had received training in warfare and was also extremely well-read.
She headed the army during wartime and adorned the head-dress and attire of a man during battles.
Raziya Sultana's reign did not last for a long period as many people could not tolerate the authority of a
woman in political matters.
The Governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi and Lahore revolted against Raziya.
Many nobles also opposed the rule of a lady. R'aziya defeated Wazir Mohammad Junaidi who was her
chief critic.
Raziya began to show undue favours to Jamalud-din Yakut, an Abyssinian slave who trained her in the
art of warfare.

Many nobles revolted against Raziya. Revolts broke out in several parts of the kingdom. Malik Ikhtiyarud-din Altunia, the overnor of Bhatinda refused to recognize the sovereignty of Raziya. The soldiers of
Altunia murdered Yakut and imprisoned Raziya. Her brother, Behram Shah was declared as the ruler of
Delhi. With no other alternative left, Raziya married Altunia. She tried to march towards Delhi but she
was defeated by Behram Shah.
Both Raziya and Altunia were puno death.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, a contemporary historian has aptly described the failure of Razia in the followin'g
words: "She was endowed with all qualities befitting a king-beneficent, the patron of the learned, a
dispenser of justice etc. But she was not born of right sex and so in the estimation of men all these
virtues were useless.
So Raziya being a woman itself was an important factor for her failure as the ruler of Delhi. Apart from
it, Raziya's becoming the Sultana was against the traditions of Islam. Many Turkish chiefs considered it
as a humiliation to work under a woman. Perhaps it was the first case in the Islamic history under a
monarchical form of Government. Lane Poole states that nothing would convince the Turkish chiefs that
they should be led by a woman. In fact this practice was far ahead of the times. Another important
factor was that Raziya began to showered undue favour on an Abyssianian slave, Yakut. This provided a
strong reason for the Turkish chiefs to dislodge her. The orthodox Muslim clergy were mainly
responsible for the downfall of Raziya who conspired against her in every possible manner. Several
GQvernors revolted against her. The most serious revolt was that of Altunia, the Governor of Bhatinda.
He defeated Razia and imprisoned Raziya. Meanwhile Raziya's brother, Behram Shah had been placed
on the throne, of Delhi. Ultimately Raziya and her husband Altunia were defeated and murdered near
Kaithal. Thus ended the four-year rule of Razia who is regarded as the first woman ruler of Delhi.

BEHRAM SHAH (1240-42)

Behram Shah ascended the throne by promising freedom to Turkish Maliks and Amirs in administrative
matters. The two nobles, Ikhtiyar-ud-din Aeitigin and Badr-ud-din Sanqar appropriated all

48

the powers and considered themselves above the Sultan. Behram Shah arrested them and put them to
death. The Turks were alarmed ,- and with the help of the Ulema, they captured BehramShah and
sentenced him to death.
ALA-UD-DIN MASUD SHAH (1242-46)

Masud Shah succeeded Behram Shah. He ruled for only about four years. During his rule, the 'Forty'
Turkish nobles became extremely powerful. Balban played an important role in maintaining the integrity
of the empire. The Turkish nobles hatched a conspiracy and Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was placed on the
throne in 1246 A.D.
NASIR-UD-DIN MAHMUD (1246-66)
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud has ascended the throne with the help of the Turkish nobles and was obligated to
them. The Sultan, remained merely as a figure- head. Balban and some of the Turkish nobles exercised
immense authority. The Sultan led a simple life and spent much of his time by copying the holy Quran.
He turned towards religious life in order to escape from the complication of political life. However, the
fact that Nasir-ud-din Mahmud held the reins of the Government for nearly 20 years speaks volumes
about the ability of the Sultan. Balban served Mahmud in a sincere manner.
According to P.Saran, the Sultan was very much afraid of the Turkish nobles and therefore kept himself
aloof from active politics. It is accepted that he possessed the virutes of continence, frugality and
practical piety and simplicity but more than that the circumstances had forced him to behave like that.
He knew the power of the Turkish nobility. According to Isami "He expressed no opinion without their
(The forty Turkish nobles) prior permission, he did not move his hands or feet except at their order. He
would never drink nor go to sleep except with their knowledge."

GHIYAS-UD-DIN BALBAN (1266-86)

EARLY POLITICAL CAREER

Balban belonged to the family of the famous Ilbari tribe of Turkestan.
In his early youth he was taken as a captive to Baghdad by the Mongols. He was purchased by Khwaja
Jamal-ud-din, a man of piety and learning.
Khwaja Jamal-ud-din brought him to Delhi in 1232 A.D. along with his other slaves, who were purchased
by
Sultan Iltutmish.
Thus, Balban belonged to the famous band of Turkish slaves of Iltutmish known as "The Forty".
(Chahelgan).
During the rule of Iltutmish, Balpan was appointed as Dhasdar (King's personal attendant) by the
Sultan.
By his hard work and sincerity, he became the Amir-i-Shikar or the Lord of Hunt during the rule ofRaziya.

Behram Shah granted the Jagir of Rewari in Punjab to Balban. He was also granted Hansi.
Balban was appointed as Amir-i-Hajib. Gradually he was able to concentrate practically all the powers in
his hands. In 1246 AD., Balbari forced the Mongols to raise the siege of Uch.
He was also responsible for overthrowing Masud Shah and putting Nasir-uddin Mahmud on the throne
of Delhi in 1246 A.D.
Nasir-ud-din entrusted all the administrative powers in the hands of Balban. Khislu Kahn, the younger
brother of BalbaD was appointed as AmirI-Hajib or Lord Chamberlain. Balban's cousin, Sher Khan was
appointed as the Governor of Lahore and Bhatinda. In 1249, Balban was appointed Naib-i-Mamlikat.
Balban consolidated his position by appointing his relatives to all important posts in the administration.
In 1249, Balban gave his daughter in marriage to Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. In 1253, for a brief period
the power of Balban was curtailed. Many Turkish nobles hated the growing popularity'of Balban and
concentration of power in his hands. The archrival of Balban was lmad-ud-din Raihan. Sultan Nasir-uddin supported.Raihan. In 1253, Balban and his brother were dismissed and Raihan was appointed as the
Chief minister. However, Raihan was unable to remain in power for a long time, Balban mustered the
support of the Turkish nobles and in 1254, Raihan was dismissed and Balban was reappointed as Naib.
BALBAN AS SULTAN OF DELHI
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died in 1266 and Balban succeeded him as the Sultan of Delhi. When Balban
ascehded the throne, he had to face many difficulties.
A condition of anarchy prevailed in the empire as a result of the incompetent successors of Iltutmish.
The royal treasury was bankrupt.
The position of the Sultan had been reduced to an ordinary puppet in the hands of the Turkish nobles.
The predominance of the Turkish nobles was intolerable for any ruler with some individuality.
Delhi was ravaged by the constant raids
of the Mongols.
In such an atmosphere Balban had to prove his ability.
Balban realized the need for a strong and efficient army to maintain the stability of the empire.
Balban decided to establish internal peace in the Doab region and the neighbouring places of Delhi.
Due to poor administration since the past thirty years anarchy had set in. On account of the predatory
raids of the Rajputs of Mewat and different robber bands, the life and property of the people was

exposed to danger. Bafuan undertook the task of suppressing the robbers and rebels. He led an
expedition and suppressed them with an iron hand by killing many of the mischief- makers. Balban took
precautionary measures to ensure that such disturbances would not take place in future.
He placed garrisons at Kampil, Bhojpur, Patiala and Jalali.
Baraniremarked "the roads have been free from robbers". Balban turned his attntion towards the rebels
of Katehar in Rohilkhand region.
He ordered his troops to attack the villages. The houses of the people were burnt and the entire male
population was massacred. Women and children were converted into slaves. Balban let loose a reign of
terror in Katehar which was so severe that the people of Rohilkhand did not dare to revolt as long as
Balban was in power.
BENGAL

Bengal was under the control of Balban's Deputy called Tughril

Khan.
He was efficient and ambitious. As Balban had grown old and was facing manifold problems, Tughril
Khan defied the authority of Balban and declared his independence.
He decided to subdue the revolt of Tughril Khan. He sent a huge army under the command of Alptgin
who had assumed the title Amir Khan. Tughril Khan had,the support of the people and a well-equipped
army and he defeated Amir Khan.
Many of the soldiers of Amir Khan were bribed by Tughril Khan. Balban was enraged to hear the defeat
of Amir Khan and ordered that he has to be hanged over the gate of Delhi. Balban sent another army
under the leadership of Malik Targhi. But this expeditionalsoended in failure. He decided to direct his
attentiun and energy completely to defeat Tughril Khan. He undertook the march in person along with
his son, Bughra Khan against Lakhnauti, the capital of Western Bengal.
When Tughril
Khan heard that Balban, the Delhi Sultan himself was approaching against Bengal, he was panic stricken.
He fled from Lakhnauti and sought refuge in the jungles of Jajnagar.
Balban entered Eastern Bengal and pursued TughrilKhan and his followers.
Accidently Tughril Khan was spotted by one of the followers of Balban called Sher Andaz. Malik
Muqaddir, another follower of Balban shot an . arrow and killed Tughril Khan.
The head of Tughril Khan was severed from his body and the corpse was thrown into the river.

The relatives and troops of Tughril Khan were captured. After returning to Lakhnauti, Balban inflicted
exemplary punishments on the relatives and friends of Tughril Khan. The Sultan told his son Bughra"
Khan: Understand me and forget not if the Governors of Hind or Sind shall draw the sword and become
rebels to the throne of Delhi, then such punishment as has fallen on TughriI and his dependants will fall
upon them, their wives and children and all their adherents". Balban appointed Bughra Khan as the
Governor of Bengal. He advised him not to indulger in excessive pleasure and to work with dedication.
THE KHOKARS
The menace of the Mongols continued unabated during the rule of Balban and it sapped the might and
energy of the Delhi Sultana te. Balban had to take measures to protect the frontier regions of the Northwest from the attacks of the Mongols. The Mongols had established themselves in Ghazni and
Transoxiana.
They had also captured Baghdad after murdering the Caliph.
Balban realized that the maintenance of peace and order in the border regions was essential.
He followed an aggressive policy against the Khokhars and Qther tribes which had continuously
plundered and caused havoc in the frontier districts of the empire.
Balban wished to annex the frontier regions completely to his empire in order to prevent the Mongols
easy access into the empire with the help of the frontier tribes.
Balban led an expedition on the Salt range and subjugated the Khokhars. However, he was mot
completely successful in establishing control over that region and was also unable to win over the
friendship of the Khokhars.
THE MONGOLS
Balban took several measures to check the attack of the Mongols. In 1271, Balban marched to Lahore
and ordered the reconstruction of the fort which had been destroyed by the Mongols during the rule of
his predecessors.
Many frontier forts were well equipped and watch-posts were established wherever necessary. He
appointed able and experienced military officers to guard the major routes leading to Delhi. Sher Khan
Sanqar was placed in charge of Bhatinda, Bhatnair, Samana and Sunam. He had been a great barrier to
the inroads of the Mongols. But the Sultan developed distrust and jealousy against him. Sher Khan
Sunqar was one of the ablest Turks who belonged to the group of the forty Turkish nobles. He had not
visited Balban since the time when Balban' ascended the throne.
According to Barani, the death of Sher Khan Sunqar was caused by Balban through poisoning. After his
death, the Mongols, Khokhars and other tribes continued to retaliate against the rule of Balban without
any fear.
Balban appointed Timur Khan as the Governor of Sunam and Samano .

lome other efficient Amirs were put in charge of certain other forts and Iqtas. However their rule failed
to establish peace and order in the frontier areas. Therefore, Balban appointed his son Prince
Mohammad (popularly known as Khan-i-Shahid, the Martyr Prince) as the Governor (i)f Multan. The
Mongols invaded India in 1279 and 1285 A.D. The Sultan had to face several difficulties. The Mongol
invasions proved to be disastrous and they were a heavy strain on the might and resources of the Delhi
Sultanate.
Balban appointed his second son, Bughra Khan as the Governor of Sam ana and Sunam. In 1279, the
Mongols renewed their raids and also crossed the Sutlej. The combined armies of Prince Mohammad
from Multan, Bughra Khan from Sam ana and Malik Mubarak Bektars coming from Delhi completely
defeated the invaders.
For some time the menace of the Mongols was warded off. In 1285, the Mongols invaded Punjab, under
the leadership of Timur and the Sultan's eldest son, Prince Mohammad who had been placed in charge
of Multan proceeded towards Lahore and Dipalpur. He was killed in the war by the Mongols. As Prince
Mohammad had sacrificed his life, the title called 'Shahid' (Martyr) was conferred on him posthumously.
The death of Mohammad was a great shock to Balban who was nearly eighty years old. InitiaJly the
Sultan intended to nominate Bughra Khan as his successor, but as he was unwilling to ascend the
throne, Balban nominated Kai Khusru, his grandson.
Balban passed away in 1287 A.D.
SUPPRESSION OF THE FORTY TURKISH NOBLES
The famous forty Turkish nobles were in fact king-makers.
They exercised immense influence on the king. They curtailed the power of the Sultan. They had
reduced the position of the Sultan to that of a mere figure-head.
Balban realized that the Turkish nobles had been responsible for deposing the Sultan on many previous
occasions.
Balban appointed Junior Turks to important positions and placed them of an equal footing with the forty
Turkish nobles. Whenever any member of the Turkish nobles committed any mistake, Balban punished
them severely. Those nobles who escaped dismissal or death sentence became submissive, as a reign of
terror had been started which was a threat to the existence of the Turkish nobles.
Balban was successful in completely suppressing the Turkish DobIes and establishing his supreme
power.
REFORMS OF BALBAN
Balban organized a minute and efficient espionage system.

In almost every department, secret reporters were appointed. The news-reporters were well-paid and
they enjoyed immense freedom.
They were not subjected to the authority of the Governors and Commanders. The spies had to give a
correct report to the Sultan about all the happenings irrespective of the person involved.
They were severely punished if they failed in their duty. The spy system evolved during the time of
Balban strengthened his position.
Balban also reorganized his army. He placed the army in charge of Imadul-mulk. Balban took keen
interest in matters relating to recruitment, fixation of salaries and equipping the army.
Balban tried to increase the revenue of the state. During the rule of Iltutmish, certain lands had been
granted to those who had rendered distinguished military service. Many of the grantees had become old
and some of them had died. Many of them had become incompetent and were unable to serve the state
any more. Balban resumed the old grants but allotted subsistence allowances to the
grantees according to their age. This measure of Balban created a lot of discbntentment. Ultimately
Balban cancelled the orders for the resumption of land grants.
BALBAN'S CONCEPTON OF KINGSHIP
Balban believed in the idea that the Sultan was the representative of God on earth. His idea of kingship
resembled the theory of divine origin of kings. He created an idea about the superiority of the Sultan.
Balban assumed the title 'Zilli Allah' or 'Shadow of God'. Balban felt that only a despot could exact
obedience from his subjects and ensure the security of the state. After he ascended the throne he gave
up drinking wine and indulging in jovial company. He introduced the practices of Sijda or prostration and
Paibos or kissing the feet of the monarch in the court.
Balban enhanced the prestige of the Sultan. He exercised. autocratic powers. He was extremely cruel
towards all those who opposed him. Balban remodeled his court after the manner of the ancient Persian
kingti and introduced Persian etiquette and ceremonies During the rule of Balban, the court of Delhi
was renowned for its magnificence. Many exiled princes from Central Asia sought refuge in the court of
Balban. Many learned men from Central Asia adorned the court of Balban. The famous poet, Amir
Khusrau called as "Parrot of India" (Tuti-i-Hind) was a contemporary of Balban.
Balban paid immense attention to the performance of his duties.
He gave top priority to protect Islam, adhere to the laws of the Shari at, to check immoral actions, to
appoint pious men to offices and to dispense justice without any discrimination. Balban tried to ensure
the prosperity of his subjects.
ESTIMATE
According to Lane Poole, "Balban, the slave, water-carrier,

huntsman, general, statesman and Sultan is one of the most striking figures among many notables in the
long line of the kings of Delhi." The preservation of the integrity of the state is to be attributed to the
ability of Balban. He consolidated the conquered areas and destroyed the forces of anarchy. He also
emphasized on the supreme authority of the Sultan. Dr.Habibullah criticizes Balban's extreme racialism
which led him to make the Sultanate an exclusive Turkish concern. He was unable to tolerate the sight of
a native Muslim in any

55

administrative post. According to Prof. K.A.Nizami, Balban established garrisons and forts in all
important places. Balban was responsible for the establishment of law and order in the empire.
However Elphinston writes, "he had no regard for human life, and no scruples about shedding blood. He
was indeed a ruthless king. Fear and awe of him took possession of all men's hearts."
DECLINE OF THE SLAVE DYNASTY
Balban nominated his grandson, Kai Khusrau, son of his eldest son, Mohammad as his successor.
However, Fakhr-ud-din, Kotwal of Delhi helped Kaiqubad, son of Bughra Khan to ascend the throne.
Kaiqubad was only 17 years old when he assumed the reins of the Government. He had been brought up
under strict discipline. Soon after he ascended the throne, he indulged in wine and women. He
completely neglected the administration. Nizam-ud-din, son-in-law of Fakr-ud-din, Kotwal of Delhi
usurped all the powers and the Sultan became a mere figurehead.
During the rule of Kaiqubad, the Mongols attacked India and plundered the frontier regions. However,
Malik Baqbaq defeated the Mongols. Bughra Khan, father of Kaiqubad marched against Delhi to wrest
the throne from his son, Kaiqubad. Bughra Khan reached the Ghaghra near Ayoqhya in 1266 A.D. Bughra
Khan met Kaiqubad who also headed a huge army. But the father and son reconciled. BughraKhan
decided to retreat but it was very clear to him that the decline of the Slave dynasty had become
inevitable. Bughra Khan had warned Kaiqubad about Nizam-ud-din. Kaiqubad transferred Nizam-ud-din
to Multan. When Nizam-ud-din hesitated to obey, Kaiqubad got him poisoned. Due to this, the
administrative system was disrupted. Kaiqubad appointed Jalal-ud-din Firuz as the Governor of .Beran.
Many Turkish nobles opposed it. Unfortunately at that time, Kaiqubad had a paralytic stroke and he was
confined to bed. Jalal-ud-din Firuz took advantage of the opportunity and attacked Delhi. Kaiqubad's
infant son, Kayumars had been placed on the throne as Kaiqubad was in a helpless state. Jalal-ud-din
Firuz entered Delhi and carried away the infant king. He forced many of the Turkish nobles to surrender.
Kaiqbad was murdered and his body was thrown into the Jamuna. In 1290, Jalalud-din Firoz ascended
the throne in the palace of Khilokhri.

1.4 THE KHALJI DYNASTY(1290-1320) JALAL-UD-DIN FIRUZ KHALJI (1290-1296)

Jala-ud-din Firuz Khalji overthrew the slave dynasty. He . became the founder of the Khalji dynasty. This
event has been described as the Khalji revolution by Dr. R.P.Tripathi.
The rise of the Khaljis signified the revolt of the Indian Muslims against Turkish hegemony.
The rule of the Indian Muslims who were considered as inferior by the Turks was inaugurated. The Turks
who were regarded as the blue-blood class were shocked to see this new development. Even the people
of Delhi did not at first welcome the accession of Jalal-ud-din Khalji to the throne of Delhi with an open
mind as he belonged to the Afghan race. Some modern writes. suggest that the Khaljis were originally of
Turkish origin but they had acquired Afghan character as they had settled down in Afghanistan from
quite a long time.
When Jalal-ud-din Khalji usurped the throne, the people of Delhi did not approve it and it was evident
that there was no enthusiasm among the people, on the other hand there was every chance of
opposition from the people. Jalal-ud-din ascended the throne and made Khilokhri as the seat of his.
administration. By his excellent character and generosity, Jalal-ud-din won the hearts of the people and
the affection of the nobles. Only then, he entered Delhi. Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban who was the
Governor of Kara revolted against Jalal-ud-din Khalji. He was defeated by the Sultan and allowed to
retain Kara. Fakhr-ud-:din was permitted to continue as the Kotwal of Delhi. The Turkish nobles
continued to hold the administrative posts previously held by them. Prior torus accession, Jalal-ud-din
Khalji had followed an aggressive policy, but later on he refused to indulge in bloodshed or any
territorial occupation. He developed such a magnanimous attitude that he forgave even robbers and
rebels. Jalal-ud-din's policy encouraged

57

the activities of robbers and bandits. An era of anarchy et in due to lack of law and order. Crimes
increased on an unprecendented scale. Although thousands of bandits were arrested and presented
before the Sultan, they were freed after deporting them to Bengal. The Amirs were vexed by the mild
policy followed by Jalal-,ud-din Khalji.
Malik Chajju of Kara joined hands with HatiI;n, the Governor of A vadh and revolted against the Sultan.
Malik Chajju was defeated by the Imperial army. He was brought before the Sultan along with his
followers. But instead of punishing them, the Sultan pardoned them. Kara was given to Ala-ud-din, the
son-in-law ofJalal-ud-din. The nobles begap. to discuss openly about deposing the Sultan. After a serious
warning, the Sultan pardoned the Amirs.
Jalal-ud-din Khalji deviated from his policy and acted in a very cruel and severe manner in one particular
incident. A large Khankah had been constructed by Siddi Maula where thousands of people were fed
everyday. Many prominent nobles visited the Maula to procure religious instructions. A rumour began
to spread that the nobles were planning to overthrow the Sultan and to put Siddi Maula on the throne.
The conspiracy was discovered. Siddi Maula and his followers were arrested. The Sultan ordered that
Siddi Maula has to be trampled to death by an elephant. This was an unfortunate thing as the Sultan had
pardoned many thieves and criminals but he awarded death sentence to a person whose crime had not
been proved.
Jalal-ud-din led an expedition against Ranthombhor in 1290.
He met with stiff resistance and failed .to occupy it. Tn 1292, he captured Mandasor and also invaded
Malwa. He was successful in capturing'the town of Bhilsa. Jala-ud-din appointed Ala-ud-din Khalji, his
son-in-law as the Governor of Avadh in addition to Kara. In 1292 A.D., the Mongols raided India. Jalal-uddin defeated them successfully inspite of his old age.
Ala-ud-din Khalji undertook expeditions to South India as he was attracted by its wealth. He headed
towards South India with an army consisting of about 18,000 horsemen. Raja Ramachandra of Devagiri
resisted the onslaught of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
However he was defeated and forced to pay heavy tribute. After some time Ramachandra defied the
authority of Ala-ud-din and refused to pay
tribute. Ala-ud-din returned to Kara with immense wealth. He aspired to become the Sultan himself.
Although the bad intentions of Ala-ud-din were patent to the nobles, Jalal-ud-diri was blind with love for
his son-in-law.
Ala-ud-din killed Jalal-ud-din and ascended the throne.
According to Prof.5.R.Sharma, "He (Jalal-ud-du-din Khalji) was too lenient to be a king in an age when
blood and iron alone would matter. He was soon overtaken by whirlwind of troubles that ended, not
only by removing the crown from his head but also the head from his shoulders. Lane Poole remarked
that Jalal-ud-din's murder was the most spiteful event of Indian history.

ALA-UD':DIN KHAL]I (1293-1316)

RISE OF ALA-UD-DIN KHAL]I
Ala-ud-din Khalji was the nephew of Sultan J alal-ud-din Khalji
And he married the daughter of the Sultan.
Jalal-ud-din Khalji brought up Ala-ud-din Khalji with excessive affection as he had been
a fatherless child.
Jalal-ud-din Khalji appointed Ala-ud-din Khalji, as the Governor of Kara and A vadh. Alal-ud-din Khalji
was attracted by the wealth of the Deccan region and led an expedition towards South India with a huge
army consisting of 18000 horsemen.
Before he left to Kara, he expressed his dissatisfaction against his uncle, and spread the news that he
was proceeding towards the South to take service under a Hindu Raja.
So on his way, there was no opposition against him. When he reached Devagiri, Raja Ramachandra
opposed him. Ala-ud-din defeated him successfully and forced him to pay a heavy tribute. After some
time, Ramachandra refused to pay tribute but Ala-ud-din defeated him once again and he returned to
Kara with immense booty. He refused to disgorge the booty to the treas.ury.
The bad intentions of Ala-uddin were patent to all the nobles.
The nobles warned the Sultan regarding the over-ambitious nature of Ala-ud-din. But the Sultan was
blind with love for his Sonin-law. Many nobles insisted that action has to be taken against Ala-ud-Din,
but Jalal-ud-din remained passive. Jalal-ud-din went to meet Ala-ud-Din along with a few unarmed
attendants to Kara. When he embraced Ala-ud-Din, according to the signal given by
Ala-ud-din, Muhammad Salim struck the Sultan twice with his sword. Jalal-ud-din tried to excape but
another follotver of Ala-udDin severed the head of Jalal-uddin. His head was put on a spear and paraded
through Avadh, Kara and Manikpur. On 19th July, 1296, Ala-ud-Din Khalji proclaimed himself as the
Sultan.

CONSOLIDATION OF AUTHORITY
Ala-ud-din took measures to ensure the security of his position.
When Jalal-ud-din's widow, Malik Jahan heard about the murder of her husband, she placed her
younger Soh, Qadir Khan Rukn-ud-din (Ibrahim) on the throne. She also recalled her son, Arkali Khan
from Multan to support her.

Ala-ud-din Khalji heard about the developments in Delhi when he was at Kara. He scattered Gold and
Silver coins among the people and won their hearts. He also gained the support of the soldiers .. Malik J
ahan, Ibrahim and Ahmed Chap realized the futility of fighting and they fled towards Multan.
Ala-ud-din sent his brother, Ulugh Khan to pursue them. Ulugh Khan captured Multan. Ala-ud-din Khalji
got Ibrahim, Arkali Khan and Ahmed Chap blinded and Malik Jahan was imprisoned.
Ala-ud-din Khalji wanted to ensure that his position was secure.
Initially he decided to suppress the Jalali nobles who were not loyal to him. Nusrat Khan was appointed
to take measures against them. The Jagirs of the Jalali nobles were confiscated. Ala-ud-din punished
even those whom he had won over by bribing on the ground that they would betray him just as they
had betrayed their old master. Due to the confiscation of the Jagirs, nearly one crare was added to the
royal treasury.
THE MONGOL INVASIONS
Between 1296 and 1308 A.D. the Mongols made a series of raids.
The Mongols proceeded so far as to threaten even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. Just a few
months after the accession of Ala-ud-din to the throne, in 1296, the Mongols invaded India. An eminent
general of Ala-ud-din called Zafar Khan successfully massacred a number of Mongols and forced them to
retreat.
The second invasion. of the Mongols took place in 1297 under the leadership of Saldi. The Mongols
succeeded in capturing even the fort of Siri near Delhi. However, Zafar Khan recovered the fort by
defeating the Mongols. The Mongols attacked for the third time
under the leadership of Qutlugh Khwaja in 1299. The Mongol army consisted of about 2 lakh soldiers.
The Mongols besieged Delhi. Ala-ud-din also realized that it was a crucial time and led the army along
with Zafar Khan.
However, Zafar Khan was surrounded by the Mongols and killed. The Mongols also lost their morale and
they retreated.
The Fourth Mongol invasion was led by Targhi in 1303 A.D.
The Mongols acted with lightening speed and they laid siege onthe fort of Siri in which Ala-ud-din had
sought refuge.
The raid went on for two months and they plundered Delhi and the surrounding areas. Targhi was
forced to retreat as he was unable to gain a decisive victory. The Mongols retreated suddenly as they
were pre-occupied
in Central Asia and they could not remain for long in India. However Barani attributes the retreat of
the Mongols to the prayers of Sheikh Nizam-ud-din Auliya.

The Mongols attacked India for the fifth time in 1306 under the leadership of Kubak. Ghazi Malik,
Governor of Punjab checked the advance of the Mongols. Nearly 50,000 Mongols were imprisoned ..
Kubak and his Mongol comrades were put to death. The wives and children of the Mongols were sold as
slaves. In 1307 A.D. the last Mongol invasion took placed under the leadership of lqbalmand. He was
defeated and was killed along with his followers. The captured Mongols were imprisoned and put to
death. After 1308, the Mongols did not dare to invade India again.
Ala-ud-din maintained a well-equipped army to meet the danger of the Mongol invasions. He took
strong measures for the defence of the frontier regions. After the danger of the Mongols was averted
and the North Indian campaigns were completed, Alaud-din utilized the large army to carryon his South
Indian expedition. It is also evident that Ala-ud-din Khalji introduced several economic reforms in order
to raise revenue for the maintenance of a long standing army.
NORTHERN EXPEDITIONS GUJARAT
Ala-ud-din despatched Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat in 1299 A.D. The ruler of Gujarat
at that time was Rai Karan Deva II. The Delhi army laid siege on Anhilwara and captured it.
The invaders captured Kamladevi, the beautiful queen of Karan Deva II. She was taken to Delhi and
made the favourite ./ queen of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
Karan Deva II and his daughter, Deval Devi escaped and sought refuge under Ramachandra of Devagiri.
The Delhi troops plundered the rich ports of Gujarat and secured a. huge amount of booty.
Ahandsome eunuch called Malik Kaftirfell into the hands of the invaders.
He was taken to Delhi and he secured a pre-eminent position in the Delhi politics ..
RANTHOMBHOR
At one time, during the rule of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish, Ranthombhor was a part of the Delhi
Sultanate. Ranthombhor was ruled by Hamir Deva. He had granted shelter to some new Muslims who
were the enemies of Ala-ud-Din Khalji.
As Ranthombhor had been a part.of Delhi Sultanate, Ala-ud-Din wished to capture the fort. In 1299, Alaud-din occupied Ranthombhor by resorting to treachery. He secured the help of Ran Mal, the Chief
Minister of Hamir Deva. By the help of Ran Mal, the Muslim forces climbed the walls easily and occupied
the fort successfully. Hamir Deva was put to death. Ran Mal was also not spared on the ground that he
would not hesitate to betray Ala-ud-din just as he had betrayed Hamir Deva.
MEWAR
The conquest of Mewar by Ala-ud-din Khalji has been a legend.
Ala-ud-din Khalji aspired to expand his empire. According to traditional account,s, Ala-ud-din led an
expedition to Mewar as he wanted to possess Rani, the Queen of Rana Ratan Singh of Chitoor. It has

been said that the fort of Chitoor was occupied after great hardships. Nearlyfor 5 months, the Rajputs
defended the fort in a heroic manner. When the Rajputs could no longer face the siege, they preferred
death instead of disgrace. They died fighting in the battlefield and their women gave up their lives by
following the practice of Jatihar to save their honour in 1303. Ala-ud-din appointed his eldest son, Khizr
Khan to administer Mewar. Later on Chitoor was put in charge of Maldeva, a chief of Marwar.

STORY OF RANI PADMINI

Although Ala-ud-din besieged Chitoor, he could not occupy it
easily. He had to confront the brave Rajputs. Ala-ud-din offered to retreat without capturing Chitoor if
he was shown the face of Rani Padmini just once. Rana Ratan Singh agreed to the suggestion and
revealed the face of Padmini in the reflection of a mirror. After seeing Padmini, the desire to. possess
her became even more stronger in Ala-ud-din Khalji. He managed to capture Rana Ratan Singh. He sent
the message to Rani Padmini,that he would release Rana Ratan Singh if she agreed to enter the
chambers of Ala-ud-din. The brave Rajputs advised Padmini to agree to the demands of Ala-ud-din
Khalji. Rani Padmini sent the message that she would visit the camp of Ala-ud-din accompanied by her
attendants. Nearly 700 palanquins were sent along with Rani Padmini. Actually those palanquins were
carrying the brave Rajput soldiers instead of the Queen's maid servants. The Rajput soldiers made a
sudden attack on Ala-ud-din's camp. Ala-ud-din was shocked and was not prepared to face the Rajputs.
Rana Ratan Singh was freed. Ala-uddin was furious and he attacked Chitoor. Cora and Badal tried their
best to defend the fort but failed. Ala-ud-din entered the fort but he was welcomed only by smouldering
ashes. Rani Padmini had committed Jauhar along with the other women of the royal family and her
attendants. Ala-ud-din was greatly disappoin-ted. ,This episode has been described in the famous work,
"Padmavat" written by Malik Mohammad Jayasi. But many scholars have rejected this story as an
allegory.
OMALWA
Malwa was ruled by the Rajput ruler, Rai Mahlak Deva. In
1305, Ala-ud-din Khalji despatched Ain-ul-mulk Multani to invade Malwa.
By the victory over Malwa, the Muslim forces gained control over Ujjain, Mandu, Dhara and Chanderi.
JALOR
Initially, Raja Kaneradeva of J alar had accepted the sovereignty of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
Later on, he tried to declare his independence . Ala-ud-din sent a huge army against him and annexed
Jalor. In 1308, Ala-ud-din annexed Sevana in Rajputana by defeating its ruler, Sitaldeva.

Many factors were responsible for the defeat of the Rajputs. There was lack of unity among the Rajputs.
It was one of the prime factors for the defeat of the Rajputs. The Rajputs had constructed their forts on
the hillocks. There were no proper sanity facilities within the forts. Whenever the enemies attacked the
forts, they would cut off the essential supplies. When the forts were closed for months, the condition in
the forts was deplorable due to the outbreak of epidemics. The Rajputs were extremely heroic and did
not believe in retreating from the battle field. Even the Rajput kings themselves fought against the
enemies leading the armies themselves like ordinary soldiers. They became easy targets and once the
kings were killed, the Rajputs lost their cbnfidence completely. The Rajputs were adhering only to old
modes of warfare. The Muslim soldiers constructed mounds or Pashibs to climb the walls of the forts.
The Rajputs had only limited resources whereas the Muslim forces had vast resources and a large army.
SOUTH INDIAN EXPEDITIONS
DEVAGIRI (1307)
In 1307, Ala-ud-din sent his general, Malik Kafur against Ramachandra of Devagiri. He had not paid the
tribute for nearly three years. He had also provided refuge to Karan Deva, the ruler of Gujarat and his
daughter Devaldevi who had escaped when the Muslim forces had attacked Gujarat. It is said that Deval
Devi fell into the hands of Alp Khan, Governor of Gujarat when he was on his way to join Malik Kafur to
proceed against Devagiri. Devaldevi was sent to Delhi and married to Kahizr Khan, the eldest son of
Alaud-din Khalji. Malik Kafur defeated Ramachandra of Devagiri and secured immense booty.
Ramachandra sued for peace. He visited Delhi and also negotiated with Ala-ud-din. He returned b,:ck to
Devagiri after six months and remained as the vassal of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
TELINGANA (1310)
Ala-ud-din had no intention of annexing Telingana. He wanted to loot it and also force the ruler of
Telingana to accept the sovereignty of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Muslim forces marched through Devagiri and attacked Telingana. They were helped by
Ramachandra of Devagiri. Although the ruler of Telingana, Pratapa Rudradeva.
resisted the onslaught in afierce manner, his efforts were futile. He issued for peace by giving Malik
Kafur 100 elephants, 7000 horses and huge amount of jewels and precious stones. The treasury was
transferred to Delhi on a thousand camels groaning under the weight of the treasury.
.
DWARASAMUDRA (1311)

Ala-ud-din turned his attention against the Hoysala Kingdom.

Malik Kafur attacked Dwarasamudra when Vira Ballala was away from the capital city and was busy
interfering in the Chola politics. Malik Kafur occupied the capital city, Dwarasamudra. He plundered the

rich temples in the surrounding areas and looted Gold, Silver, pearls, diamonds and jewels. Ballala III
hastened to the capital citY' to save his kingdom. He had to pay a heavy war indemnity and concluded
peace with the Muslim forces. The Hoysalas also recognized the sovereignty of Ala-ud-din and became
tribute paying vassals.
THE PANDYA KINGDOM
Malik Kafur proceeded from Dwarasamudra against the Pandya kingdom. At that time, Sundara Pandya
and Vira Pandya were struggling for power. Sundara Pandya went to Delhi and requested the help of
Ala-ud-din. Malik Kafur invaded Madurai. Vira Pandya abandoned the kingdom and fled in fear. Malik
Kafur plundered the city, destroying many temples. He razed down the famous temple at Rameshwaram
and destroyed it and constructed a mosque in its place. In all nearly 312 elephants, 20,000 horses, 2750
pounds of Gold equal to the value of 10 crotes of Tankas as well as chests of jewels were transported to
Delhi.
ALA-UD-DIN'S CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP

Ala-ud-din followed an independent policy with regard to political matters.

He did not permitthe interference of clerical party in matters of administration.
He refused to follow the dictates of the Ulemas.
He declared that he would act according to the guidance of the Ulemas only to protect the political
interests of his Government.
He told Qazi Mughis-ud-din of Biyana who often visited his court: "To prevent rebellion in which
thousands perish, I issue. such orders as I conceive to be for the good of the state and the benefit of the
people. Men are heedless, disrespectful and disobey my commands; I am then compelled to be severeJo
bring them into obedience. I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful; Whatever I think to be for
the good of the state or suitable for the emergency, that I decree; and as for what may happen to me on
the Day of judgement that I
know not." However, it would be wrong to surmise from this that Ala-ud-din had a disregard for Islamic
religion.
He was renowned outside India as the champion of Islamic religion. Barani who was a supporter of
clericalism emphasized that the Sultan had scant respect for Islam. However Amir Khusrau, a man of
culture observes that Ala-uddin was the supporter of Islam. Ala-ud-din declared "Although I have not
studied the science or the book, I am a Mussalman of a Mussalman stock."
The inscriptions of Ala-ud-din's monuments depict to us that he had not lost faith in Islam .
Ala-ud-din believed in the Divine origin of kingship and

cherished the idea that the king was, the representative of God on earth. He was also ruthless in politics
as he had to maintain his position mostly by the use of brute force since his accession.
He felt that kingship knows no kinship. The citizens were regarded as his servants or subjects. He
acted in an independent manner without being influenced by any person. He did riot consider it
necessary to get the sanction of Khalifa forsecuring recognition of his sovereignty.
Ala-ud-Din issued some regulations regarding inflicting punishments which were not in accordance with
the Muslim law. Dr.Ishwari Prasad in this regard pas observed, "Ala-udDin was opposed to the
interference of the 'Dlemas' in matters of state and in this respect he departed from the previous
position of the Sultans of Delhi. The law was to depend upon the will of the monarch and had nothing to
do with the law of the Prophet. This was the guiding maxim of the monarch". According to RP.Tripathi,
"Kingship could exist without any special religious support and that the outlook of a king was different
from that of the clergy. This was the greatest contribution of Ala-ud-Din." Dr.IshwariPrasad feels, "the
reign of Ala-ud-Din represents the high watermark of despotism."
SUPPRESSION OF THE NOBILITY
Ala-ud-din concentrated ,:11 the powers in his hands. He had realized that the nobility would try to
reduce the Sultan to the
position of a mere puppet in their hands.
He evolved 'an intricate espionage system to get information regarding the activities of the nobles; He
tried to prevent the outbreak of rebellions within the kingdom.
The duty of the spies was to be watchful about every small aspect. They had to provide information to
the Sultan regarding all matters ranging from the discussions in the houses of the nobility to the
happenings in the market places.
The spy system was so efficient and alert that the nobles feared to converse even in a thousand pillared
hall. They had to communicate through signs
on account of the fear for their life. The reports were sent by the spies within 24 hours to the Sultan.
Ala-ud-din Khalji realized that whenever certain nobles showed disregard for affairs of the state, they
have to be nipped in the bud itself.
He felt that greater intimacy among the nobles would be a source of danger to the state as they would
have the opportunity to conspire against the Sultan. Moreover, excessive wealth in the hands of the
nobles would breed evil ideas and internal dissensions which would result in destruction of loyalty
towards the state.
Ala-ud-din . decided to curb the accumulation of wealth by the nobles. All pensions and endowments
were appropriated to the state. The lands which were granted as gifts and benevolent endowments
were confiscate'by the state and taxes were levied on them. Barani says that money was squeezed from

the nobles on every pretext. Ultimately, only a few Maliks, Amirs, officials and bankers possessed liquid
cash.
Alaud-din Khalji prohibited inter-dining and conviviality among the nobles. The use of intoxicating drinks
and drugs and playing dice were strictly prohibited. The Sultan himself wanted to set an example to the
rest of the people. He ordered that all the wine jars and glasses in the banquet hall have to be broken.
He emptied casks of wine in the streets of Badaun gate. However, the prohibition order was not a
success. Clandestine drinking continued to exist. People began to distil wine in their houses. The Sultan
was forced to relax his order. Life had become too dull and unbearable due to the prohibition order.
According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, "The amenities of social life disappeared and life became an intolerable
burden."
MILITARISM

Ala-ud-din maintained a large standing army. He had to maintain internal order and prevent the
onslaught of Mongols.
At the same time, he aspired to embark on a policy of aggression and expansion. Ala-ud:..din had
ascended the throne by the use of force and he realized that he could establish his control only by the
use of force.
He maintained a large army and did not permit the nobles to maintain their own armies. He supervised
the activities of the soldiers and paid them salaries regularly without any delay.
He introduced the system of Dagh or branding of horses and Huliah or the preparation of descriptive
rolls of the soldiers.
The Diwan-i-Arz was the head of the military establishment. The economic reforms' introduced by the
Sultan were also to raise funds to maintain a large army.
ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE NON-MUSLIM PEASANTS
Ala-ud-dinfollowed a policy of suppressing the Non-Muslims who were called as the Hindus by the
Persians.The Non-Muslim peasants were called 'Khiraj-guzars.' They were considered as inferior. The
Non-Muslim were regarded as the rivals of the Muslims. When the revenue officers demanded silver
from the peasants, they had to pay in Gold without questioning, with great humility.
Ala-ud-din did not leave any surplus to the peasants. Only subsistence living was provided to the
peasants so that they could never prosper economically.
Indirectly it was a measure to ensure that the peasants would never be able to revolt against the Muslim
state. The Chaudhuris, Khuts an Muqaddams were not allowed to ride on horse-back., TheY'were
forbidden from using fine clothes and jewellery. Ala-ud-din boasted that "At mycomrnand, they are
ready to creep into holes like mice." The hereditary revenue collectors were deprived of their rights and

they lost their social status which they had enjoyed from a long time. Suppressing the Non-Muslim
peasantry was based more oneconomic grounds rather than political grounds.
There are diverse opinions about the religious policy of the Alaud-din Khalji: Prof.s.R.Sharm'a, Dr.s:Roy
and Sir Wolseley Haig are of the view that Ala-ud-din's policy towards the Hindus was actuated by
communaf and religious considerations. On the other
hand, Dr.U.N.Dey, Dr.K.S.Lal and Dr.R.P.Tripathi are of the view that the economic'measures which Alaud-Din took was motivated . to take away the wealth and it did affect the Hindus adversely and were
truly oppressive but these were adopted on no religious consideration but on economic and political
considerations.
According to Eliot, "The Hindus were reduced to a state of abject misery to such an extent that the wives
of 'Khuts' and 'Muqaddams' at no stage of Indian history ever reached that stage of poverty as is told
about his reign." Sir WolseleyHaig expresses a similar view that "Hindus throughout the kingdom were
reduced to one dead level of poverty and misery."
ECONOMIC REFORMS
Ala-ud-din Khalji is not only renowned as an annexationist and a good administrator, he was also
renowned as an economic reformist.
He paid great importance to regulate the market conditions. The prices of food grains, horses, cattle and
all general articles such as vegetables, needles, silks etc were fixed by the Government.
Even the rates of servants and slaves were fixed.
The Government maintained huge granaries for storage of food grains. The prices fixed by the
Government could not be altered even during times of famine.
The Government officials released the food grains to the people during famines. Ala-ud-Din adopted
strict measures for collection of revenue. He curbed the growth of unfair competition. The farmers were
not permitted to retain any surplus and sell it secretly to the merchants at a higher price.
The revenue collectors had to strictly realize the taxes payable to the Government from the farmers.
Many times the farmers were forced to sell their corn at a cheaper rate.
Ala-ud-din ordered the merchants to transfer their belongings and to settle down near Delhi on the
banks of the river Janmna so that they would be within the reach of the superintendent of the market.
TheSarai Adl was established under the Badaun gate. All the merchants of Delhi had to register their
commodities. Passes were pwvided to rich people who wanted to purchase expensive commodities.
The merchants had to submit their entire stocks in the Sarai Adls. They were punished severely for
violating the market

regulations. The Diwan-i-Risalat maintained different records of Hindu merchants and Muslim
merchants.
Government granaries were established at Delhi, Jhain and other neighbouring villages. The corn
collected at Jhain and other places were transported to Delhi through caravans. The superintendent of
the market was grante'd a J agir for his maintenance. A cavalry and infantry contingency was also
provided to enable him to discharge his duties properly.
He supervised the market and also compelled the merchants to collect the grains from the villages. The
Superintendent of the market, the Barid and the officers of the court had to independently report the
Sultan regarding the current prices prevailing in the market.
If the reports did not tally the guilty officer would be punished.
Ala-ud-din issued a series of reforms regarding the collection or laI;ld revenue also. Land was measured
and the share of the state was fixed. Ala-ud-din fixed half of the produce as the share of the state. He
did not force the peasants to pay through-nioney alone, he preferred payment in kind also.
He took measures to protect the peasants' from corrupt revenue officials: They were punished "severely
for trivial matters.
The condition of the revenue collectors was deplorable. There was absolutely no security for their life as
they had to be extremely honest and had to lose their life for vioiating the rules of the state.
More than the peasants and the revenue collectors, the merchants thrived during the rule of Ala-ud-din
Khalji.
There are different opinions among the scholars regarding the revenue reforms introduced by Ala-uddin Khalji. Lane Pooe calls Ala-ud-din Khalji as a great political economist. Many scholars do not accept
this view. Dr.P.5aran is of the opinion that Ala-'ud-din was prompted to introduce the economic
reformsmair\.ly to raise funds. for the mainteQ.ance of a huge army. Even the prices of necessities of
life were fixed in order to provide essential commodities at a cheap rate to the people. Ala-d-din was
not motivated by the idea of the upliftment of the poor when he introduced his economic reforms .
The rules and regulations of Ala-ud-din Khalji were valid only j.n Delhi and its neighbouring villages. The
economic life and business activities were disrupted in some other neighbouring
countries. The reforms of Ala-ud-din Khalji were concentrated only on attaining the benefit of the state
and the maintenance of the power of the Sultan. The poverty, misery and humiliation suffered by the
people were beyond imagination.
The economic reforms did not benefit the peasants in any way. The agriculturists could not sell their
food grains to make profits. They were just left with subsistence. It appeared that the peasants worked
within the framework of the Government rules for the luxury of the people living in Delhi. The amenities
at Delhi were just a distant dream to the peasants.

The economic measures of Ala-ud-din were impracticable and it created an environment in which trade
and commerce could not flourish. Dr.Lal rightly says that the market regulations of Ala-ud din died with
him. A large army was no longer essential after the threat of the Mongol attacks subsided. It appears
that the market regulations were only temporary measures introduced to raise the revenue of the state.
The Sultan had fixed the pay of a soldier at 234 Tankas per year. The value of the Tanka was a little more
than a rupee. Each person maintaining two hdfses were granted 78 Tankas. Alaud-din did not wish to
increase the pay of the soldiers as it would have been a heavy strain on the resources of the state as the
people had been taxed to the maximum limit.
There is no unanimity of opinion among the historians whether the market control was in force in
various parts of the country or in Delhi alone. According to Dr.KS.Lal the system was in force in Delhi
alone. He puts forth the argument that Barani has mentioned the officers namely Diwan-i-Riyasat and
Shahana-Mandi only in the context of Delhi.
No reference of these officers is found in respect to other cities. The registration of traders was
compulsory only in Delhi. Only one cloth market is mentioned and that too at Sarai Adl in Delhi.
According to KS.Lal, the system of market control was introduced on military considerations. Ala-uddin's army expenses were enormous. He therefore reduced the salary of the soldiers However, he tried
to provide a reasonable standard of living for them, he fixed the prices of the commodities in such a way
as the soldiers could afford them.
Dr.l.].N.Dey opposes the view of Dr.KS.Lal. According to him Ala-ud-din's motive was to check the rising
prices which was due
to manipulation of the business community and not to reduce the prices to a lower level than the
normaL" It is important to consider the opinion of Shaikh Nasir-ud-din Chirag, the author of 'Khairul
Majalis". Acocording to him, the policy of market control introduced by Ala-ud-Din was on humanitarian
grounds. Ala-ud-din was greatly concerned with public welfare according to Chirag.
However, Prof. Habib and Nizami do not agree with the views of Sheikh Nasir-ud-Din. They hold the
opinion that Ala-ud-Din' s clear motive was to make people poor so that the word of rebellion should go
out of their mind.
Dr.V.A.Smith's opinion about the economic reforms and market control policy of Ala-ud-Din is as
follows, "His measures succeeded in preserving artificial cheapness in the markets of capital (Delhi) even
during the years of drought but at the cost of infinite oppression. All his fantastic regulations died with
him."However, even though K.S.Lal has pointed out several defects of the price control system,. he also
appreciates this policy as "What is of real importance in Alaud-Din's reign is not so much the cheapness
of prices, as the establishment of a fixed price in the market.which was considered one of the wonders
of the age."

It is also obvious to the discerning eye that Ala-ud-din wanted to reduce the administrative expenditure
which meant reduced salaries but availability of essential commodities at low prices. Hence price
regulation was an administrative necessity.
ESTIMATE
Ala-ud-din Khalji had an excellent record as an eminent warrior and General. His role as administrator
was equally brilliant due to his novel ideas and distinguished manner of governing the kingdom. But
Dr.Ishwari Prasad is of the opinion that the foundations of the political system set up by Ala-ud-din were
unsound.
The condition of the non-Muslims was deplorable. Over-centralization and intricate espionage system
created a stifling atmosphere. Barani writes about Ala-ud-din Khalji that "he shed more innocent blood
than any Pharoah was guilty of." The barbarity which he exhibited in destroying the new Muslims
shocked even the insensitive Turks.
Ala-ud-din Khalji was a great patron of learning. Barani writes that Ala-ud-din had no acquaintance with
learning, but Ferishta has
stated that Ala-ud-din learnt the art of reading Persian after his accession. Amir Khusrav was- the
greatest literary luminary patronized by Ala-ud-:din Khaljl. He was renowned as Tuti-i-Hirtd or Parrot of
India. Amir Khusrav's noted works were the 'Tarikh-iAlai' or 'Khazain-ul-Futuh' which has been extremely
valuable to retrace the history of Ala-ud-din Khalji and 'Ashiqa' as well as 'Nur Siphir'.
Another famous literary figure was Amir Hasan who was renowned as 'Sadi of India'. The historians
patronized by Ala-uddin Khalji were Amir Arsalan Kohi and Kabir-ud-din. The eminent philosophers and
theologians of the age were Shaikh Nizam-ud-din, Shaikh Rukn-ud-dinand Qazi Mughis-ud-din.
Ala-ud-din Khalji also patronised the growth of art and architecture. Several forts were constructed and
the most famous fort has been the Alai Fort or Kosha-k-i-Sirl. The walls of this fort have been
constructed by using stone; brick and lime. It consisted of seven gates. Amir Khusrau writes' that "All the
mosques which lay in the ruins were built anew by a profuse scattering of silver". In 1311, Ala-ud-din
undertook the project of extension of the Qutub mosque and the construction of a new Minar in the
courtyard of the mosque which was twice the size of the old Qutb Minar. However, the 'construction
could not be completed during his lifetime due to multifarious problems. Ala-ud-din built the 'Palace of a
thousand pillars" called Hazar-Situn. He also constructed the J ama Masjid and the Shamsi tank.
Ala-ud-din was a person who was a ruthless tyrant but he was endowed with great capacity and
immense energy. He was extremely ambitious and diplomatic. Ala-ud-din was the first grea1 Muslim
imperialist and the first great Muslim administrator of India Dr .K.S. Lal says that Ala-uddin Khalji
reached the height of his powel at the age of 45 through his unrivalled skill, studied tact and
phenomenal energy.
END OF THE RULE OF ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI

Ala-ud-din Khalji trusted Malik Kafur to such an extent that he became a puppet in the
hands of Malik Kafur. He influenced thE Sultan to such an extent that he poisoned the mind of the Sultan
tha' his wife and sons were conspiring against him. He made the Sultar to issue orders to imprison MalikI-Jahan, Khizr Khan and Shadi

73

Khan. On the second day after the-death of Ala-lid-din, he produced a will of the deceased Sultan which
if authentic had been secured from him through undue pressure, disinheriting Khizr Khan and giving the
throne to Shihab-ud-din Umar who was a child of five or six years old. Malik l<afur became the regent
and the virtual dictator. He got Khizr Khan and Shadi Khan blinded. He deprived the Queen mother of all
here wealth and imprisoned her. An attempt was made to kill prince Mubarak, but he managed to
escape. Malik Kafur remained in power for thirty five days. He was murdered by some of the attendants
of Sultan Ala-ud-din .

SUCCESSORS OF ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI

QUTB-UD-DIN MUBARAK SHAH
The third son of Ala-ud-din called Mubarak Khan managed to escape from the hands of Malik Kafur.
After the death of Malik Kafur, Shihab-ud-din Umar was placed on the throne. Mubarak was appointed
as the regent. After two months, Mubarak dethroned Shihab-ud-din and blinded him. He ascended the
throne as Qutbud-din Mubarak Shah.
He cancelled the harsh measures of Ala-ud-din a,nd tried to win over the people. Taxes were lowered.
He was not a competent ruler. Gujarat revolted. Devagiri and Rajputana became independent. Mubarak
Shah subdued the rulers of Devagiri and Rajputana. He alsQ annexed Gulbarga, Sagar and
Dwarasamudra and appointed Muslim Governors .
Mubarak Shah was licentious in behavious. He spent most of his time indulging in wine and women. He
was surrounded only by flatterers and fools. He ridiculed the aged and experienced nobles. He ran
naked among his courtiers. He showed undue favour to Khusru who hatched a conspiracy by which
Mubarak was stabbed to death in 1320.
NASIR-UD-DIN KHUSRU SHAH (1320)
After the death of Mubarak Shah, Khusru ascended the throne.

Many Turks opposed him although he had the support of many Muslim commanders and officials. Ghazi
Malik, the Governor of Punjab assumed the leadership of the rebels. Ghazi Malik marched against Delhi
and defeated and killed Khusru Shah, Thus the rule of the Khalji dynasty came to an end.

1.5 THE TUGHLAQS (1320-1414 A.D.)

GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ (1320-25)
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. He started his political
career as an ordinary soldier. During the rule of Ala-ud-din Khalji he was appointed as the Governor of
Punjab in 1305 A.n He realized that after the death of Ala-ud-din there were clear signs of decadence of
the Khalji rule' as the successor's of Ala-ud-din were weak and incompetent. He seized the opportunity
and usurped the throne during the rule of Khusru Shah with the help of his efficient son, Juna Khan. By
1320, Ghiyas-ud-din astendedthe throne of Delhi.
Ghiyas-ud-din strengthened his position by eliminating the supporters of Khusru Shah from the political
scene. He restored the lands of the nobles which had been confiscated by Ala-ud-din. He increased the
salaries of the officers to prevent corruption. He consulted his ministers on all important administrative
matters. Land was surveyed ad the Sultan took measures to bring wastelands under cultivation. He was
known for his wisdom and thoughtful approach.
Ghiyas-ud-din also followed the policy of aggression and expansion. He consolidated his position as the
Sultan of Delhi by waging a series of wars. He dispatched his son, J una Khan to subdue Pratap Rudra
Deva II of Warangal in 1321 as the ruler of Warangal had refused to pay annual tribute to the Sultan of
Delhi. Juna Khar laid siege on the mud fort of Warangal. The Hindus put up stiff resistance and Juna
Khan failed in capturing the fort of Warangal However, JunaKhan was sent once again to Warangal after
four months to capture Warangal. Juna Khan occupied Bidar and marched on Warangal. Pratap
Rudradeva II of Warangal was defeated. The kingdom of Warrangal was divided into many districts.
which were placed under the charge of various Turkish nobles and officers. Warangal was named as
Sultanpur. When Jima Khan was on his way back to Delhi, he plundered Utkala in Orissa and secured 50
elephants and many valuable articles.
Ghiyas-ud-din interfered in Bengal Shams-ud-din Firuz Shah of Bengal had three sons named Ghiyas-uddin, Shihab-ud-din and, Nasir-ud-din. Ghiyas-ud-dinTughlaq helped Nasir-ud-din to ascend the throne of
West Bengal. The Mongols invaded India in 1324 but they were forced to retreat. When Ghiyas-ud-din
was in Bengal, Juna Khan began to increase his power. He engineered the death of Ghiyas-ud-din and
ascended the throne of Delhi in 1325 A.D.
MOHAMMAD-BIN- TUGHLAQ (1325-1351A.D.)
The son of Ghiya-ud-din was Juna Khan.

He assisted his father in usurping the throne of Delhi from Khusru Shah.
He laid siege on Warangal according to the orders of Ghiyas-ud-din. During the first expedition, the ruler
of Warangal defended the fort in a successful manner. Juna Khan failed to occupy it and he was forced
to retreat to Delhi. However after four months he undertook another expedition to occupy Warangal.
He occupied Bidar and laid siege on Warangal. He succeeded in occupying it. Warangal was divided into
many districts and they were placed under the charge of Muslim officers. Warangal was named
Sultanpur. On his way back to Delhi, he plundered Utkala in Orissa and secured 50 elephants and many
valuable articles.
When Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was in Bengal, Juna Khan began to increase his power by forming a
powerful army of his own. Ghiyas-ud-din came back to Delhi from Bengal. Juna Khan constructed a
wooden pavilion to receive his father. It is said that the newly erected building was constructed in a
manner that it would crumble when touched in a certain part by an elephant.
A grand meal was arranged. Later on,Ghiyas-ud-din was requested by Juna Khan to have a view
of the elephants brought from Bengal.
When the elephants were paraded, one of the elephants came into contact with one of the pillars. The
entire building collapsed. Ghiyas-ud-din and his other son, Mahmud Khan were crushed to death, IbnBatuta attributes the death of Ghiyas-ud-din to the conspiracy hatched by Juna Khan. He also mentions
that Juna Khan deliberately delayed the clearing of the debris to ensure the death of Sultan Ghiyas-uddin. Abul Fazl and Badauni are also of the opinion that Juna Khan was responsible for the death of
Ghiyas-ud-din. Although Dr. Mahdi Hussain says that the pavilion fell on its own accord, it is generally
believed that Juna Khan Was responsible for the death of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. He ascended the
throne in 1325.
There are many literary works which give us information about the history of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Zia-ud-din Barani wrote the famous work Tarikh-i-Firuz Shah. He spent nearly 17 years in the court of
Mohammad Tughlaq.
Ibn Batuta, the Moorish traveller, spent many years in the court of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.
His accounts also throw light on Mohammad's rule.
CHARACTER OF MOHAMMAD-BIN-TUGHLAQ
Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq was the most striking figure of medieval Indian history. According to Lane
Poole, Mohammad bin-Tughlaq was a man with ideas far beyond his age.
Ala-ud-din Khalji had brought an uncultivated mind to bear upon the problems of the Government.
Mohammad -bin- Tughlaq was even more daliing in his plans but they were the ideals of a man of
trained intellect and tutored imagination. Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq was an extraordinary personality and
it is difficult to understand his character and determine his place in history.

Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq was proficient in Persian poetry which is considered as the Latin of Indian
education.
He was also a highly learned person. He was a lover of science and a mathematician of a high order.
Even theologians feared to argue with him as he was well versed in philosophy and logic. Although he
was unable to speak Arabic fluently, his coins depict the engrossing of Arabic character. The
contemporary writers have also extolled the skill of Mohammad in Calligraphy.
On account of the descriptions of Barani and Batuta, we learn that Mohammad was a mixture of
opposites.
He was pious and arrogant, humble and proud and generous and hostile at the same time. His actions
were so strange that it gave room for suspicion that he was suffering from mental derangement. The
character of Mohammad has remained an enigma. It is difficult to understand whether he was a genius
or a lunatic, an idealist or a visionary? A tyrant or a benevolent king and a heretic or a devout
Mussalmfln? Sultan Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq was endowed with keen intellect, an excellent memory
and had a brilliant capacity of assimilating knowledge. Mohammad loved to experiment with novel
ideas. He aspired to develop close diplomatic, cultural and commercial contacts with the outside world.
He sent embassies to different countries and ambassadors from China, Iraq, Syria and other countries
also visited the court of Mohammad-bih- Tughlaq. He was not merely contented by assuming the role of
an annexationist like Alexander, the Great. He wished to govern the kingdom like Solomon by exercising
control over both the temporal and eternal world.
Mohammad was basically a rationalist. He displayed it in discussions regarding religious and
philosophical matters. He spent much of his time in the midst of learned scholars, philosophers and
theologians. When he displayed rationalistic approach regarding religious matters, Barani interpreted it
as blasphemy and said that Mohammad was a non-believer. But Ibn Batuta writes "he follows the
principles of religion with devoutness and performs the prayers himself and punished those who neglect
them."
Mohammad followed a policy of religious tolerance. He participated in the religious ceremonies and
festivals of other religions also. There are evidences that he participated in Hindu festivals like Holi.
Many Jogis who had attracted Muslim followers lived in the empire without fear. The Sultan visited the
Satrunjaya temples at Palatina and the idol houses of Girnar. The Sultan was not against mysticism but
he did not want state matters to be dealt in a mystic way. He expected even the Sufis to act in the
interest of the state. The Sultan appointed persons on the basis of merit to administrative offices. He did
not hesitate to appoint low-born persons to high administrative posts. He even appointed Hindus in
the State service. He was inspired by the Khaljis and ignored the canon law as expounded by learned
Doctors. He formulated his political conduct according to his own experience in world.
The Sultan lacked practical judgement and commonsense. He evolved an idealistic approach by trying to
put theoretical experiments without any foresight about the consequences. Due to lack of political
insight, his kingdom suffered disastrous experiences. He was hasty and could not tolerate oppostion.

There was no room for debates and discussions on any policy matter as it was not received with an open
mind by the Sultan. Some scholars have described his character as "a mixture of opposites". Some
others feel that "he was not really an amazing compound of contradictions." He was more eccentric in
behaviour and unpredictable in action. He has been accused of "blood-thirstiness and madness" by the
clerical party. The main drawback of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq was that he lacked the foresight of a
statesman. He had fantastic ideas with which he toyed like a child; and was adamant and stubborn in
implementing his ideas regardless of the inconvenience and hardships experinced by the people. But it is
evident that he was far beyond his age in his thinking and outlook. Only if he had an analytical mind and.
prudent outlook, he could have achieved wonders in his political career by setting a new trend or
inaugurating anew era.
REVOLT OF BAHAUD-DIN GURSHASP
Just after Mohammad ascended the throne, he had to face the
rebellion of his cousin, Bahaud-din Gurshasp. By 1326, there was serious trouble in the Deccan. He was
the Governor of Sagar, ten miles North of Sholapur. He aspired to become the Sultan himself.
Mohammad fought against Gurshasp and defeated him on the banks of the river Godavari. Gurshasp
was unable to face the Delhi forces which had unlimited resources. He feld towards the Deccan region
and sought refuge under the ruler of Kampili. Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq led three expeditions to subdue
the ruler of Kampili. The Kampili Raja died in the course of the war and his women performed Jauhar in
1327 A.D. Later on Gurshasp sought refuge in the cburt of the Hoysala ruler, Ballala III in Dwarasamudra.
The Hoysala king refused to give him shelter due to thefear of Mohammad. The Sultan
had Gurshasp flayed alive. His flesh was cooked in rice and offered to elephants and his relatives. His
skin was stuffed and exhibited in the chief cities of the empire. Khislu Khan, the Governor of Multan
refused to exhibit the miserable relic and buried it in a decent manner. The Sultan led an expedition
against him and killed him for defying his orders .
TRANSFER OF CAPITAL
In 1327, Mohammad-bin Tughlaq arrived at the decision to transfer his capital from Delhi to Devagiri,
renamed by him as Daulatabad. This was one of his ill-conceived fantastic ideas.
It resulted in misery and severe hardships to the people. The Sultan had certain valid reasons for
transferring his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. According to Barani, Daulatabad occupied a central
position in India and it was nearly equidistant (700 miles) from Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Telingana and
other places. Mohammad wanted his capital to be saJe from Mongol invasions which constantly
threatened the peace and security of Delhi. Sultan Mohammad beautified Daulatabad and made
arrangements to provide all basic amenities of life.
The idea of transfer of capital would not have been impractical or abnormal if the Sultan had not
resolved to order the entire population of Delhi to migrate to Daulatabad.

Elaborate arrangements were made for the peaceful immigration of the people. A spacious road was
constructed and shady trees were planted on both sides of the road. A regular postal system was
established between Delhi and Daulatabad. However, when the people hesitated to migrate due to
deep sentiments attached to their place of their birth, Mohammad lost his temper. Ibn Batuta says that
a blind man was dragged from Delhi to Daulatabad.
Bararu says that without weighing the pros and cons, Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq brought ruin on Delhi
which for 170 to 180 years had grown in prosperity and rivaled Baghdad and Cairo. Ibn Batuta observes,
'When I entered Delhi it was almost a desert. Not a cat or dog was left;" probably there might have been
an element of exaggeration in the remark of Batuta. Many people perished on their way to Daulq.tabad.
They were heartbroken and their sentiments had been deeply hurt. The Sultan realised his mistake and
ordered the people to return back to
Delhi. This only added to the misery of the people and many people perished on their way back to Delhi.
The consequences of this novelexperiment of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq proved to be disastrous.
According to Lane Poole "Daulatabad was a monument of misdirected energy."
Some scholars like Dr.syed Moin-ul-Haq are 6fthe opinion that the Sultan had ordered the emigration of
only the upper classes consisting of the Ulema, Mashaikhs, courtiers, administrative officers and army
commanders. The descriptions of Ibn Batuta and Barani might have contained certain elements of
exaggeration. Their intention must have been to indicate that there was largescale immigration and the
prosperity of Delhi had diminished to a large extent. Certain documentary evidences and the
circumstantial evidences make it clear that only a selected few were chosen to migrate from Delhi to
Daulatabad. This view has been further confirmed by two Sanskrit inscriptions of 1327 and 132.8 A.D.
The references in these inscriptions have beensupport.ed by the Sufi saints also. The Sultan aspired that
the Ulemas, Mashaikhs and Mussalman nobles have to migrate to South India in order to spread Islam
throughout india. He felt that with the spread of Islam in the Deccanregion, the frequent rebellions of
the Hindus would be prevented. It also appears that the Sultan wanted distinguished persons to migrate
to Daulatabad in order to raise the status of the place to the level of the capital city, Delhi. At the same
time, he aimed at making Daulatabad the centre of his political activities.
According to Dr. Moin-ul-din Haq, the entire population of Delhi was not evacuated and the Sultan did
not want to convert Daulatabad another Delhi. His intention was only to convert Daulatabad into a
colony of the Muslims. Prof.MohammadHabib and Prof.K.A.Nizami have put forth their own distinctive
views. Prof. Habib says that the Chisti and Suharwadi mystic orders carried on an extensive religious
propaganda in every village and town of Hindustan and their efforts brought a considerable number of
poor Hindus within the fold of Islam. Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq felt that some efforts similar to the Sufi
influence has to be made to strengthen the Muslim position in the Deccan region, so he realized the
need to transport a large number of Muslims to the Deccan region.
Prof.K.A.Nizami suggests that Mohammad must have realised the need for having a strong
administrative centre in the South to deal with the problems arising in this area in an effective manner.

Although.the experiment of tranfer of capital failed due to the practical difficulties and lack of foresight
of the Sultan, it broke the cultural barriers between the North and South.
THE CURRENCY EXPERIMENT (1329-30)
The novel experiment of Mohammad Tughlaq regarding the introducation of a new type of coin has
been considered as highly commendable, although it failed miserably.
Edward Thomas has described Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq as "a Prince of Moneyars". A new Gold piece
called the Dinar by Ibn Batuta weighing 200 grams was issued by him.
He also revived the Adali, equivalent in weight to 140 grains of Silver in place of the old Gold and silver
coins weighing 175 grains.
This change must have been introduced as the imperial treasury was facing a shortage of Gold Coins as a
result of the campaigns of the Deccan. In 1329 and 1330, the Sultan hit upon the fantastic idea of
bringing the circulation of copper coins in his empire as the use of paper currency was in vogue in Persia
and China.
Mohamamd-bin-Tughlaq introduced copper coins because he had to face dearth of money to maintain a
large army consisting of 3,70,000 soldiers.
Moreover, the treasury was bankrupt due to the lavish gifts made by the Sultan and some of his
unsuccessful expeditions. Another cause must have been the scarcity of silver in the market. The Sultan
was adventurous and also wished to experiment with a new currency system due to the originality of
mind -which he possessed.
The experiment of Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq failed miserably. The main reason was that the people
could not grasp the significance of the change in coinage immediately. Another reason has been that the
Sultan did not take precautionary measures to ensure that the minting of coins would remain as the
monopoly of the state and should be state-controlled without giving an opportunity for the people to
take advantage of it. The Copper coins were valid only where the Sultan exercised his direct authority.
Foreign merchants refused to accept the copper coins because Gold- coins were used as the standard
unit of exchange. In China, measures had been taken
to curb the imitation of paper notes. There was no proper manner by which the authenticity of the
copper tokens could be determined. The copper coins had no distinctive marks or features. It was
difficult to distinguish between genuine coins issued by the state and the fake cams stamped m the
local GoldsmIth's shops. A number of counterfeit coins came into existence.
Barani says that "the promulgation of the edict turned the house of every Hindu into a mint and the
Hindus ofthe various provinces coined crores of copper coins. With these they paid their tribute, and
with these they purchased horses, arms and fine things of all kinds. The Rais, the village headmen and
landowners grew rich and strong upon these copper coins but the state was impoverished. In those
places where fear of the Sultan's edict prevailed, the Gold Tankas roseto be worth a hundred of

(thecopper) Tankas. Every Goldsmith struck copper coins in his workshop, and the treasury was filled
with these copper coins. So low did they fall that they were not valued more than pebbles or potsherds.
The old coin from its great scarcity rose four-fold and five-fold in value". The flunctuation in the value of
the currency had an adverse effect on theJrade and commerce.
The Sultan realized the error which he had committed and he repealed the edict, four years later after
the copper coins were introduced. Prudent merchants paid in copper and sold their commodities only
for Gold coins. When the economy was completely beyond the control of the Government, the Sultan
announced that the Copper coins would be redeemed by Gold and Silver coins in huge proportions. The
Sultan was unable to punish those who had brought in. the copper coins for exchange as those who
possessed the fake copper coins were bonafide and innocent citizens. The treasury redeemed the
copper coins as a matter of treasury-conscience. The treasury was bankrupt as it was filled only with the
fake copper coins. In order to replenish the treasury, he adopted the method of farming revenues to the
highest bidder. This only added to the misery of the subjects. The forged copper coins which were not
brought to the treasury continued to circulate at their metallic value.
There were many reasons for the failure of the experiment of copper token coins. Edward Thomas
writes "There was no special machinery to mark the difference of the royal mint and the handiwork of a
moderately skilled artisan. Unlike the precaution taken to prevent the imitation of the Chinese paper
notes, there was positively no check upon the authenticity of the copper tokens and no limits to the
power of the production of the masses at large".
Some western scholars have attributed the experiment as an outcome of the shortage in the supply of
silver in the world during the fourteenth century.
In 1335 during the rule of Edward III there was a scarcity of coins in England also. This problem was
faced by many countries of the world.
Prof. Mohammad Habib says that the royal mint had a special type of Bronze alloy for the coins which
could be easily distinguished on the touchstone but the secret of the proportion of the metals in the
Bronze could not be discovered by the goldsmiths. Mohammad had expected the people to weigh the
coins and test them on the touchstone. In fact, it can be said that the public had successfully hoodwinked the Government. The people had made the system in which copper coins were circulated as
unworkable. There was no one person in particular who could be accused of the crime of minting fake
coins. Almost every goldsmith's shop had been transformed into a mini mint. The prudent merchants
were the greatest beneficieries. This experiment threw the economy into a state of chaos and anarchy.
TAXATION IN THE DOAB REGION
The taxation policy followed by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in the Ganga-Yamuna doab region was also
peculiar. He increased the taxation rates and also levied certain additional Ahwabs or cesses.

According to Elliot, the taxes were increased by 5% or 10%. Badauni is of the opinion that the taxes
claimed by the state were doubled. The Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi mentions that the taxes were increased
twenty fold and along with it Ghari or house-tax and Charahi or pasture tax were also levied.
The taxation policy of Mohammad caused immense hardships to the people living in the fertile GangaYamuna doab region. The peasants were the worst sufferers. The fertile lands were ruined
and scarcity of foodgrainsalso made life miserable. Famines were common and many people perished.
Dr.Ishwari Prasad says that it was unfortunate that the experiment was conducted at a time when the
country was suffering from famines.
The farmers tried to migrate to other places. The Sultan used harsh measures to being them back to
their original homes. He started a new department of agriculture. This Department was created to grant
help to peasants and to bring more land under cultivation. An area of 60 miles square was chosen to
conduct the experiment in rotation of crops. Within two years, 70 lakhs was spent on it but the
Government did not reap the profits proportionate to it. The land selected was unfit for cultivation. It
appears that a large sum of money had not been utilized properly.
ADMINISTRATION
Mohammad-bin-Tughlak believed that he was the shadow of
God. His idea of divine origin of kingship is depicted in some of his inscriptions which read as "He who
obeys the Sultan truly obeys God" and "God is the supporter of the Sultan." He exercised absolute
authority. He detested any kind of opposition and suppressed it without any mercy. Mohamamd was
basically ruled by his rational rather than his emotions even in religious matters. He was not a religios
bigot. He did not look down upon the sentiments of the Hindus. He tried to stop the evil pratice of Sati.
Mohammad levied Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya, Khamsa and many other taxes also. He was the highest judicial
authority. He was detested by the clerical group as he did not hesitate to punish even the Shaikhs and
Sayyids. His ideals were misinterpreted by orthodox Muslims and was branded as a non believer.
Towards the end of his rule, he tried to convince the people that he was a true Muslim and that his aim
was to strive for Islam. He ordered that coins have to be issued in the name of the Caliph also. In 1344
A.D. Mohammad:-bin-Tughlaq received Said Sarsari, the envoy sent by the Caliph of Egypt and honoured
him. He did not dare even to drink a drop of water without the permission of the Caliph. However, he
was una,ble to regain the confidence of the people and the Ulemas.

FOREIGN POICY

In 1328-1329, the Chagatai chief of Tranxoiana, Tarmashirin Khan invaded India. He plundered the plains
of Punjab and the frontiers of Delhi. According to Ferishta, Mohammad-bin-Tughlilq bribed the invaders
by paying them in gold and jewels. It is said that it was the price paid by Mohammad for his kingdom.

Tarmashirin made only a temporary raid on the empire. It did not last for a long time. Very soon,
Tarmashirin Khan retreated.
Mohammad Tughlaq led another expedition with the ambition bf conquering Iraq. He raised a huge
army consisting of 3,70,000 men. The Sultan decided' to launch an expedition to Khurasan due to the
political instability prevailing in Khurasan. He did not realize the hardships which were involved in
launching the invasion to a far off place like Khurasan. He did not take into consideration the
. difficulties in transport. Mohammad did not bother to think of the difficulty involved in sending a huge
army through the passes of the Hindukush mountains. Moreover food and essential articles could not be
transported easily through the mountainous region .
The Muslim forces were miserably defeated as they were unable to fight the tough soldier bands of
Central Asia.
In 1337 Mohammd Tughlaq led an expedition against Nagarkot.
The Hindu Raja offered resistance but was ultimately forced to submit. However, the fort was restored
to him. According to Ferishta, Mohamamd-bin- Tughlaq sent an expedition to China. There are
differences of opinion among the shoclars whether Mohammad intended to capture Karajal or China or
Tibet. Ibn Batuta and Barani state that Mohammad wanted to capture the Karajal mountain which lies
between India and China. Mohammad wanted capture the Karajal mountain which lies between India
and China. Mohammad wanted to subdue the tribes in the Kumaon-Gharwal region. Initially, the raid
was a success but during rainy season the invaders suffered badly and were plundered. It cost the royal
exchequer heavily. But the tribes gave up their defiance and began to pay tribute to the Sultan.
Fakhruddin, Governor of Eastern Bengal ruled in an independent manner. Qadr Khan, Governor of
Lakhnauti marched against him but was killed.
Bengal remained outside the realm of
The Governor of Avadh was Ain-ul-Mulk Multani. He had suppressed the revolt of the Governor of Kara
and had supplied grains worth 70 to 80 lakhs during famine. However, the Sultan
commanded him to go to Daulatabad. Ain-ul-Mulk Multani refused to go. The Sultan led an expedition,
defeated him and imprisoned him. Due to his loyal service his life was spared but was appointed as the
keeper of the royal gardens at Delhi. Qutlugh Khan, the Governor of Daulatabad was recalled as a lot of
revenue was embezzled due to maladministration. Peace in the Deccan region was disturbed leading to
revolts.
By 1336, the Vijayanagara empire had been established Ballala and Krishna Naik of Warangal joined
hands together and freed Malabar and Dwarasamudra from the control of the Muslims. Meanwhile the
Deccan region became the scene of disorder and rebellions. The Govenor of Malwa, Aziz Khummar was
high handed towards the nobles. He got 80 nobles beheaded in front of the place in order to terrorise
others. But he himself was captured and put to death.

Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq marched against Gujarat and suppressed the rebels and destroyed everything
in the process. By that time a revolt broke outin Deogiri under the leadership ofIsmail Mukh.
Mohammad Sultan crushed the rebellion. When the Sultan was busy in Deogiri, another revolt broke out
in Gujarat under the leadership of Taghi. Mohammad rushed back to Gujarat and drove away Taghi, who
fled to Sind. Meanwhile the Amirs of Deogiri region attacked the Deogiri fort. The Delhi forces were
unable to recover the fort. Hasan Gangu was chosen as the king by the local Amirs. lie Clssumed the
title, Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah. He established the Bahmani kingdom by 1347 A.D. The Sultan tried
to pursue Taghi who had sought refuge in Sindh. But, he fell seriously ill and he died on 20, march, 1351.
ESTIMATE
Badauni commented on the death of Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq that "The king was freed from the people
and they from their king." Dr.R.C.Majumdar arrived at the conclusionthat, "The Sultan lacked

87

practical judgement and commonsense and rather obsessed with theoretical knowledge, indulged in
lofty theories and visionary projects." V.A.Smith opines that "he occupied the throne for twenty six
years of tyranny as atrocious as any on record in the sad annals of human devilry and then died in his
bed." Elphinstone observed, "His whole life was spent in pursuing visionary schemes, by means equally
irrational and with a total disregard of the suffering which they occasioned to his subjects, and its results
were more calamitous than those of any other Indian ruler."
Elphinstone is of the view that Muhammad Tughlak suffered from some degree of insanity. This view is
supported by Havell and S.R.Sharma. However Ishwari Prasad does not accept this view. He stated,
"Mohammad Tughlaq was unquestionably the ablest man among the crowned heads of the middle ages;
some historians lay charge of madness on him but neither in the pages of Ibn Batuta nor in the history of
Barani. Edward Thomas and Havell have taken their clue from Badauni who bitterly prejudiced against
the Sultan and they have uncritically accepted most of his statements."
Although Elphinstone felt that the Sultan suffered from some degree of insanity he has also given a fairly
balanced view in assessing the personality of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. In the words of Elphinstone, "It is
admitted on all hands that he was the most eloquent and accomplished prince of his age. His letters,
both Arabic and Persian were admired for their elegance long after he had ceased to reign. His memory
was extraordinary, and besides a thorough knowledge of logic and the philosophy of the Greeks, he was
much attached to mathematics and to physical sciences, and used himself to attend sick person's for
watching the symptoms of any extraordinary disease. He was regular in his devotions, abstained from
wine, and conformed in his private life to all the moral precepts of his religion. In war he was
distinguished for his gallantry and personal activity, so that his contemporaries were justified in
esteeming him as one of the wonders of the age.

Yet on the whole as if these splendid talents and accomplishments were given to him in vain, they were
accompanied by a perversion of judgement which, after every allowance for the intoxication of absolute
power, leaves us in doubt whether he was not affected by some degree of insanity. His whole life was
spent in pursuing visionary schemes by means equally irrational and with a total disregard of the
sufferings which they occasioned to his subjects; and its results were more calamitous than those of any
other Indian ruler."
FIRUZ TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)
Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq was succeeded by Firuz Tughlaq. During the rule of Mohammad itself he was
associated with the administration as he was the favourite of the Sultan.
When he ascended the throne, the condition in the empire was chaotic. After the death of Mohammad,
the camp was plundered by the rebels of Sind and Mongol mercenaries who had been hired by
Mohammad Tughlaq to fight against Taghi.
Khwaja-i-Jahan, Deputy of Mohammad Tughlaq declared a young lad as the successor to the throne. The
nobles contended that Mohammad Tughlaq had no sons. But the jurists state that in Muslim law, there
is no inherited right of succession to the throne. Due to the anarchy prevailing in the kingdom, the
young lad was considered to be unfit to ascend the throne.
Firuz Tughlaq was chosen as the ruler due to his ability and prowess. Khwaja-i-Jahan surrendered to him
and was pardoned.
INTERNAL REFORMS
Firuz Tughlaq was a benevolent ruler who cared for the welfare
and happiness of his people.
He established peace and prosperity in the empire.
Although he was not an efficient warrior, his internal reforms earned him popularity among the masses.
REVENUE POLICY

The policy of Firuz Tughlaq was directed towards the welfare of the peasants. Although he cancelled the
Taqavi loans issued by the state to farmers, he took stern measures to prevent the harassment of
peasants.
The salaries of the revenue officers were increased. A rough estimate of the public revenues of the
kingdom was prepared. Khwaja Nizam-ud-din needed six years to complete the task. Khwaja toured
throughout the empire and examined the revenue records. The estimate was not based on
measurement of land on local information.

Firuz Tughlaq abolished a series of unwanted taxes and cesses. The share of the state regarding land
revenue was reduced. Four types of taxes were levied as sanctioned by the Quran, known as Kharaj,
Zakat, Jizya and Khamsa.
Kharaj was the land tax, equal to l/lOth of the produce of land. Zakat was the religious tax imposed on
Muslims and utilized for certain specific religious purposestax was levied on the personal property ofthe
Muslims. Jizya was the religious tax levied on non-Muslims. The Brahmanas protested and it was
decided that the taxes had to be levied on the Hindus belonging to lower castes. Khamsa was 1/5th of
the booty captured during the war.
Firuz permitted the soldiers to retain 4/5tli of the booty, according to the Quranic law.
The Sultan also levied an irrigation tax according to which 10% of the produce of the irrigated land was
to be paid to the state treasury. The revenue collectors were punishable under law for harassing the
people for charging excessive taxes. The financial postion of the state improved immensely during the
rule of Firuz Tughlaq. Many scholars have condemned the revenue policy of Firuz Tughlaq. It is said that
it increased the misery of the people and also brought less revenue to the treasury. In fact, the Jagir
system was reintroduced and the collection of Jizya from the Hindus was more rigorous.
IRRIGATION AND PUBLIC WORKS
The Sultan tried to increase the yield in agriculture by developing irrigation facilities. Two canals were
excavated. One from the Sutlej and the other from the Yamuna. The evidences are available in the
account of Shams-I-Siraj Afif. One of the canals was 96 miles long connecting Sutlej and the Ghagara.
The other canal was about 150 miles long between the Jamuna and the city of Hissar. Between Mandvi
and Sirmour hills and Hansi, a canal was constructed. A canal was excavated from Sirsutifort upto the
village of Hirani Khera.
Nearly 150 wells were dug and due tothe irrigation fadlites provided by Firuz and agricultural yield of
wheat, Sugarcane and other crops also increased.
Firuz Tughlak evinced keen interest in the construction of many build.ings. Four mosques, thirty palaces,
four hospitals, five reservoirs, hundred tombs and ten monumental pillars are the remarkable structures
of his period.
At Delhi, a hospital was
constructed which was known by various names such as Dar-ul- Shifa, Bimaristan and Shifa Khan. The
hospital staff was ordered to be courteous and polite towards the people.
The revenues of certain villages were reserved for the maintenance of the hospital. The pillar of Ashoka
brought to Delhi from T opara was erected near the palace.

Another pillar of Ashoka brought from Meerut was set up at a mound near the Bara Hindu Rao hospital
at Delhi. The building activie during the rule of Firuz Tughlaq indicates to us the economic prosperity
prevailing in the empire.
JUDICIAL REFORMS

Firuz Tughlaq took the initiative to transform the law of the

land to make it more humane. Trial by ordeals and torturing people to elicit the truth were abolished.
According to V.A.Smith "One reform, the abolition of mutilation and torture, deserves unqualified
commendation and the orders must have been acted upon to a considerable extent during his life time"
The Diwani-Khairat was established to arrange the marriages of poor girls. The parents of a girl who
could not afford to perform the marriage could seek the help of the Diwan-i- Khairat. The officelS of this
department examined the financial postion of the concerned people and allotted money to them.
The Diwan-i- Istihqaq provided financial assitance to deserving people. For this purpose, 36 lakhs of
Tankas were reserved. Moreover, whenever a traveler died on the roads, the Muqaddams had to inform
the Qazis and other Muslims and get the body of the deceased examined. Only then, the deadbody
could be buried. Firuz Tughlaq also established an employment bureau to provide clerical and
administrative posts to qualified persons. The Sultan maintained a magnificent court which was specially
decorated on the occasion of Id and Shabrat.
SLAVERY

Firuz Tughlaq ordered his officers to capture slaves during walS

and send the best of the slaves to serve the royal court. The chief who brought slaves were granted
privileges and favours. Nearly 1200 slaves engaged themselves in different handicrafts.
40,000 slaves acted as attendants of the royal palace. The Sultan maintained
about 1,80,000 slaves. Some of them were employed in the royal Kharkanas. Some of the slaves were
appointed as Amirs and Maliks. The slayes became economically prosperous and were amost equal to
the Turkish military aristocrats. On account of the slaves, corruption entered into the higher classes of
society.

Firuz Tughlaq granted lands to the soldiers of the army for their maintenance. Those soldiers, who were
appointed on a temporary basis were paid from the royal treasury. The army consisted of 90,000
cavalry. Its strength increased along with the contribution from the nobles. The army was inefficient due
to the regulations passed by the Sultan. A soldier was considered as unfit to continue in the army on the

ground of old age. His son or son-in-law or any slave could be sent in his place. Thus, the recruitment to
the army assumed hereditary character. The substitutes provided by the nobles were unrealiable as they
did not have loyalty towards the Sultan. They continued to look towards their previous masters in
matters relating to recruitment and promotion. Although the Sultan was well aware of the corruption in
the army he hesitated to punish the soldiers on account of his tender heart.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
Firuz Tughlaq was a stauch Sunni Mussalman. He showered favours on those people who belonged to
his faith. The Ulemas were accorded a high position in society. The Sultan never violated the rules laid
down by the Ulemas. Firuz has been criticized for his religious policy as he was intolerant towards the
Hindus and even the Muslim dissenters. The Hindu temples were razed down to the ground. Mosques
were constructed in place of temples. Certain Hindus had assembled to worship in the new temple at
Kohana. Firuz ordered that they have to be put to death before the gate of his palace. The Holy
scriptures, idols and vessels of the infidels were ordered to be burnt in public.
In Katehar two Sayyids were murdered. The Sultan took stern action by massacring thousands of
innocent people and 23,000 persons were captured and converted into slaves. It is said that during the
next five years, the Sultan continued the policy of
persecution in Katehar. The Sultan displayed gross cruelty and barbaric attitude.
The idol temples built in the villages of Maluha, Tughlaqpur and Salibpur near Delhi and Gohana in
Punjab were demolished. When the Sultan led an expedition to Jajnagar, the idol of Jagannath was
dishonoured. Those Hindus who converted themselves to Islam were exempted from payment of Jizya.
All non-Muslims including Brahmanas were forced to pay Jizya.
Firuz Tughlaq also dispayed his spirit of religious intolerance towards the Shias and other non-Sunni
Musalmans. The orthodox Sunnis considered them as heretics, The books of the Shias were burnt in
public. Many of them were imprisoned or banished. The Sultan had deep regard for the Khalifa of Egypt.
He issued coins in the name of the Khalifa and he made the Caliph's name to be mentioned along with
the name of the Sultan when the Khutba was reached.
LEARNING

Firuz Tughlaq was a patron of scholars and Shaikhs. He arranged a grand reception to the Shaikhs and
scholars in his palace of grapes. Zia-ud-din Barani and Shams+Siraj Afif wrote some of their works during
this period. Nagarkot was captured and a large number of Sanskrit books fell into his hands. Nearly 300
books were translated into Persian language under the orders of the Sultan.
The Sultan encouraged the growth of education by establishing a number of colleges. Each college
consisted of a mosque also. Maulana Jalalud-din Rumi was the renowned Professor of Theology and
Islamic jurisprudence.

Firoz Tughlq was himself a man of letters and wrote his biography entitled 'Fatuhat-i- Firozshah'. He
established about thirty educational institutions including three colleges. Zia-ud-din Barani wrote
'Fatwah-i-Jahandari' and Afif wrote his 'Tarikh-i-Firozshah".
FOREIGN POLICY
Firuz Tughlaq was not a born warrior. He had an aversion towards wars. He had no intention of shedding
blood. His heart sank at the thought of the battlefield. He had no ability and prowess to maintain control
over the vast empire. He was filled with mercy
and compassion towards all beings.
Bengal was under the rule of HajiIliyas who was totally independent. He established himself as the sole
monarch of eastern and western Bengal. He also laid siege on Tirhut. Firuz Tughlaq was forced tomarch
against him although he had no inclination to wage a war. lliyasheard about the advance of the Sultan
and sought refuge in the fort of Ikdala. Firuz Tughlaq defeated Iliyas but he was benevolent enough not
to annex Bengal. But he had to lead another expedition by 1359 against Sikandar Shah, the son and
successor of Iliyas. The Sultan set out on his mission with an army consisting of 17,000 1orses and 500
elephants accompanied by the infantry. Sikandar Shah also sought refuge in the fort of Ikdala like his
father. The expedition of Firuz was a failure as the entire territory was flooded by heavy rains. A peace
treaty was concluded and the terms were favourable to the ruler of Bengal.
Firuz Tughlaq decided to occupy Jajnagar (modern Orissa). The real motive of the Sultan regarding the
annexation of Jajnagar is unknown. According to Wolseley Haig, the Sultan intended to capture the
famous Jagannath temple at Puri. The ruler of Jajnagar abandaoned his kingdom and fled when he heard
that the Delhi forces were marching against him. The Delhi forces destroyed many temples and some of
the idols were thrown into the sea. However the ruler of Jajnagar was permitted to continue his rule on
the condition that he agreed to send a certain number of elephants every year to the Sultan.
In 1337, Firuz Tughlaq decided to occupy Nagarkot. He laid siege on the fort which lasted for nearly six
months . The ruler was forced to submit. The Sultan entered the Jwalamukhi temple and the idols were
broken.
In 1361-62, Firuz Tughlaq led an expedition againstthe Jams of Sind with an army consisting of 90,000
cavalry, 480 elephants, 5000 boats and a large infantry. The ruler of Sind resisted the attack of the Delhi
forces. The imperial army suffered hefty losses due to the outbreak of famine and a peculiar disease, 3/4
t of the Sultan's army perished and the Sultan decided to retreat to Gujarat. But another army was
despatched against Sind in 1363 and the ruler of

Sind was forced to pay annual tribute to' the Sultan and to accept his sovereignty. The expedition of Sind
depicts the lack of planning and foresight. As a warrior, the failure of Firuz is evident from the
unsuccessful expedition against Sind .
Firuz Tughlaq passed away in 1388 at the age of 80. His death marked the eIfd of an era. The signs of
decadence of the Delhi Sultanate were obvious. None of the successors to the throne of Delhi emerged
as a predominant Muslim power in India .
ESTIMATE OF THE CHARACTER OF FIROZ
Firuz Tughlaq has been a unique personality in the long line of rulers who assumed power in Delhi and
many Indian writers have praised him for his sense of justice, kindness and courtesy. He was a zealous
iconoclast as Mahmud Gawan and also a great builder. He was a staunch Muslim and observed the
Islamic practices in a seirous manner. His benevolence was such that he refused to dismiss aged officials
and permitted their sons to function on behalf of them. He cared for the welfare of the people and
wished to establish economic prosperity in the empire. Henry Elliot has compared Firuz with Akbar.
Dr.Ishwari Prasad feels that the comparison is unnecessary and unjust. The reforms of Firuz lacked
permanence. They failed to strengthen the Muslim polity and to gain the confidence of the Hindus
whose feelings were embittered by his religious intolerance. Although they produced a reaction which
proved fatal to the interests of the dynasty of which he was by no means an unworthy representative."
According to R.C.Majumdar, the reign of Firuz was marked by mildness and beneficient activities. It also
undermined to a large extent the foundations of the Sultanate. The lenience of the Sultan towards
inefficient civil and military officers and the undue favours shown to the nobility weakened the entire
administrative machinery. Although some of the aspects of his life and reforms evoke admiration he has
been criticized on various other accounts. The Sultan erred by organizing the army on a feudal basis.
Unnecessarily he revived the Jagir system. The granting of huge lands to Jagirdars led to the
disintegration of the empire. The religious policy of Firuz Tughlaq also contributed to the decline of the
glory of the Tughlaq

dynasty. The unity and integrity of the empire was disrupted as the Hindus and Non-Sunni Muslims
revolted constantly against the Sultan. Another drawback from which Firuz suffered was his military
incapacity which is so essential for a Sultan to establish control over a heterogenous empire.
Some of the historians have praised his concept of welfare state. Dr.Ishwari Prasad states, "the welfare
of the people was the watchword of his administration. Therefore, Firoz is considered by Barani as an
ideal Muslim king." According to Havell, Firoz's reign "is a welcome breath in the long chain of tyranny,
cruelty and debauchery which make up the gloomy annals of the Turkish dynasties."
A contemporary writer of Firoz writes, "Their (peasants) homes were replete with grain, everyone had
plenty of gold and silver. "No woman was without ornaments." V.A. Smith appreciates the judicial
system of Firoz as "One reform the abolition of mutilation and torture, deserves unqualified

commendation." Regarding his love for monuments, Sir Wolseley Haig has said, "He indulged in a
passion for building which equaled if it did not surpass that of Roman Emperor Augustus. "
Certain criticisms have been leveled against Firoz. V.A.Smith points out the lack of military skill in Firoz
Tughlak. He says "the campaign (Bengal) had no result except the wanton slaughter thus evidented.No
territory was annexed and the practical independence of the eastern empire continued unimpaired." He
further observes, "It seems to be plain that Firoz Shah possessed no military capacity. His early
campaigns in the east and the west were absolutely futile, and during the greater part of his long reign
he abstained from war."
Regarding the Sindh expedition of Firoz, Dr.Ishwari Prasad wrote, "The expedition was a singular
instance of the Sultan's felinity and lack of strategic skill." Regarding his religious intolerance, S.R.Sharma
states, ''It is a pity that such a Sultan should have besmirched his fair name by acts of religious
intolerance." In the same manner Dr.R.C.Majumdar writes, "Firoz was the greatest bigot of his age."

96

SUCCESSORS OF FIRUZ TUGHLAQ

Firuz Tughlaq was succeeded by his granson, Gqiyas-ud-din
Tughlaq Shah II. Later on Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-ud-din Mohammad and Prince Mahmud,who assumed
the title of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud ascended the throne of Delhi. They were weak and incompetent.
There was an age,of internal dissensions and none of the rulers were remarkable. By 1398, Timur
crossed the Indus and occupied Multan.
TIMUR'S INVASIONS (1398)
Timur (Tamarlane) was born in 1334 A.D, and became the leader of the Chagatai Turks by 1369 at
Samarkhand. He rivalled Chengiz Khan in cruelty and ferocity. He established his control over Persia,
Mesopotamia and Afghanistan and later on turned his attention towards India. His autobiography
reveals to us the ferocious personality of Timur and his intention in invading India. Timur observed, "My
object in the invasion of Hindustan is to lead an expedit,ion against infidels that according to the law of
Muhammad, we may convert to the true faith the people of that country and purify the land itself from
the filth of infidelity and polytheism and that we may over throw their temples and idols and become
Ghazis and Mujahis before God." According to Prof.Mohammad Habib the wealth of India must have
attracted Timur.
Timur crossed the river Ind.us in 1398 A.D. He defeated the local rulers and crossed Jhelum and the Ravi.
He forced Jasrat, ruler of Lahore to submit. He crossed the Sutlej and joined his grandson, Pir
Mohammad. Pak Patan and Dipalpur revolted against Pir Mohammad and incurred the wrath of Timur.

The two places were plundered and many people were slaughtered. Rai Dilchand, the ruler of Bhatnir
resisted the raids of Timur. He was defeated and after a general massacre, the city was burnt. At Johana,
nearly 2000 Jats were massacred.
Nasir-ud-din Mahrnud and Mallu Iqbal made preparations within the walls of the city of Delhi to face the
attack ofTimur. Pir Mohammad and Timur created havoc and destruction. The Delhi army consisted of
10,000 horses and '40,000 Infantry as well as

97

120 elephants. The generals of Timur forced the Delhi forces to scatter and flee in fear. Sultan Mahmud
Shah and Mallu Iqbal ran away from the battlefield. Timur hoisted his flag on the fort of Delhi. The
Sayyids, Qazis and Shaikhs meekly submitted and Timur granted an amnesty. to tne people of Delhi. But
bloodshed continued unabated. The three towns of Siri, old Delhi and Jahan Panah were , destroyed by
Timur. The view of Dr.K.S.Lal is that the horrible sack of Delhi was a crime as barbarous as it was
unwarranted. It will always remain a blot on the cateer of Timur.
Timur proceeded towards Meerut and plundered it causing death and destruction. The houses of the
Hindus were razed to the ground and set on fire. Timur crossed the Ganges and defeated the army
consisting of 10,000 horsemen and infantry under Mubarak Khan. The Hindus were slaughtered like
Sheep at Hardwar and Kangra. In 1399, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as the Governor of Multan, Lahore
and Dipalpur. Some historians are of the opinion that he was nominated as viceroy in Delhi. By 1399,
Timur left India and returned to Samarkhand. The bloodshed and destruction inflicted by Timur in India
has been unparalleled in the history of India .
CAUSES FOR THE DECLINE OF THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
1.
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq and his policies contributed to the decline of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Some of his stupendous schemes such as change of capital, taxation in the doab, issue of token currency
and ill conceived foreign policy resulted in loss of men and material. It led to the growth of
discontentment among the people. So several revolts took place during his reign and the power and
prestige of the Sultan was lowered in the eyes of the people. Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq aspired to annex
the Deccan kingdoms. He shifted his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad to establish control over the
South, but the scheme misfired and he was forced to reverse his decision. It added to the misery of the
people.
2.
The policy of religious intolerance displayed by Firoz Tughlaq also contributed to the dedine of
the Tughlaq dynasty. According to Dr.Ishwari Prasad, "The reforms of Firoz. Failed to gain the confidence
of Hindus whose feelings were

98
embittered by his religious intolerance. Altogether they produced a reaction which proved fatal to the
interest of the dynasty which was by no means an unworthy representative." Dr.U.N.Dey feels that "His
supplication to the 'Ulemas'only encouraged a group of unscrupulous selfish people to behave
arrogantly and pose themselves as the custodians of Muslim conscience. All these combined to create a
situation in which disintegration became inevitable."
4.
The system of decentralization introduced by Firoz also contributed to the decline of the power
of the Tughlaqs. Firoz gave extensive powers to his nobles and officials which finally added to the
neglect of larger interests of the state. According to Wolseley Haig, 'His system of decentralization
accelerated the downfall of his dynasty." The organization of the army was defective . Moreover the
Jagir system added to the growth of divisive forces in the empire. The prevailing corruption in
administration was also another important reason for the weakening of the empire.
5.
Several administrative factors also led to the decline of the power of the Tughlak dynasty. There
was no definite law of succession. Several persons contested for the throne after the death of the
Sultan. This led to the growth of conflicts and it led to anarchy in the empire. The Sutlans also did not
make any effort to win over the vast majority of Hindus. It is also observed that the empire was
unwieldy in size and it led to difficulty in communication between the various parts of the' empire. It led
to the rise of provincial Governors who only declared their independence by observing the weakness in
the empire.
6.
The foolish schemes of Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq had resulted in financial bankruptcy and the
treasury was empty. So droughts were common. After the death of Firoz, the selfishess of the Amirs
went on increasing. They began to intrigue for acquiring larger Jagirs and more power. The stability of
the state depended upon a stong and well disciplined army. This was absent. The successors of Firoz
Tughlaq proved to be. incompetent and failed to exercise their control. After Firoz
The establishment of Delhi Sultanate

99

6.
Shah, five Sultans could rule just for twenty six years. The provincial governors declared their
independence in' a short period.
Timur's invasion proved to be calamitous. He plundered all the cities as he proceeded from
Samarkhand to Delhi. The Tughlaq Sultan of Dlhi fled away from Delhi. For fifteen days,

Timur looted the capital. It drained the wealth of the Tughlaq empire and also caused immense misery
to the people. The
main aim of Timur's invasion was to spread Islam. He stated in his autobiography, "My object in the
invasion of Hindustan
is to lead an expedition against the infidels, to convert them to the true faith of Islam and purify the land
itself from the filth, infidelity and polytheism." By spreading Islam, he wanted to
earn the title of 'Gazi'. Lane Poole described the fanaticisI}l of Timur as "Only the followers of Muslim
religion escaped the general sack." Timur started his journey back from Delhi in January 1399. On his
way he plundered Meerut, Hardwar,
Kangra and Jammu. Before leaving India he appointed Khizr Khan as Governor of Multan, Lanore and
Dipalpur.

DISINTEGRATION OF
THE DELHI SULTANATE
THE SA YYID DYNASTY (1414-1451)

KHIZR KHAN (1414-1421) who was the founder of the Sayyid dynasty was the ablest ruler of the dynasty.
He led many expeditions , to consolidate the empire. The rulers of J aunpur, Gujarat and Malwa had
become independent and the Khokhars had become a menace .
. Khizr Khan led an expedition against the ruler of Katehar and forced hill}. to submit. Although he tried
to occupy Badaun, he failed in his mission. Khizr Khan was however successful in realizing tribute from
the rukers if Mewat and Gwalior. He died in 1421.
Ferishta has showered praise on Khizr Khan as follows- "Khizr Khan was a great and a wise king and was
always true to his word.
, His subjects loved him with so much a graceful affection that great and small, master and the servant
sat and mourned for him in black garments, till the third day, when they laid aside their mourning
garments and raised his son, Mubarak Shah, to the throne.

100

MUBARAK SHAH (1421-1434) was the son and successor of Khizr Khan. Yahya Bin Sirhindi, a famous
historian of his time, in his book 'Tarikh-I-Mubarak Shah' has written about his reign as, "The reign of
Mubarak Shah was a period of disquiet and rebellions, so his entire reign was spent in suppressing
these."One feature of his'reign is remarkable. In the history of Sultanate, for the firsttime we learn that
there were two Hindu Amirs in his reign. Mubarak Shah built a city on the banks of river Jamuna and
named it Mubarakabad. Jasrath Khokhar constantly troubled him although he was defeated many times.
The Rathors of Kampila and Etawah were subdued. Mubarak Shah led an expedition towards Jaunpur.
He also defeated the Governor of Kabul and forced the ruler of Mewat to submit. In 1434, Mtibarak
Shah was murdered.
MUHAMAD SHAH (1434-1444) was the son of Farid, the brother of Mubarak Shah. He ascended the
thron
e of Delhi in 1434. Hewas a pleasure loving prince. Mohammad Shah Khalji of Malwa marched against
Delhi in 1440-41. The Sultan sought the help of Bahlol Lodi. Very soon, BahlolLodi becam,e powerful
and attacked. Delhi but failed to capture it. Accorq.ing to hi.storiari Nizam-ud- in The"affairs of the state
grew day by day more and more confused. LAMSHAH (1444..:51) was the son and successor of
Mohammad Shah. He was weak and incompetent. He visited BadaUn in 1447 and resided there as he
was enchanted by its beauty and prospedty. This led to internal dissentions and Bahlol Lodi was chosen
as the ruler of Delhi. The rule of Sayyid dynasty lasted only for 37 years.
LODI DYNASTY (1451-1526)
BAHLOL LOOl (1451-89) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty.
He was helped by Hamid Khan in ascending the throne of Delhi. Initially Bahlol offered the throne to him
but later on Hamid Khan was deposed and Bahlol Lodi ascended the throne. Bahlol Lodi offered high
posts and honoured many Amirs and secured their goodwill. Muhammad Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur
revolted against the Sultan, but he was defeated. Bahlol silenced all his critics and enemies. He forced
Ahmad Khan of Mewar, Qutb Khan of Rewari and the rulers of Etawah, Chahdwar and other districts of
the Doab

101

to acknowledge his sovereignty. A revolution took place at Jaunpur and Jusain Khan ascended the
throne. He'retaliated agaitlst the Sultan on many occasions. Bahlol Lodi defeated him successfully in a
series of wars, he captured Jaunpur and put it under Governor Mubarak Khan Lohani.

Bahlol won the confidence and co-operation of the Afghan nobles. He was very amiable in behaviour
and earned the respect of his nobles. He gave them Jagirs and high offices. He treated them as friends
and considered himself as one of them. The Sultan avoided displaying superior status. In the words of
S.R.Sharma, "In social meetings he never sat on the throne and would not allow his nobles to stand; and
even during public audiences he did not occupy the throne, but seated himself on a carpet."When he
ascended the throne, the territory of his kingdom extended upto Palam and a few miles around Delhi. .
But when he died at the age of eighty, his empire extended from Panipat to the frontiers of Bihar and
included many important towns and Cities. Apart of-Rajasthan was also under his, control. Bahlol was
liberal in religious outlook. He performed Namaz regularly. He spent much of his time with the as,
studied the Quran and he was not a fanatic. He appointed Hindus in high administrative posts, By
1486, replaced his eldest son Barbak on the throne of Jaunpur. He died in 1489 A.D:"
.
SIKANDAR SHAH (1489-1517) was the son and successor of Bal\lol Lodi. 'Sikandar Shah led an expedition
against,Alarr1 Khan, his uncle who tried to become independent in Rapri and Chand war, He was
successful in organizing the administration in that region. Barbak Shah, the brother of Sikandar Shah
who was the ruler of Jaunpur challenged the authority of Sikandar Shah. But he was forced to surrender
and was pardoned by Sikandar Shah, Husain Shah of Bengal revolted against the Sultan. He was
defeated miserably by Sikandar Shah, The Afghan nobles were also defeated by the Sultan. Sikandar
Shah attacked Narwar in Malwa which was under the authority of Gwalior. He entered the Utgir fortress
and destroyed many Hindu temples and constructed mosques in their place. Chanderi was occupied and
placed under the Afghan officers. Sikandar Shah laid the foundation of the city of Agra, It was founded

102

in 1504 and it grew into a beautiful town. Sikandar Shah proved to be a good adminiStrator also.
Prof.K.A.Nizami says that Sikandar Lodi was in certain respects a very striking figure of Medieval India.
Sikandar Lodi is considerd as the greatest Lodhi Sultan. He maintained law and order in his empire. He
was known for his prowess and ability. He encouraged the growth of trade and commerce. It added to
the prosperity of the empire. He enhanced the power and prestige of the Sultan. He was also an
impartial ruler. He established complete control over the nobility. He boasted "If I order one of my
slaves to be seated in a palanquin, the entire body of nobility would carry him on their shoulders at my
bidding." His main aim was to restore the prestige of the Sultan. He started sitting on the throne and
compelled his nobles to show formal respect to him in the Darbar (Court) and outside. He framed
certain rules and the nobles and governors had to abide by those rules. The Governors were ordered to
receive the SuI tan's Firmans (orders) six miles ahead of their capital. He asked the governors and
officers to submit the accounts 'of their income and expenditure. The offenders were punished severely.
The Governor of Jaunpur was punished on this very account and compelled to pay the embezzled

money. He evolved an efficient espionage system. He posted spies and informers at every important
place including the houses of his nobles.
Sikandar Lodi invited two eminent philosophers from outside lnida to improve the system of education
in his empire. He encouraged education particularly among the children of Afghan nobles so as to make
them cultured. He converted the mosques into educational institutions. He appointed a religious
preacher, one teacher and one scavenger in each mosque at state expense. His court was adorned by
learned men. Several Sanskrit works were translated into Persian language.
Sikander Lodi patronized art and architecture also. He built the city of Agra which became an important
administrative and cultural centre of the Mughals. He built many mosques and also the tomb of his
father Bahiol Lodi in Delhi. The Sultan also made suitable arrangements for the free distribution of food
grains to the poor from the royal treasury.

103

According to Nizam-ud-Din Ahmed, "His (Sikander Lodi's) bigotry in Islam was as great that in this regard
he was beyond the bounds of even access." He destroyed several important temples like that of
Jwalamukhi (Nagarkot), Mathura, Mandrail, Narwar, . Chanderi etc. This description also indicates that
Sikandar was a successful ruler. In the words of K.S.Lal, "Sikander Shah had ruled for twenty-nine years
of full glory and distinction, He was the greatest ruler of the Lodi dynasty and outshone both his father
BaWol and his son Ibrahim."
A.L.Srivastava also observes, "Sikandar was the greatest king of Lodi dynasty. Medieval chroniclers
bestow much praise on him and maintain that he was an extremely able, just, benevolent and Godfearing ruler, the prestige of the Sultanate as well as of the crowns which had fallen during the later
Tughlaqs was restored."
IBRAHIM LODI (1517-26) was the son and successor of SikandarShah. Initially, some nobles tried to
divide the kingdom by placing J alaI Khan, the younger brother of Ibrahim as the ruler of Jflunpur.
However, Ibrahim Lodi defeated him and put him to death. A war ensued between Rana Sangha of
Mewar and the Sultan. The Rajputs were defeated miserably and Rana Sangha escaped although his
followers were massacred. Ibrahim Lodi strengthened his position by suppressing his nobles in a ruthless
manner. Ibrahim Lodi tried to treat Afghan nobles as his servants. This led to a fierce conflict between
Ibrahim and a large number of nobles. The battle was unprecedented and it resulted in immense blood
shed. Due to the high-handed attitude of Ibrahim Lodi, Daulat Khan Lodi of Punjab invited Babur to
invade India. In fact, Daulat Khan Lodi wanted to use Babur as a tool in establishing his power in Punjab.
Babur invaded India in 1524. The famous battle of Panipat was fought in 1526 between Babur and
Ibrahim Lodi. In the course of the war, Ibrahim Lodi was killed and Babur emerged victorious. The battle

of Panipat signified the end of the rule ofthe Lodi dynasty and the establishment of the Mughal rule in
India.
CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE OF IBRAHIM LODI Lodi was impolite, obstinate and rash by nature. So he
failed to understand the sentiments of his own race, i.e., the Afghan nobles. He earned more enemies
than friends. His haughty ways

104

were looked down upon with contempt by his nobles. When he started his reign, the empire was
divided between the two brothers and it was agreed upon by Ibrahim in the presence of the nobles. But
within a short time he began to refute it. It displeased ali the nobles who favoured the division of the
empire.
Ibrahim declared, "Kingship knows no kinship." With this motto he treated his nobles as subordinates
to him. Dr.R.P.Tripathi writes, "He openly confessed that kings have no relations nor clans and that all
men and clans were his servants."He ill-treated the Afghan nobles to prove his superiority. He made a
regulation that all the Amirs (nobles) would remain standing with folded hands before him in the court.
Mian Bhuva Lodi, a famous Amir was imprisoned because he could not perform his duties on account of
his old age. His death took place in prison itself. There are several instances of the dictatorial attitude of
the Sultan. It led to resentment among the nobles and the common people. The Amirs felt humiliated. It
only ended up with the outbreak of several revolts. So he failed to win respect from the nobility. On the
other hand he invited their wrath.
Ibrahim was over ambitious. He simply overestimated his strength. In all the conflicts with Rana Sanga,
Ibrahim faced defeat. By this prestige was lowered in the eyes of the nobility. Babur who invaded India
inflicted a fatal blow to the already tottering power of Ibrahim Lodi. During the battle of Panipat in 1526
Ibrahim Lodi was also killed. Although the strength of the army of Ibrahim Lodi was very much higher
than Babur's army, he failed to gain success in the first Battle of Panipat. Babur made effective use of
artillery force. He had cultivated a: well-disciplined army. He also adopted excellent war strategies. On
the other hand Ibrahim Lodi depended on war elephants which proved to be no match to the speeding
horses of Babur. By that time Ibrahim had also lost the sympathy and support of army of the Afghan
nobles. Ibrahim lacked the qualities of a great general and a skillful diplomat.

UNIT - II
SOUTH INDIA DURING SULTHANATE PERIOD

2.1 SOUTHERN EXPANSION OF DELHI SULTANATE

The Delhi Sultans established a stable Government and then - turned their attention towards the South.
Even the Arabs had established themselves at Sind and had attempted to conquer the Deccan. However
the Chalukyas of Badami forced them to retreat. Again during the time of the Khilljis, concret efforts
were_made by the Delhi Sultans to estalbish their hegemony over the Deccan region also. During that
time the four independent kingdoms of the South were the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Hoysalas of
Dwarasamudra, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the Pandyas of Madura. Ala-ud-Din Khalji, Mubarak Khalji
and Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq led several expeditions to South India. Especially during the rule of
Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq the whole of Deccan region became a part of the Delhi Sultanjlte. Firoz Shah,
Tughlaq supported the king of Orissa and also exacted tribute from him. On account of the
discontentment towards the Tughlaq rule, many rebellions took place in the South. It led to the
emergence of the Muslim kingdoms in Sorth India and at the same time, the Vijayanagara kingdom also,
emerged in the South. The Bahmani kingdoms also cast a deep influence on the culture of South India.
So the establishment of an All India empire never materialized in India.
THE YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI
The Yadavas descended from the progenitor, Yadu, the ancestor of the epic hero, Krishna. They started,
their political career as the vassals of the Rashtrakutas and continued to remain as powerful

106
feudatories under the Chalukyas. Originally their rule extended over the region comprising of
Khandesh, NaSik and Ahmednagar districts of old Bombay state. Their capital was Chandradityapura or
Chandor. The founder of the Yadava dynasty was Dridhaprahara who lived during the 9th century A.D.
The Yadava kingdom was also called Sevunadesha named after his son, Seunachandra. Gradually the
dynasty grew powerful after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyana.

BHILLAMA (1187-1191)
Bhillama V was the first independent ruler of the Yadava dynasty. He consolidated his position and then
embarked on a policy of aggression. He defeated Someshwara IV and occupied the Northern districts of
the Chalukyan kingdom. He also confronted the Hoysala ruler, Ballala II. Bhillama overran the Hoysala
kingdom and defeated even the Chola emperor, Kulottunga III. But in the end he was defeated in the
battles of Soratur and Lakkundi and was killed by Ballala in 1191 A.D.
JAITUGI (1191-1212 A.D.)
The son and successor of Bhillama was Jaitugi or Jaitrapala.

He attacked the Kakatiyas of Warangal. He defeated and killed Rudra and his brother Mahadeva and
captured Mahadeva's son, Ganapatideva. However the war did not amount to territorial gains to the
Yadavas. It was during the reign of Jaitugi that the Turkish authority was established at Delhi.
SINGHANA (1210-1247 A.D.)
The son of Jaitugi was Singhana he was the most famous ruler of Yadava dynasty. He fought against the
rulers of Chedi, Tripura, Kolhapur, Malwa and Goa and extended his kingdom from Khandesh to Shimoga
district and from the west s:oast tothe eastern parts of Berar and Teligana.
KRISHNA (1247-1260 A.D.)
Singhana was succeeded by his grandson, Krishna. Krishna waged wars e.gainst the rulers of Malwa,
Konkan, Gujarat and Andhra (Kakatiyas). However he was defeated and he lost some territories to
Kakatiya ruler, Ganapatideva. Krishna performed many Vedic sacrifices.

107

MAHADEV A (1260-1279 A.D.)

Krishna was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva. He waged a number of wars against the Solankis of
Gujarat and the Kakatiyas of Warangal. He conquered and annexed Konkan. The famous minister of
Mahadeva was Hemadri.

RAMACHANDRA (1270-1309 A.D.)

Ramachandra, the nephew of tviahadeva succeeaed to the Yadava throne and he was the last ruler of
the Yadava dynasty. Ramachandra- waged a number of wars against his neighbouring states and
exhausted his resources. He waged indecisive wars against the ruler of Malwa and Kakatiya ruler,
Pratapa Rudradeva. Ramachandra's general led an expedition on the Hoysala kingdom in 1276-77 and
returned with a heavy booty. Meanwhile his attention was diverted to the Muslim aggression from the
North. Ala-ud-Din Khalji, who was then the Governor of Kara was highly ambitious. He had heard of the
wealth of the Deccan kingdoms. He attacked Devagiri in 1294 A.D. Ramachandra resisted the onslaught
of Alaud-qin Khalji but was defeated. He sued, for peace, paying an enormous war indemnity and also
agreed to pay an annual tribute to Ala-ud-Din Khalji. Some years later, Ramachandra began to rule in an
independent manner and never bothered to send tribute to the Delhi Sultan. So Ala-ud-Din Khalji sent
his famous general, Malik Kafur against Ramachandra. In 1307, Malik Kafur defeated Ramachandra and
took him as prisoner to Delhi. He was sent back to rule his kingdom as a vassal of the Sultan.

SANKARA (1303-1312 A.D.)

The son and successor of Ramachandra was Sankara. He also dared to defy the authority of the Delhi
Sultanate and he stopped the payment of annual tribute. Malik Kafur invaded theYadava kingdom and
captured and killed Sankara. The kingdom was annexed to the Sultanate in 1312 A.D.
After the death of Ala-ud-Din Khaji, Harapala, son-in-law of Sankara tried to revive the glory of the
kingdom of Devagiri. But he was defeated and killed by Mubarak Khalji. Ultimately the rule of the
Yadavas sunk into oblivion. The rule of the Yadavas was highly significant. They were the worshippers of
Lord Vishnu. Garuda

108

was their royal emblem. But they followed a policy of religious tolerance. The Yadava kings were great
patrons of literature and arts. During that time great progress was registered in the fields of
Mathematics, astronomy and Sanskrit and Marathi languages.
Lakshmidhara, son of Bhaskaracharya, the famous Mathematician was the teacher of Jaitugi.
Changadevar, one of the grandsons of Bhaskaracharya founded a college at Patna for the propagation
of Siddhanta Kaumudi at Pama. Anantadeva was another astrologer of Singhana's court.During the same
age, Sarangadeva composed Sangita Ramakara, a treatise on music. Jalhana one of the ministers of
Krishna wrote an anthology of Sanskrit poems called Suktimuktavali. Another noteworthy scholar of the
age was Amalananda.He wrote 'Vedantakalpataru', a commentary on the 'Bhamati' of Vachaspatirrtisra.
Mahadeva's minister Hemadri wrote the 'Chaturvarga Chintamani'. It deals with Vrata, Dana, Tirtha and
Mokhsa. During,the rule of the Yadavas lived the celebrated Vaishnava saint, Jnanadeva of
Pandharapura. Jnanadeva was a Bhakti saint and he wrote a commentary on the Bhagavadgita and
many other lyrics in Marathi. During the rule of the Yadavas, a new Style of architechture associated
with the name of Hemadri was also, evolved.

2.2 THE HOYSALAS OF DORASAMUDRA

The Hoysalas established their capital at Dorasamudra. Sala or Nripakama is regarded as the progenitor
or the first ruler of the Hoysala dynasty. This dynasty came to power after a prolonged conflict between
the Cholas and the Chalukyas of Kalyana . Vishnuvardhan was the most famous ruler of the Hoysalas. He
ruled between 1116 to 1152 A.D. He defeated the Cholas who had occupied Gangavacii. He also
conquered Kanchiand Tanjore. He refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of Vikaramaditya VI, the

Kalyana Chalukya ruler and fought an unsuccessful battle against him. Still he managed to declare his
independence during the later years. His sway extended from Gangavadi, Nolambvadi, Banavasi to
Hangal, Huligere upto Heddore(Krishna). He also constructed a number of temples and was also a
patron of arts. During his rule Srivaishnavism became popular in Karnataka.
The next prominent ruler of the Hoysala dynasty was Ballala II, the grandson of Vishnuvardhana. He
put an end to the anarchy prevailing in the kingdom. He fought against the Yadavas of Devagiri and also
interfered in the Chola politics. He defeated and killed Bhillama, the Yadiwa ruler and extended his
kingdom till the river Krishna. Ballala II was also an efficient ruler. During his time also literature
flourished immensely.
The Son and successor of Ballala II was Narasimha II. He ruled between 1173- 1220. He continued the
rivalry against the Yadavas of Devagiri. He also infused life 0 the Chola sovereignty. He put down the
recalcitrant chieftains and upheld the Chola supremacy. He also encouraged the growth of Literature
and architecture.
Narasimha II was succeeded by his son, Someshwara. He also involved himself in Chola politics. He also
undertook expeditions against the Pandya rulers. As the H6ysalas were busy in the politics

110
in the South, the Yadavas made use of the opportunity to conquer the regions beyond the Tungabhadra.
Someshwara divided his kingdom between his two sons. His son, Narasimha ill gained the provinces in
Karnataka and his another son, Ramanatha secured the provinces in the Tamil country. Ramanatha was
not satisfied with the division of the kingdom and he constantly attacked Karnataka.
BALLALA III

After the death of Narasimha III, Ballala III ascended the throne and united the Tamil districts. Ballala ill
(1291-1342) continued the wars against the Yadavas. In 1310 the Hoysalas had to face the attack of the
Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Kafur, the general of Ala-ud-Din Khalji camped at Devagiri.
Ramachandra of Devagiri helped Malik Kafur against BallalaIII. Malik Kafur defeated Prataparudra of
Warangal and attacked Dorasamudra. At that time, Ballala had gone to the Tamil country. Hearing about
the siege of his capital by Malik Kafur, Ballala returned to Dorasamudra and saved his' capital by paying
a large subsidy. Ballala realized the danger to the capital and he established another capitalin the name
ofms son, Vijaya Virupakshapura near Hampi. This became the main centre where the Vijayanagara
empire was established .
. After the kingdom of Devagiri was annexed to Delhi, a Yadava prince, Ramadeva established a small
principality at Anegondi, called as the Kingdom of Kampili. Ramadeva's son and successor, Kampiliraya
gave refuge to Baha-ud-Din Gurshasp who had incurred the wrath of Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq. So

Mohammad-binTughlaq led an expedition against Kampiliraya and defeilted him. Meanwhile Bahaud-din
Gurshasp fled to Dorasamudra. He sought refuge under the Hoysala ruler, Ballala III. However when
Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq attacked Dorasamudra, Ballala surrendered Baha-ud-din to the Sultan.
However, within a short period, taking advantage of the revolts against the Delhi Sultan, Ballala III threw
the treaty to the winds and attacked Kampili. But he was defeated by Hukka and Bukka. In 1336 A.D., he
formed a confederacy and put an end to the Muslim rule in South India. Finally in 1342, Ballala engaged
himself in a war against the Sultans of Madura and lost his life. His son, Ballala IV also died fighting the
Muslims onslaughts in 1343. Within a short period the Vijayanagara

111

empire emerged under the leadership of Hukka and Bukka SIGNIFICANCE OF THE HOYSALA PERIOD
The Hoysalas played an important role in the history of South India after the fall of the Chalukyas till the
establishment of the Vijayanagara kingdom. Vinayaditya, Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II and Ballala III were
the famous rulers of this dynasty and they contributed immensely to the growth of culture in Karnataka.
Vishnuvardhana came under the influence of Ramanujacharya and embraced Srivaishnavism. So
Srivaishnavism flourished in Karnataka. During the last decade of the dynasty, flourished Madhvacharya,
the exponent of Dwaitha philosophy. However the Hoysalas followed apolicy of religious tolerance. Even
Jainism flourished during this time. The Kings patronized many Jaina scholars and they enriched
'Kannada literature. Poetess Kanti, the Mathematician Rajaditya and Nayasena were the famous Jaina
writers of the age. Nemichandra, another Jaina scholar wrote the first Kannada novel, Lilavati in
imitation of Subandhu's Vasavadatta. Even Shaivaites andVaishnavaites enriched Kannada literature.
Harihara wrote the Girija Kalyana and Raghavanka wrote the famous work, Harishchandra Kavya.
Madhvacharya wrote commentaries on the Brahmasutras, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita in
Sanskrit.
The contribution of the Hoysalas to art and architecture has been highly commendable. A new style of
architecture was started. Star shaped temples were constructed. Mention may be made of the
Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebid and the Channakeshava temple at Belur. Several other temples were
also constructed during the reign of the Hoysalas. Temple architecture reached its zenith during the
Hoysala period. All these also indicate the economic prosperity of the Hoysala period.

2.3 THE PANDYAS OF MADURA

The Pandyas re-established their power and prestige during the last quarter of the 6th century A.D.
Kadungon subdued the Kalabhras and established peace in the Pandyan kingdom. He also consolidated
his position. The Fourth ruler of the dynasty was Arikesari Maraverma (670-710 A.D.). He allied with
Chalukya Vikramaditya I and fought against the Pallavas of Kancru. He also annexed Kerala to the

Pandyan kingdom. His successor was Kochchadyan (710-735 A.D.). He conquered a portion of the Kongu
kingdom. He was succeeded by Maravarma Rajasimha (735-765 A.D.) and Jatila Parantaka (765-816
A.D.). They continued the struggle against the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Gangas of Talakad. During the
rule of Jatila Parantaka the Pallava kingdom was extended and it included Tiruchinopoly, Tanjore, Salem
and Coimbatore districts. So during the rule of Jatila Parantaka the Pandya kingdom became quite
powerful.
SRIMARA SRIVALLABHA
The son and successor of Jatila Parantaka was Srimara.
Srivallabha. He defeated a confederacy fonned by the Gangas, the Pallavas, the Cholas, the KaIingas and
the Magadhas in the battle of Kumbakonam. He led an expedition into Ceylon and also looted its capital.
Although his reign started on a bright note and he enjoyed a glorious reign, it ended in disaster. His son,
Varagunavarma II revolted and at his request, the Ceylonese and the Pallavas made simultaneous
attacks on the Pandyankingdom. Srimara sustained heavy losses and he died in the course of the war.
THE CHOLA CONQUEST
Varagunaverma II ascended the throne as the vassal of the Pallavas. He tried to free himself from the
clutches of the Pallavas. But it ended in failure and he passed away. Varaguna's successors waged wars
against the Cholas of Tanjore. Rajasimha II (900-920

113

A.D.) was the last of the rulers in the lineage of Kadungon. In 910 A.D., Rajasimha II was driven away by
Parantaka Chola who captured Madura.
The Pandyas made several attempts to reassert their independence by about the 10th century A.D.
However it ended in failure due to Rajendra Chola and Kullotunga I who defeated the Pandyas in a series
of wars. However, Jatavarma Kulashekara assumed high sounding titles and also conquered Travancore.
He was succeeded by Maraverma Sundara Pandya who fought against the Cholas. He defeated
Kullotunga III, the Chola ruler and burnt Uraiyur and Tanjore. However with the help of the Hoysalas,
Kullotunga was able to force the Pandyas to retreat. Maraverma ruled over an extensive kingdom which
included Trichinopoly and Pudukotttai.
JATAVERMA SUNDARA PANDYA (1257-68 A.D.) (FOUNDER OF SECOND PANDYAN EMPIRE)
The next ruler of the Pandyas was Maraverma Sundara Pandya II( 1231-1267 A.D.). He acknowledged
the sovereignty of the Chalukya Chola king Rajendra II. But his successor, Jataverma Sundara Pandya
fully avenged the humiliation suffered by the Pandyas. He was a gallant solider and an able general. He
is regarded as the second founder of the Pandyan empire. He destroyed the Chola power. He also

overthrew the Hoysalas, annexed the Kongu country, and dislodged the Kakatiyas from Kanchi. He
extended his sway as far as Nellore in the North and he performed the Virabhisheka. His empire
comprised of the whole of South India with the exception of Mysore, extending to Nellore and
Cuddapah in the North. Jataverma was a benevolent monarch and he made liberal grants to temples. He
was responsible for the golp' plate roofs of the temples of Srirangam and Chidambaram.
KULASHEKARA PANDYA
Jataverma was succeeded by Kulashekara Pandya who annexed Quilon. He also led successful
expeditions to Ceylon in 1284 A.D. and returned with the tooth relic of Buddha which was later returned
to Ceylon. The famous Venetian traveler, Marco Polo visited Ma'bar in about 1293 A.D. He has left
behind his accounts in which he

114

described the prosperity of the Pandyan king. He said "His king possesses vast treasures, and wears
upon his person greatstore of rich jewels. He maintains great state and administers his kingdom with
great equity, an extends great favour to merchants and foreigners so that they are very glad to visit his
city."
THE INVASIONS OF MALIK KAFUR
Kulashekara Pandya had two sons, namely Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya. Of the two, Vira Pandya
was the illegihmate son. Both of them were associated with the administration during the rule of their
father. Later on rivalry started between the two. Sundara Pandya murdered Kulashekara and usurped
the throne in 1310 A.D. But within a short time he was defeated by Vira Pandya. Sundara Pandya
appealed to Malik Kafur for help. Malik Kafur had already invaded the Pandyan kingdom earlier. He
looted Chidambaram and Srirangam and also occupied Madura. Even afte Malik Kafur returned to Delhi
the rivalry between Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya continued, however their power and prestige had
been reduced to a large extent. The Cheras under Raviverma and the Kakatiyas under Prataparudra
invaded the Pandyan kingdom in 1328 A.D. Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq attacked the Pandyan kingdom. He
looted Srirangam and captured Madura. Madura became one of the provinces of the Delhi Sultanate.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RULE OF THE PANDYAS
The Pandyas ruled over South India for more than 10 centuries.
They also had their ups and downs. The power and prestige of the Pandyas reached its zenith during the
13th century. The Pandyan kingdom included the whole of South India excluding Mysore. The Pandyas
adopted several aspects of the administrative system of the Cholas. The village assemblies enjoyed
immense powers in administering justice. The Pandyan kings followed Brahminical religion and during

their rule the temples emerged as religious and cultural centres. The temples of Chidambaram,
Srirangam and Rameshwaram were economically very rich and they emerged as popular pilgrim centres.
The Pandyan kingdom attained immense economic prosperity and was renowned for its maritime trade
and commerce. Especially the Arab traders of Ma'bar had contacts with

115

the Pandyan kingdom. Several Arab merchants settled down in Madura and a Muslim historian writes
that some Arab mercl1ants occupied very high places in the councils of the Pandyas. According to
Abdullah Wassaf Madura was one of the richest cities in the world.
The trade commodities of India reached .Iraq, Khurasan and even Turkey through the rich ports of
Ma'bar.

2.4 THE KAKATIYAS OF WARANGAL

The Kakatiya established their rule in Warangal after the collapse of the Chalukyan kingdoms of the
Deccan. They played a predominant role in the politics of Andhra region. The Kakatiya dynasty derived
its name called Kakatipura, as the title of the Kings, Kakatipuravallabha denotes that the worshipped a
goddess called Kakati. At the capital city, Warangal, a temple dedicated to Goddess Kakati waS
established. So it is rather unreasonable'to infer that Kakatipura was another name for Warangal itself.
The Kakatiyas entered Andhradesha as generals of the Rashtrakutas. The earliest ruler of the Kakatiyas
was Gunadya, who assisted the Eastern Chalukya Davarnava in his wars against his brother Ammaraja.
His successors became the rulers of Koravi. Later, the Kakatiyas shifted their loyalty to the Western
Chalukyas. The first historic ruler of the Kakatiya was Betaraja (1000-1030 A.D.). He took advantage of
the Chola-chalukya conflict and carved out for himself a small independent principality. His son and
successor was Prolataja I (1052-76 A.D.). He surrendered himself to Someshwara I and in return he
received from him the province of Anumokonda Vishaya. His son and successor was Betaraja II (1076n08
A.D.). He also secured Sabbimandala from Vikramaditya VI, the Kalyana Chalukya ruler. Betaraja II's son
and successor was Prolaraja II (1116-1157 A.D.). He took part in the revolution thattook place in
Kalachuri and after the overthrow of Tailapa II he proclaimed himself as independent. He also occupied
many areas in Telingana. But when he tried to extend his kingdom upto the east coast, he was killed by
the rulers of Velanadu.
RUDRADEV A (1158-1195 A.D.)
The eldest son of Prolaraja, Rudradeva became the ruler of the Pandyas in 1158 A.D. At the outset,
Rudradeva defeated the rulers of Velanadu to avenge the death of his father and he also

117

large portions of their kingcloms both in the North and South. He fought against a number of the
erstwhile feudatories of the Chalukyas and he consolidated his position. According to the Anumakonda
inscription, the kingdom of Rudradeva comprised of the whole of .the area between Srishailam and
Tripurantakam in the South, the Malyavantam in the North, the Bay of Bengal in the East and Kalyan in
the West. By that time the Kakatiyas had enhanced their power and they proved to be a menace to the
Yadavas and therefore Jaitugi attacked them. In the war that ensued Rudradeva was defeated and killed.
His brother Mahadeva ascended the Pandyan throne. But Mahadeva also lost his life in the battle waged
in 1198 A.D. and his son Ganapatideva was taken as captive by the Yadavas. However he was later
released in 1199 A.D.
GANAPATIDEVA (1199-1262 A.D.)
Ganapatideva was the most famous ruler of the Kakatiya kings.
He undertook many conquests and the Telugu-speaking areas came under his control. He enhanced the
power and prestige of the Kakatiyas. Initially Ganapatideva conquered the petty kingdom between the
rivers of Godavari and Pennar. Three expeditions were sent against Kalinga and a large portion of Orissa
was occupied by defeating the Kalinga Gangas. The Telugu Chola kingdom of Nellore , was subjugated
and Kanchi was declared as the Southern outpost of the Kakatiyas. By that time, the Yadava king,
Singhana invaded the Kakatiya kingdom to divert the attention of Gangapati from his conquests.
However Singhana was defeated and he had to surrender
a portion of his kingdom on the Godavari to Ganapatideva. By 1254 A.D., Ganapatideva shifted his
capital from Anumakonda to warangal.
RUDRAMBA (1269-1289 A.D.)
Ganapathideva was succeeded by his daughter, Rudramba. She proved to be a competent ruler. She was
well-trained in the arts of peace and war. She suppressed the recalcitrant chieftains who tried to take
advantage of the presence of a woman on the throne. She also forced Yadava Mahadeva who invaded
the kingdom to retreat. So also in the South she wiped out the threat from the Cholas and the Pandyas
and hence protected the integrity of the kingdom. During her rule, the Venetian traveler, Marco Polo
visited the east

118

coast and paid glowing tributes to the efficiency of Rudramba as a ruler and to the prosperity of her
kingdom.

PRATAPARUDRADEVA (1289-1323 A.D.)

Prataparudradeva was highly successful in his campaigns in
the North with the Turks and he also strove to penetrate into the South. The local records mention nine
Muslim attacks on Warangal duriing the rule of Prataparudradeva. The Muslim historians have given
account of only five invasions; For the first time the Muslims attacked Warangal in 1303 AD. Ala-ud-din
Khalji sent an expedition through Bengal under the command of Malik Chajju and Fakr-uddin Juna. Both
of them were defeated by Prataparudradeva and were forced to retreat. After six years, Ala-ud-Din
Khalji sent another expedition against Warangal under MalikKafur. Prataparudradeva resisted the attack
in a gallant manner and he finally sued for peace. He give rich presents to the Sultan. After the
departure of Kafur . from Warangal, Prataparudradeva tried to reinforce his army. He launched a huge
scheme of land reclamation and survey. In 1318 AD., Sultan MubarakKhalji sent an expedition aginst
Warangal but this was repulsed. After two years, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq sent a strong army under his
son, UlughKhan. Prataparudradeva defeated . the Muslims and inflicted heavy losses upon them.
However Sultan MU,barak KhaJji renewed the attack in 1323 AD. After a siege of five months, Warangal
was captured by the Muslims. Prataparudradeva , was taken captive and was sent to Delhi. But he
committed suicide on the way. Warangal was renamed as Sultanpur and was placed under a military
office. The glory of the Kakatiya dynasty gradually sunk into oblivion.
SIGNIFICAN'CE OF THE RULE OF THE KAKATIYAS
The credit of uniting the Telugu-speaking parts of the Deccan goes to the Kakatiyas. They resisted the
attacks of the Turks in a gallant manner and tried their best to protect the South India, Under the rule of
the Kakatiyas the Andhras had developed a sense of unity and they fought against the Muslims
invasions. The Kakatiyas also left a rich legacy, which continued under the Vijayanagara rulers.
During the rule of the Kakatiyas there was remarkable cultural development. The popularity of Jainism
and Buddhism were

119

eclipsed and both Shaivism and Vaishnavism were revived. The society was organized on the basis of
castes and sub-castes. Agriculture, industry and commerce also flourished immensely. Amir Khusro and
Marco Polo have described the prosperity of the
. Kakatiyas kingdom.
The Kakatiyas also patronage several scholars an poets.
Kakatiya Prataparudra himself was a great scholar. He wrote a n treatise on polity called 'Nitisara'.
Sanskrit was the court language. Vidyanatha was the greatest Sanskrit poet of the age. He was the court

poet of Prataparudrdeva. He wrote the work, 'Prataparudra Yasobhushana'. Agastya was also a noted
scholar in the court of the Kakatiyas. He wrote seventy Kavyas in Sanskrit. The Kakatiya period forms an
important epoch-in the history of Telugu literature.
In Telugu language both religious literature and Secular literature were produced. The Bhakti cult also
contributed to the growth of Telugu literature. In Desi (popular) style Palkuriki Somana was the
outstanding poet and in Marga style (orthodox), Tikkana was the most famous poet. Gradually in Telugu
literature Prabhanda and Sataka styles emerged during the Kakatiya period. The Kakatiyas also built
many temples at Numakonda, Warangal, Pillalamari and Palampeta. They took up the style of the
Chalukyas and handed it over to the Rayas of Vijayanagara. The Kakatiya rulers also patronized music
and dance.

2.5 DECLINE OF KAMPILI KINGDOM

Gradually the Muslim authority extended in the South. Alaud-Din Khaji under took a series of
expeditions and annexed Devagiri to the Delhi Sultanate. Mubarak Khalji wiped out the power of the
Yadavas of Devagiri and led an expedition as far as the Ma'bar. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq annexed the
Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal in 1323. In 1328, the Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq invaded the SQuthern
region in pursuit of Baha-ud-Din Gurshasp who had incurred his wrath. He sought refuge in Kampili. It
was a small kingdom on the banks of the river Tungabhadra established by a Yadava Prince
Ramachandra. Anegondi and Kummatam were the strongholds. Kampiliraya was the son and successor
of Ramachandra. He gave refuge to Baha-ud-Din Gurshasp and refused to surrender him. Mohammadbin- Tughlaq led an expedition against Kampili and attacked Anegondi and killed Kampiliraya. The
kingdom of Kampili was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate and a Muslim Governor was appointed at
Anegondi to carry Oft the administration. Baha-ud-din Gurshasp fled to Dorasamudra and sought the
protection of Ballala III. But the Hoysala ruler realized the futility of facing the Delhi forces and he
surrendered Gurshasp to Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. The Sultan marched as far as Madura and annexed it
to the Delhi Sultanate. Almost the entire peninsula except Jajnagarwas included in the Delhi empire
during the rule of Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq. It was divided into five provinces, viz., Devagiri, Telingana,
Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar. Within a short time a conflict broke out between the Muslim rulers
of Madura

and the Hoysalas and MadurcyWas destroyed in 1342. Towards the

end of the rule of the Hoysalas the famous Vijayanagara emerged in Hampi.

2.6 VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

The establishment of the Vijayanagara empire constitutes an important epoch. in the history of
Karnataka. The beginning of the 14th century witnessed the growth of the power of the Delhi Sultanate
in the North and the power of the Vijayanagara empire in the South. The Hoysalas had carried on a
relentless struggle against the Muslim invasions. After the declin-e of the Hoysala dynasty, it appears
that the Vijayanagara empire was established at the right moment to continue the crusade against
Islamic onsla1..ight. The dynasty successfully preserved the pristine purity of Indian culture and
tradition. This dynasty also contributed significantly to the field of literature, art and architecture. Thus,
it constituted a glorious period in the history of Karnataka.
SOURCES
The availability of sources in abundance has helped us to reconstruct the history of the Vijayanagara
empire and the cultural developments during that age. More than 5000 inscriptions have been
discovered in K?nnada, Telugu and Sanskrit. They are found in different parts of South India. They throw
considerable light on the Vijayanagara empire. There is no dearth of literary sources. A number of
foreign travellers visited Vijayanagara empire, such as Abdur Razaak, Nicolo Conti, Domingo Paes,
Fernao Nuniz and Niketin. The accounts of these visitors help us to know about the socio-economic
conditions of the age. A number of indigenous works have also contributed to the reconstruction of the
History of Vijayanagara empire. A number of works in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil written
during the Vijayanagara period have thrown light on its history. The architectural remains of the
Vijayanagara period at Hampi, Lepakshi and other places depict to us the life of the people during that
period.

122

THE THEORY OF ANDHRA ORIGIN

According to some of the literary sources like Rajakalanirnaya and Shivatatva Ratnakara, the founders of
the Vijayanagara empire Were Hukka and Bukka. They were the treasury officers of the king of
Warangal, Pratapa Rudra deva. The ruler of Warangal gave shelter to Baha-ud-din Gurshasp who was
being pursued by Mohammadbin-Tughlaq. When the Delhi forces attacked Warangal, Hakka and Bukka
escaped from there and reached Hampi. They met Vidyaranya who inspired them to establish a dynasty
with the new. found city, Vidyanagara, as the capital in 1336 AD. This theory has
been a controversial theory. It has been totally rejected as antihistorical, as it is not based on facts and
rational interpretation of the available sources. Nowhere do we find the names of Harihara and Bukka.
We do not find their names even in the history of Kampili raya.
THE THEORY OF KANNADA ORIGIN

The theory of Kannada origin traces the growth of the Vijayanagra empire due to the efforts of the
Hoysalas. According to this tr.eory, Malik Kafur, the General of Ala-ud-din Khalji attacked the Hoysala
kingdom in 1110 A.D. Vira Ballala III wanted to protect his capital known as Vijayavirupakshapura named
after his son, Vijaya Virupaksha. After the decline of the main line of the Hoysalas, Hukka and Bukka who
were from Warangal established their rule in Hampi in the region where the Vijaya Virupakshapura had
been found. A number of inscriptions have been discovered in Kannada language. There are certain
legendary figures embossed on the coins of the Vijayanagara perid. The titles of the Vijayanagara rulers
were also in Kannada, such as Karantaka Kshitipala, Sri Karnata Mahisha, Kannada Raya. These evidences
convince us that the Vijayangara rulers were originally front Karnataka. The establishment of
Vijayanagara empire is closely connected with Vidyaranya. Harlhara and Bukka, after extending the
territories of their empire, visited Sringeri to celebrate their victory and granted many areas to the
brother of Vidyaranya known as Bharathi Thirtha and also built .temples ofVidyashankara. All these
evidences give us a clear picture of the establishment of Vijayanagara empire.

123

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

The Vijayanagara kingdom was established by 1336 A.D. when Harihara I ascended the throne. This
kingdom was ruled by four main dynasties which were as follows1.

The Sangama dynasty (1336-1485 A.D.)

2.

The Saluva dynasty (1485-1505 A.D.)

3.

The Tuluva dynasty (1491-1570 A.D.) 4.The Aravidu dynasty (1542-1646A.D.)

THE SANGAMA DYNASTY HARIHARA I

Harihara I was the founder of the Vijayanagara empire. He was coronated in 1336 A.D. He ruled
between 1336-1356 A.D. He was an eminent ruler. He conquered various feudatories of the Hoysalas.
He built a fort at Barakur, an important place in the Westen coastal region to defend the frontier of his
kingdom in 1336 AD. One of the inscriptions of 1339 A.D. tells us that Harihara was ruling from Gutti and
had gained the praise that he was the overlord of the Eastern and Western oceans. Another inscription
of 1340 A.D. tells that he assumed the title, 'Chatushsamudradhipati'. His other titles were
'Maharajadhiraja', 'Raja Parameshwara' and 'Virapratapa Maharaya'. Harihara established the dynasty of
a firm foundation. He was an able administrator. He fought against the Bahmani Sultans and retained his
control over the Raichur doab region. He established peace and security by organizing the provincial
administration. He took measures to increase the agricultural production. He promoted trade and
commerce and increased the economic prosperity of the people. He constructed canals and tanks also.
He encouraged cultural activities. The Bhasyas of the Vedas were written during his period and

completed by 1380 A.D. By this achievement, Harihara secured the title, 'Vedamarga Sthapanacharya'.
As he extended immense patronage to Kannada literature, he assumed the title 'Karnataka Vidyavilasa'.
BUKKA I
Bukka I was the successor of Harihara 1. He was the brother of Hariahara 1. Even when he was the
Yuvaraja, he rendered valuable service of Hariha.ra I in maintaining the unity and integrity of the

124

empire. He subdued all the rulers of South India and created history.
Bukka I engaged himself in the wars against the Bahmanai Sultans, Mohammad I and Mujahid. Although
he was able to gain a decisive victory, he was unable to check the advance of the Muslim forces .
. The most noteworthy victory of Bukka I was the triumph over the Sultana of Madura. The conquest of
Madura by Bukka's son, Kampana has been described in the work, Madura Vijayam, a Sanskrit wor:k
written by Queen Gangadevi. Bukka I sent ambassadors to China. Similarly, the rulers of Malabar, Ceylon
and other islands sent embassies to the court of Bukka I. His reign witnessed intense literary activity.
Hindu culture flourished due to the revival of the Vedas. Madhava and Sa:yana wrote commentaries on
the Vedas. Bukka assumed the title, 'Vedamarga Prathistapaka". Bukka died in 1377 A.D.
HARIHARA II

Hariahara II who was the second son of Bukka ascended the

Vijayanagara throne in 1377 A.D. He followed a policy of aggression after his accession. He occupied
Kurnool and Nellore. He also secured Goa, Kharepatna and Dabul. He became the ruler of the vast
empire extending from the river Krishna in the North till Ceylon in the South. He waged many wars
against the Bahmani rulers. Harihara, however had to taste defeat under the hands of Firuz Shah and
war forced to pay a heavy was indemnity. He passed away in 1404 AD .
DEVARAYA I
The death of Harihara II led to a struggle among the three sons:
Ultimately Devaraya I ascended the throne in 1406 A.D. Devaraya had to confront the attack of the
Bahmani Sultan and he was unfortunately defeated. He had to sign a humiliating treaty and also had to
give his daughter in marriage to the Sultan. Nicolo Conti, the Italian traveller visited Vijayanagara
towards the end of the rule of Devaraya I who died by about 1422 A.D. It is said that Devaraya I occupied
Hanagal and also inflicted a crushing defeat on Firuz Shah, the Bahmani Sultan. Devaraya I had

established the supremacy of Vijayanagara over the entire central region between the Krishna and the
Tungabhadra rivers.

125

DEVARAYA II
Devaraya II ascended the throne by 1422 AD. and ruled till 1446 A.D. His reign is an important milestone
in the history of Vijayanagara empire. He was an efficient administrator. He consolidated the empire and
contributed greatly to the culture of Karnataka. Devaraya II occupied Kondavidu. He also involved
himself in the internal affairs of Orissa. He helped the Reddis of Rajamundhry to defeat Kapileshwara,
the Gajapati king of Orissa. He also subdued the ruler of Kerala. Devaraya levied tribute on Quilon,
Calicut and Ceylon. He took up the titles, 'Maharajadhiraja' and 'Raja parameshwara'. Devaraya II fought
a number of wars with the Bahmani Sultans. He lost Mudgal fort. He appointed Muslims in his army to
train Hindu soldiers. He thoroughly reorganized the army. Devaraya II was also a great patron of
.literature and art. 'He himself was a scholar of great repute. He wrote two Sanskrit works, Mahanataka
Sudhanidhi and a Vritti on the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. He patronised a number of scholars. His
aesthetic sense has been manifested in the construction of the Hazara Rama temple. Abdur Razaak, who
visited the Vijayanagara empire during the rule of Devaraya II was wonder struck by the prosperity and
grandeur of the Vijayanagara empire. Devaraya II was one of the outstanding rulers of the Sangama
dynasty. He was succeeded by his son, Mallikarjuna in 1446. During the rule of Mallikarjuna and his
successors, Virupaksha III and Praudha
Devaraya there were clear signs of decadence of the Sangama dynasty. As they were weak and
incompetent, the glory of the dynasty began to fade. The constant attacks of the Bahmani Sultans also
led to the decline of the power and prestige of the Sangama dynasty.
SALUV A DYNASTY (1484-1503) SALUV A NARASIMHA
Narasimha of the Saluva family established a new dynasty. He was the son of Gunda, the ruler of
Chandragiri Rajya. When he ascended the throne, the political condition was in a state of anarchy. The
Gajapati King of Orissa had joined hands with the Bahmanis and conquereq many areas. Narasimha at
first turned his attention towards the Gajapathi ruler of Orissa and defeated him. He

126

successfully occupied Udayagiri. He occupied the entire territory upto the Godavari river. Many
Generals, nobles and Palegars tried to defy the authority ofSaluva Narasimha. Thus, Saluva Narasimha
had to face various troubles in establishing internal peace. As his strengh and vigour decreased, he lost
Udayagiri to Purushottama Gajapati, unable to tackle external aggression effectively. Narasimha tried to
strengthen the army. He conquered Tulu region and imported horses from the Arabs through the ports
of Bhatkal, Honnavar and Mangalore. He passed away by 1491 A.D.
Saluva Narasimha had two sons, Timmabhupa and Immadi Narasimha. Both of them were very young to
ascend the throne and assume the reins of the Government. Narasanayaka, an efficient general carried
on the administration. He was loyal to the ruling
dynasty and established the supremacy of the Vijayanagara dynasty in various directions. However,
Prince Timmabhupa was murdered by Timmarasa who was the chief rival of Narasanayaka. Immadi
Narasimha ascended the throne. Narasanayaka continued to exercise power on behalf of him. Immadi
Narasimha began to suspect Narasanayaka although he was loyal to the throne. He felt that
Narasanayaka was trying to usurp the throne for himself. Narasanayaka was enraged by such false
presumptions of the ruler. He marched fI:om Penukonda and captured Vijayanagara in 1492 A.D.
'Narasanayaka punished Timmarasa with death. He also imprisoned Immadi Narasimha and continued
to rule over the Vijayanagara empire.
TULUVA DYNASTY (1503-1570 A.D.)
Narasanayaka remained in power from 1492 A.D. He served
in a loyal way, since the time when Immadi Narasimha became the ruler of Vijayanagara. Narasanayaka
recovered Udayagiri and Raichur forts. He subdued the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and occupied Mudgal fort.
He defeated the Cholas and Cheras and occupied the entire region upto Kanyakumari. Narasanayaka
had, thus served the ruler of Vijayanagara by strengthening the empire against all the enemies, when
the empire was threatened by the Muslim invaders. The continuation of the glory of the, empire was
mainly due to the efforts of Narasanayaka. After the death of Narasanayaka, his eldest son, Vira
Narasimha became the regent in 1503 AD.

127

Vira Narasimha aspired to become the Emperor of Vijayana gara himself. In 1505 A.D., he assasinated
Immadi Narasimha and ascended the throne. Thus he established the rule of the Tuluva dynasty. He
repulsed the attacks of the Adil Shahis of Bijajmr and faced the revolts of many Pale gars with courage.
He was an efficient administrator. However, he passed away in.1509 A.D.
KRISHNADEVARAYA (1509-1529 A.D.)

Krishnadevaraya was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara empire. He enhanced the prestige of the
Tuluva dynasty and contributed significantly in the fields of literature and architecture. He was an
effieientadministrator and a great warrior. The glory and prestige of the Vijayanagara empire reached its
zenith during the rule of Krishnadevaraya. Narasanayaka had four sons, viz., Vira Narasimha,
Krishnadevaraya, Achyuta and Sri Ranga. After the death of Vira Narasimha, Krishnadevaraya ascended
the throne in 1509 AD.
Krishnadevaraya, at first had to struggle to maintain the unity and integrity of the vast empire. He had to
fight against the Muslim rulers who invaded Vijayanagara. He defeated Mahmud Shah of Bidar at
Kovilkonda. He also inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bijapur Sultan, Yusuf Adil Khan who lost his life in
the battle. Yusuf Adil. Khan was succeeded by his son, Ismail Adil Shah. Krishnadevaraya led a huge army
and invaded Raichur. He drove the Adil Shahis and successfully occupied Raichur city. Krishnadevaraya
also occupied Gulbarga and Bidar forts in his later expeditions. He waS successful in suppressing the
power of the Muslim kingdoms completely. He commemorated his victory by assuming the title,
'Yavanaiajya Sthapanacharya'. He also organized a grand festival at Vijayanagara.
Krishnadevaraya suppressed the revolt of the Palegar of Ummattur. He gained control over
Shivanasamudra and Srirangapatna. He destroyed the fortifications of Shivanasamudra and established
at Headquarters at Srirangapatna to rule over the Southern provinces. He stayed at Belur for some time
and renovated the temple. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. He helped them to
gain control over Goa from the Adil Shahis of Bijapur.

128

Krishnadevaraya defeated Pratapa Rudra and occupied the fort of Udayagiri. It was not an easy task to
capture the impregnable fort. But the Kalingas were unable to defend
it against the systematic attack of Krishnadevaraya. Pratapa Rudradeva gave his daughter, Jaganmohini
in marriage to Krishnadevaraya. This is one of the greatest triumphs of the Emperor. Thus,
Krishnadevaraya in order to commemorate his victory visited Tirupati with his queens, Tirumaladevi and
Chinnadevi.He offered Jewels to Lord Venkateswara and worshipped the Lord with devotion and sought
his blessings. He built a new shrine and installed the image of Balakrishna which he had brought from
Puri.

Krishnadevaraya also led an expedition against Andhra and defeated the Reddis of Vinukonda
Nagarjunikonda and Bellamkonda. He captured Kondapalli also. The entire region of Telingana came
under the sway of Krishnadevaraya. The forts of Kanakagiri, Shankaragiri, Anantagiri, Urlakonda,

Nalligonda etc. were captured by him. He also put an end to the worship of Lord Simhadrinatha and
established a pillar of victory.

The victories of Krishnadevaraya were followed by a series of wars against Golkonda and Bijapur. Qutub
Shah of Golkonda was compelled to submit. Krislmadevaraya occupied the Raichur doab by driving away
the Bijapur Sultan. An ambassador sent by the Bijapur Sultan visited the court of Krishnadevaraya and
requested him to return Raichur doab. Krishnadevaraya promised to return the territory only if the
Sultan accepted his sovereignty by kissing his feet. A ceremony was arranged at Mudga1.When the
Sultan did not turn up, Krishnadevaraya invaded Bijapur and plundered it. The glorious reign of
Krishnadevaraya came to an end as he died by 1529 A.D.

129

Krishnadevaraya was an eminent warrior and efficient administrator. He was a skilful general. His talent
as a warrior is evident from the success he achieved in occupying the impregnable fort of Udayagiri. He
was compassjonate to his soldiers who were prepared to lay down theitr lives for the kingdom. He
visited the . wounded soldiers and provided them with medical treatment. Krishnadevaraya was
renowned as a good administrator. His famous work, Amukta Malyada in Telugu throws light on the
administrative system evolved during his time. He gave top priority to the welfare of the subjects. The
work also gives us information about the rules regarding appointment of ministers, administration of
justice and foreign policy.
Krishnadevaraya was a great scholar. He also patronised many scholars and poets in his court. He wrote
many works in Sanskrit and Tt?lugu. His famous works are Amukta Malyada, Jill1tbavati Parinaya,
Madalasa charitha and Jnanachintamani. His court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (Eight Telugu
poets). Some of the famous poets among them were Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Timmanna and Tenali
Ramakrishna. Peddanna was honoured by Krishnadevaraya for his profound knowledge and poetic skills.
Krishnadevaraya also promoted architecture. He restored many shrines in various parts of South India.
He made rich grants to the temples of Tirupati, Srishaila and Kanchi. The huge towers over the main
gateways of the temples were named after him as 'Rayagopura'. He also built the Kalyanamantapa of
the Virupaksha temple. Krishnadevaraya's reign witnessed progress in different fields of culture. He was
undoubtedly the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara empire. During his reign, the glory and prestige of
Vijayanagara empire reached its zenith.
ACHYUT ARAYA (1529-1542 A.D.)
Krishnadevaraya was succeeded by Achyutaraya in 1529, who was the half-brother. Achyutaraya had to
face the attack of the Muslim rulers. The Adil Shahis of Bijapur captured the forts of Raichur and
Mudgal. However, Achyutaraya was successful against the Gajapati ruler of Orissa and the Sultan of

Gokonda. His reign was dominated by Ramaraya, who was the son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya.
Achyutaraya died in 1542 A.D.

130

Achyutaraya was succeeded by his young son, Venkata 1(1543 . A.D.). He was still a young lad when he
ascended the throne. His uncle Salakaraju Timma began to influence the young ruler in all political
matters. The queen who was acting as the regent sought help from the Bijapur Sultan to protect the life
of the young ruler. Salakaraju Timma found the right opportunity to usurp the throne in the midst of the
confusion. He murdered Venkata I and also punished the nobles who were loyal to him, and assumed
power as the ruler of Vijayanagara.
SADASHIV ARAYA AND RAMARA YA(1543-1571 A.D.)
Acyutaraya's son Venkata was murderd by his uncle,
Salakaraju Timma. Aliya Ramaraya of Aravidu dynasty supported Sadashiva, son of Ranga to ascend the
throne. Ramaraya enabled Sadashivaraya to escape form Gutti prison. He started a war against
Salakaraju Timma in the name of Sadashivaraya. Salakaraju Timma was defeated by Ramaraya in four
fierce battles. Finally he died during the war. Although Ramaraya declared Sadashivarifya as the King, he
himself assumed complete power. Ramaraya exercised direct authority between 1543-1551 A.D.
Ramaraya was a distinguished soldier. At first he had served under the ruler of Golkonda. He married
the daughter of Krishnadevarqya and held high administrative posts and rendered valuable service to
the Vijayanagara empire. After the death of Krishnadevaraya he did not not enjoy much power. When
Achyutarya left the capital to suppress a rebellion, Ramaraya recruited Muslim soldiers into the army.
He enhanced his power and appointed his loyal supporters to important posts. After the death of
Achyutaraya, although Sadashivaraya ascended the throne, he was the ruler in name only. Ramaraya
emerged as the defacto ruler. Gradually, he became the absolute ruler of the Vijayanagara empire,
Ramaraya was a clever politician and a master diplomat. He interfered in the affairs of the Muslim
States. He sowed seeds of dissension among them, pitched one against the other and weakened them.
The Bahmani kingdom, had been divided into five separate kingdoms established at Bijapur, Bidar,
Golkonda, Ahmedabad and Ahmednagar.
131

The Adil Shahis of Bijapur planned to attack Vijayanagara, whereas Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar planned
to attack Barid Shahis of Bidar. Ramaraya defeated Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar and secured the help

and confidence of the Nizam. He concluded an alliance of friendship with him. The Adil Shah of Bijapur
could not tolerate it and he insulted the ambassador of Ramaraya. Thus, Ramaraya induced the Nizam of
Ahmednagar to attack the Adil Shah of Bijapur. Ramaraya, by pitching them against each other, gained
the forts of Raichur and Mudgal, after the defeat of Adil Shah of Bijapur.
By 1557 A.D., The Adil Shahis under Ali Adil Shah tried to develop friendly relations with Ramaraya. The
embassies of Ali Adil Shah sent to Ahmednagar were neglected. Thus, he tried to recover Kalyana from
the Nizam of Ahmednagar. Ali Adil Shah sought the help of Ramaraya, who sent a huge army against
Ahmednagar. The Vijayanagara army committed untold atrocities without any mercy. Muslim women
were dishonoured and the Koran was disrespected. The city of Ahmednagar was plundered and
destroyed deliberately on large scale. Ramaraya's brother, Venkatadri as well as Ramaraya led an
expedition against Golkonda also. The Sultan of Golkonda s'urrendered the forts of Kovilkonda,
Gangapura and Pangal. The power of the Muslim Sultans was, thus destroyed by Ramaraya by his careful
politics. But Ramaraya's game was exposed. As time passed on, the Muslim Sultans realized that
Ramaraya, a Hindu had benefited due to lack of unity and understanding among the Muslim rulers.
THE BATTLE OF RAKKASA TANGADICfALIKOTA),1565AD
The Sultans of the Deccan region realized that Ramaraya's power had increased immensely due to the
lack of unity amongst themselves. They decided to sink their differences and unite in the name of
religion against the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara. Ramaraya has been held solely responsible of the
battle of Rakkasa Tangadi (Talikota). During the siege of Ahmednagar, the Vijayangara army perpetrated
untold atrocities on the civilians. This enraged the Muslim Sultans who united against the Hindu
kingdom. The combined armies of the Sultans of Ahmednagar, Golkonda, Bijapur and Bidar camped near
Talikota. The battle of Rakkasa Tangadi was fought in 1565 A.D. Ramaraya was captured and

132

beheaded. The Muslim forces entered Vijayanagara and plundered the city which was known for its
wealth and grandeur. Innocent people were slaughtered. Temples and palaces were destroyed. The city
was set on fire. The magnificent city was converted into ruins. The Sultans and their armies acquired
huge booty. The devastation that took place was in such alarming proportions that the empire
disintegrated and sunk into oblivion. With the collapse of the Vijayanagara empire, the scions of the
dynasty had to face various problems.
CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE OF THE TALIKOTA WAR
The atrocities committed by the army of Ramaraya enraged
the Muslim Sultans. The Muslim Sultans realized that they had been used as pawns in the political game
of Ramaraya. They developed intolerance towards the Vijayanagar empire which was superior in might

and economically highly prosperous. As none of the Muslim states had the ability to face the
Vijayanagara forces alone, they sunk their differences in the name of religion and formed an alliance.
Ramaraya did not pay much attention to .the formation of the confederacy, He was filled with
confidence that he could crush their might, as he felt that no Muslim ruler had ever been able to face
the mighty Vijayanagara forces. The.people of Vijayanagara enjoyed a peaceful and prosperous life and
they did not realize the gravity of the situation. Ramaraya insulted the embassies sent by the Muslim
rulers. The conduct of Ramaraya has been regarded as one of the major causes for the outbreak of the
battle of Talikota. He had underestimated the strength of the allies. All these factors led to the fatal
battle which ended with the destruction of the Vijayanagare empire.
THE ARA VIDU DYNASTY (1570.,1646 A.D.)
The Aravidu family was originally ruling over the provinces in Andhra from Kurnool district.
Krishnadevaraya, the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara empire gave his daughter in marriage to Ramaraya
of Aravidu dynasty. After the death of Krishnadevaraya, although Achyutaraya and later on
Sadashivaraya ascended the throne, Aliya Ramaraya played an important role in the Vijayanagara
politics. His rr.achinations and unnecessary interference in the politics of the Muslim Sultans as well as
his arrogance led to the total destruction of the Vijayanagara empire.

133

TIRUMALARAYA (1570-1578 A.D.)

When Ramaraya was killed, his brother Tirumalaraya collected as much treasure as he could. Nearly
1550 elephants were loaded with the riches of Vijay ana gar a kingdom con$isting ofJewels, Pearls,
Gems and Diamonds. Tirumalaraya proceeded towards Penugonda. He also took with him Sadashivaraya
and the royal ladies. Sadashivaraya started his rule in 1565 AD. from Penukonda and ruled till about
1570 AD. Sadashivaraya was murdered by 1570. Therefore, Tirumalaraya assumed the reins of the
Government. He divided the empire'into three linguistic provinces (Mandalas). Andhra region was
entrusted to his eldest son, Sri Eanga. His second son, Ramaraya was placed in charge of Srirangapatna
in Kannada region and Venkatapati was appointed as the viceroy in charge of CJ;landragiri of Tamil
Nadu. The division of the empire led to the growth of hostility and rivalry within the empire.
Tirumalaraya ruled in the midst of vicious politics only for eleven months.
SRIRANGARA YA I (1572-1585 A.D.)
Tirumalaraya was succeeded by Srirangaraya I. The Golkanda Sultans had extended their empire in
theSouth.By 1583 AD. they had occupied Kondavidu. Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur was murdered and Chand
Bibi acted as the regent. Ibrahim II, a minor ascended the throne of Bijapur. Thus, during the rule of

Srirangaraya a series of changes were taking place in the politics of South India. Srirangaraya had to
face. some problems on account of it. He defended his territories from the constant onslaughts of the
enemies with the help of Savaram Chennappa and other loyal commanders. He died in 1585 AD.
VENKATAPATI DEVARAYA II (1586-1614 A.D.)
Srirangaraya died childless. As his brother, Ramaraya had died leaving behind minor children,
Srirangaraya's younger brother, Venkatapati ascended the throne in 1586 A.D. Venkatapati defended his
kingdom successfully against Golkonda, Qutub Shah. He suppressed the rebellions of Kolar and Nandyal.
The alternative capital of Venkatapati was Penugonda. He also subdued the ruler of Jinji. He also
defeated the ruler of Vellore, Lingama and considered it as his third capital. He constantly stayed at
Vellore and ruled from there. So Vellore came to be known as 'Raya Vellore'.

134

Undoubtedly, he was the most famous ruler of the Aravidu dynasty. He was a benevolent monarch and
cared for the welfare of the people. He was also a patron of literature and arts. He died in 1614 AD. He
tried to restore the glory of the Vijayanagara empire- to a great existent.
SRIRANGA II (1614-1619 A.D.)
Venkatapati had no issues. Before he died, he abdicated the throne in favour of his brother-in-law,
Sriranga II. He was a minor with no experience in politics and administration. He alienated loyal officers
and became the prisoner of Jagaraya. Jagaraya declared his son-in-law as the ruler. Thus internal
intrigues broke out. One of the loyal officers, Hechemma Nayaka helped the young prince Ramadeva to
escape from the prison. The rest of Sriranga's family members were murdered treacherously. However,
Hechemma Nayaka helped Ramadeva to ascend the throne successfully in 1616 AD.
LATER RULERS

Ramadeva ruled between 1616 and 1629 AI). The kingdom had to face a crisis. There was no law and
order. The Bijapur Sultans took advantage of the internal fights. Kurnool was occupied by the Bijapur
Sultans. Ramadeva was.succeeded by Venkatapatideva III (1629-1642). The army led by Randaula Khan
laid siege on Vellore, the capital. However, it was defended by the feudatories of Venkatapati III. His rule
came to an end by 1642 AD. He also died childless. Srirangaraya III ascended the throne. The Golkonda
Sultan attacked Udayagiri. He was opposed by the rulers of Jinji and Madhurai. However, Sriranga III
recovered Udayagiri by 1644 AD.
He also subdued the rebel feudatories. The success of Sriranga III did not last long. The combined forces
of Bijapur and Golkonda once again attacked Vellore. Sri Rangaraya III left the capital city and sought

refuge under Keladi Shivappa Nayaka. Shivappa Nayaka defended Vellore from the Muslim onslaughts.
He also helped Sriranga to occupy Belur. From then onwards Belur became the centre from where
Sriranga began his rule. In 1659 AD., Kantiravanarasaraja Wodeyar and in 1660 AD., Shivappa Nayaka
passed away. Sir Rangaraya lost his able supporters. By 1678 AD., the importance of Sir Rangaraya in the
politics of Karnataka

135

disappeared completely. Thus, the glory and grandeur of the ijayanagara empire was totally destroyed.
THE CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE VIJA YANAGARA RULERS ADMINISTRATION
The Amukta Malyada of Krishnadevaraya describes the polity under the Vijayanagara rulers. The
Emperor was the supreme head of the administrative machinery. He enjoyed enormous powers. The
king was associated with splendoui and was regarded as a symbol of prestige. The king was entrusted
with the duty of serving the people and protecting their interests. A king was supposed to be a person of
noble character. The eldest son was entitled to succeed to the throne after the deathof the ruling
monarch. He was appointed as the Yuvaraja (heir apparent) during the lifetime of a monarch. Even when
the princes were very young they were appointed as Yuvarajas. The Vijayanagara rulers led exemplary
lives, renowned for their virtues. By their loyal service to the State, they enjoyed popularity among the
masses. Those who usurped the throne were disliked by the people as traitors. The Vijayanagara rulers
also assumed various titles indicating the extent of their empire and the growth ofa rich culture.
The King was assisted by a council of ministers. It consisted of officers like the Mahapradhani,
Dandanayaka and Mahasamantadhikari. The Pradhani was the most important officer. The Council was
presided over by a Sabhanayaka. Generally it was presided over by the Pradhani. Various political
matters of importance were discussed. The king ruled with the assistance and advice of the Council of
ministers. A number of other officers were appointed to run the administration of the empire in a
smooth fashion. The Secretaries were known as "Rayas" and the Chief Secretaries were known as
Rayasa Swamis. The Heads of various departments were called as Sampratis. The King performed the
duty of granting justice to the people. Various courts were established in different parts of the empire.
The Pradhani acted as the chief justice. Harsh punishments were awarded to crirninals. Brahmanas were
not punished with death sentence. The Vijayanagararulers maintained a well-organized army. Their
\lImy consisted of Infantry,

136

Cavary, elephant forces and forts. The military department was known as Kandachara. The officers of
this department were known as Mahaprachanda Dandanayaka, Senapati, Dalpramukha, Dalavai etc. The
soldiers were paid in cash. Krishnadevaraya took personal interest in visiting the wounded soldiers and
providing proper medical facilities.
The main source of income of the State was the land revenue. 1/6th of the gross produce was the share
of the State. Property taxes and commercial taxes were two other types of income to the State. Taxes
were levied on goods imported from and exported to foreign countries. Officers were appointed to
collect taxes. Tributes were received from conquered territories. The feudatbries also paid annual
tributes and the revenue of the State increased on account of the war booty also. The prosperity and
splendour of the Vijayanagara empire has been described in the works of the foreign travellerswho
visited the empire.
The most important feature of the Vijayanagara administrative system was the Nayankara system. The
empire was divided into 'Rajyas' or 'Mandalas'. There were two types of provinces. Some provinces were
directly administered by the Emperor through his representatives. There is a great difference of opinion
among the historians regarding the origin and nature of the Nayankara system of administration of the
Vijayanagara empire. Some scholars are of the opinion that the heads of the pro'vinces were military
commanders called' Amaranayaka' or 'Pale gar' . Some others are of the opinion that' Amaranayaka' was
the epithet of the landlords. The" Amaranayakas" were officials to whom the Vijayanagara ruler
assigned land tracts for which they had to maintain an army under their own expense. Such a land
granted to tl1e Amaranayakas was called as Amaram and those who secured them were known as
Amaranayakas. After meeting the expenses of the army the remaining revenue was sent to the ruler of
Vijayanagara. They were also responsible for the maintenance of la.w and order in the province or
territory under their control and they punished those who broke the law. They maintained two contact
officers in the royal court. The Amaranayakas who were irresponsible and who were caught shirking
their responsibilities were liable to lose their tract of land

137

and were also liabie for punishment. Gradually the office of the Amaranayaka became hereditary. Some
provinces were ruled by feudatories called the 'Nayakas' or 'Samantas'. The Governors appointed by the
emperors enjoyed enormous powers. They maintained their own armies and courts. They were
empowered to maintain law and order. They issued coins and they enjoyed freedom to a very large
extent in administrative matters. Due to the autonomy enjoyed by the Governors, the Vijayanagara
empire lost its political stability because of lack of unity. According to the Nayankara system, the king
was the owner of the territory occupied by his empire. He distributed major parts of his land to the
Nayakas. They enjoyed freedom in all administrative matters. However, they had to accept the
sovereignty of the Emperor by performing two functions'. Firstly, they had to pay a fixed amount of
annual tribute to the Vijayanagara rulers which was about half of their revenue. Secondly, during war

times, they had to send fixed number of soldiers and horses to assist the king in crisis. The Nayakas or
Samantas accepted a position subordinate to the emperor.
The Rajyas or Mandalas were divided into Vishayas or Ventes, Nadus or Simes and Kjimpanas or Sthalas.
Village was the lowest unit of the administrative structure. The head of the village administration was
the Gowda. He was assisted by the Karanika in maintaining village accounts. The Talavara performed the
duty of maintinaing peace and stability in the villages. The village headman collected the taxes. The
popular assemblies were usually consulted by the king on all important matters. Thus, the villages also
enjoyed a great degree of freedom in administrative matters. The Nayankara system had both merits
and demerits. Due to the autonomy granted to the feudatories they developed the sense of self-reliance
and selfrespect. They rendered valuable service to the State in case of foreign invasions. However, this
system also led to the growth of petty quarrels and wars among these feudatories. This added to the
internal intrigues and political instablility.
SOCIETY
The society during the Vijayanagara period consisted of four castes known as the Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra. The Brahmanas who were well read were respected in society and they

138
held a high position. They were engaged in different professions. They were traders, merchants and
priests. They owned huge landed property. They enjoyed special privileges. They exercised a lot of
political influence. They were politicians, generals and administrators. As ministers, the Barhmanas
guided the king in administrative matters. They were appointed as Rajgurus. They accompanied the king
during wars also. Men of prowess who had taken up the profssion of arms were known as Kshatriyas.
The artisans and traders contributed to economic progress. There were clashes among certain castes.
Some castes were trying to seek certain privileges like the upper castes. There are references to some
ordinances which were issued to diffuse the growing tensions among the different caste in the
inscriptions. Some of the social reformers condemned social evils like caste restrictions and
untouchability. Slavery also existed during the Vijayanagara period.
Women enjoyed high status in society and were accorded a place of respect. Many women were higly
learned and were distinguished scholars. They contributed significantly to literature of the Vijayangara
period. Women belonging to the royal family. wrote a number of literary works. Gangadevi, the wife ot
Kampana wrote the work, Madhuravijayam. Tirumalamba wrote the Varadambikaparinaya. Merry
making on festivals was accompanied by dance and music. Dancers enjoyed the speciarprivilege of
eating betel in the presence of the king. Prostitution was legalized. Child marriages were common.
Although monogamy was the usual practice, kin'gs had a number of wives. Sati system also prevailed.
Widows committed Sati, two or three months after the death of the husband. Women had the right to
divorce or remarry. Men were also fired with the spirit of self-sacrifice and they never hesitated to lay
down their lives for the king.

RELIGIOUS LIFE
The Vijayanagara empire was established by those who were basically the followers of Hinduism. They
were patrons of Vedic studies. They encouraged many saints and scholars to write commentaries on the
Vedas. They assumed the titles like 'Vedamarga Sthapanacharya" and 'Vaidikamarga Prathistacharya'.
However, the Vijayanagara rulers followed a policy of religious

139

tolerance. They protected Hinduism from the onslaught of the Muslims. Srivaishpavism flourished under
the patronage of Saluvas and Tuluvas. Vedanta Desike wrote about 108 works. The Dwaitha philosophy
was peached by the disciple of Madhwacharya. The greatest Dwaitha saint of the Vijayanagara period
was Vyasaraya, who lived during the time of Krishnadevaraya. Some Saints like Kanakadasa and
Purandaradasa who also belonged to the Dwaitha school of thought composed many Kirtanas or
devotional songs. During the rule of Devaraya II, Virashaivism also flourished. A number of literary works
were composed in Kannada. The Advaitha philosophers exercised lot of influence on the Vijayanagara
rulers. The Sringeri Gurus, Vidyaranya and Vidyashankara were the inspirers for the establishment of the
Vijayanagara' empire, Vidyaranya and Sayan a wrote a number of commentaries on the Hindu scriptures
and the Vedas. The Vijayanagararulers also encouraged the growth of Jainism. Many Jain temples were
built in Kanchi, Hampi, Karkala and Mudabidri. The Vijayanagara monarchs were Dharmic monarchs;
They respected Islam also as a religion. Devaraya II ordered that a Koran should be placed before his
throne so that the Muslims may pay respect while visiting and paying homage.
ECONOMIC LIFE
Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Rice, Wheat, Arecanuts, Ginger, Fruits and flowers
were produced in plenty. Land survey was conducted. Land taxes were imposed according to the
different types of soil. The Vijayanagara rulers took keen interest in providing irrigational facilities.
Krishnadevaraya constructed a tank near Nagalapura .. He also had a dam constructed at Korrangal. The
standard of living of the people was high and the people enjoyed a prosperous life. The Vijayanagara
empire was. densely populated.
The foreign travellers who visited the Vijayanagara empire have left behind accounts of the prosperity of
the cities of the Vijayanagara period. There is a vivid description of the market place, the traders,
artisans and dealers in precious stones in the records of Domingo Paes. There were many industries and
crafts. Diamonds and Gold were extracted. Precious and semi-precious stopes were sold and

140
used in abundance. Different types of fake diamonds, Rubies, Topazes and white Saffires were sold in
the markets. Blacksmiths, Goldsmiths, Carpenters, Perfume-makers an idol-makers flourished in the
Vijayanagara empire. Trade and commerce was in full swing during the Vijayanagara period. Trade was
carried on with foreign countries like Abyssinia, Arabia, Persia,. Ceylon, China and Europe. The main
exports were cotton, spices, sugar, rice, jewellery and precious stones. Horses, elephants, silk, copper,
pearls, corals and velvet were imported. Trade within the empire was carried on by Muslim merchants,
Malabarees and Settis. The Malabarees supplied coconut products and spices. Malabar was a great
commercial centre. Calicutwas the most famous port. The Standard coin of the Vijayanagara period was
the Varaha. Different types of Gold coins like Gadyana and Pagoda were also in circulation. The
Vijayanagara period was an era of intense economic prosperity. It constitutes an important epoch in the
economic history of South India.
LITERATURE
.
'The Vijayanagara" rulers were great patrons of scholars and
poets. A number of famous literary works were wri tten"in different regional languages. Thus, there was
significant growth in Sanskrit, Kannada. Telugu and Tamil literatures. Harihara, Bukkaraya, Devaraya II
and Krishnadevaraya extended liberal patronage to scholars and poets. Various literary luminaries
adorned their courts.

SANSKRIT LITERATURE
A number of literary works were written in Sanskrit language.
Vidyaranya, Vidyashankara, Sayana and his son, Madhava and Madhvamantri contributed to the growth
ofSanskrirliterature. The most noteworthy work of the Vijayanagara period was the "Vedartha Prakasha"
written by Sayana. It is a commentary on the Vedas. Some other works of Sayana were Yajnatantra
Sudhanidhi, Purush'artha Sudhanidhi and Prayaschitta Sudhanidhi. Vidyaranya was also m eminent
scholar. Some of his major works were Rajakalanirnaya, Shankara Vijaya and Parasara. Madhaviya. The
Rajakalanirnaya gives us an account of the foundation of the Vijayanagara empire. Ishwara Oikshita
wrote two commentaries on the Ramayana. A family of

141

hereditary poets called Dindimas wrote several Sanskrit works. Among the reputed Dindimas,
Arunagirinatha, Rajanatha and Sonadrinatha who lived during the rule of Devaraya Ii tili the time of
Krishnadevaraya wrote historical works. Saluvabhyitdayam written by Rajanatha II describes the
achievements of Saluva Narasimha. Dindima Rajanatha III wrote Achyutaramabhyudayam describing
the' . achievements of his patron, Achyutaraya.
Some of the women of the royal family were also eminent schoiarsand they wrote several works in
Sanskrit. The most outstanding literary work was the Madhuravijayam written by Gangadevi, the queen
of Kumara Kampana. This work narrates the defeat of Sultan of Madhura by Bukkaraya and Kumara
Kampana. It gives us a vivid description of the city of Vijayanagara. It throws considerable light on the
socio-economic conditions prevailing in Vijayanagara. One of the noteworthy women scholars of the
time was Tirumalamba. She adorned the court of Achyutarayaand wrote the work called 'Varadambika
Parinaya'. She had been considered as one of the queens of Achyutaraya. The work written by her gives
us information about the war between Narasanayaka and the Chola ruler Immadi Devaraya was not
only a great patron of scholars, but he himself was a man of letters. The Mahanataka Sudhanidhi has
been attributed to him. However, some scholars are of the opinion that it must have been the work of
Mallikarjuna. Krishnadevaraya was proficient in Sanskrit language. He wrote the ]ambavati Parinaya, a
drama on fine arts; Madalasa charitha, Sakalakatha Sangraha, Rasamanjari, Jnana Chitamani and
Satyavadhu Santavana.
:
KANNADA LITERATURE
Scholars following Jainism, Shaivism and Hinduism contributed significantly to Kannada literature. The
greatest Jaina writer of the Vijayanagara period was Ratnakara Varni. His work Bharatesha Vaibhava is
noted for its literary excellence. During the 17th century, Bhqttakalanakadeva wrote a work on
Grammar called Karnataka Sabdanushasana. This work is useful in providing information about the
history of language since ancient times.
Many Brahminical poets also enriched Kannada literature.

142

During the rule of Devaraya II, Kumara Vyasa wrote the fampus work, "Gadugina Bharatha", a Ka:nnada
version of the epic, "Mahabharatha". He was known as Gadugina Naranappa. He was
inspired by Lord Viranarayana of Gadag. The luxuriant imagination
of the poet has been well
depicted through the free-flowing verses and excellent similes. Kumara Vyasa left the work incomplete.
It was completed by Timmannakavi under the directions of Krishnadevaraya.

Narahari wrote the work, Torave Ramayana and Lakshmisha was the author of Jaimini Bharatha. In
addition to these works, the, Dasa Sahitya flourished due to the contributions of Purandaradasa and
Kanakadasa. Mohana Tarangini, Nalacharitha and Haribhakthisara were the works of Kanakadasa.
Nityatmasukhayogi translated. the Bhagavatha. During the Vijayanagaraperiod, Virashaiva scholars and
poets also wrote many works. The most remarkable work composed during this time was the
Prabhulinga Lile written by Chamarasa. Virupaksha Panditha wrote ChannaBasavaPurana at Hampi.
Tontada Siddheshwara wrote many Kavyas. Maggaya Mayadeva and Jakkanna were renowned scholars
who wrote many Sa takas and also poems on Virashaiva philosophy.
TELUGU LITERATURE

The Vijayanagara kings extended liberal patronage to Telugu scholars and poets. Telugu literature has
thrown considerable light on the high standard of literary activity during that age. It also reveals
historical facts and the socio-economic conditions of that period. Devaraya II and Krishnadevataya were
the two rulers who encouraged Telugu literature immensely.
Srinatha who was patronized by Devaraya II was an eminent scholar and orator. The Telugupoet,
Srinatha defeated the poet laureate, Dindima in a sensational debate. Srinatha was honoured by
Devaraya II who gave him costly presents and also land free of taxes. The reign of Krishnadevaraya: was
the gloribus age in which Telugu literature received royal patronage of the highest order.
Krishnadevarya himself evinced keen interest in Telugu literature. He had been attributed with the work,
'Amukta Malyada'. It gives us an idea about the polity of the Vijayanagara kingdom. The court of
Krishnadevaraya was adorned by the Ashtadiggajasor the eight

143

Telugu poets of great repute. They were: 1. Allasani Peddanna, 2. Nandi Timmanna, 3.Ayalaraju
Rambhadrakavi, 4. Dhurjathi, 5. Mallanna, 6. Pingali Surana,7. Ramaraja Bhushana and 8. Tenali
Ramakrishna. Allasani Peddanna wrote Manucharitamu and Timmanna wrote the Parijatupaharanamu.
Rambhadrakavi wrote Radhamadhava and Dhurjati wrote Kalahasti S.ataka. Pingali Sur ana wrote the
work called Kalapurnodaya. Ramaraja Bhushana is known for the work, Vasucharitamu. Tenali
Ramakrishna Kavi wrote Udbhatacharya Charitam and Panduranga Mahatmyam. Allasani Peddanna was
specially honoured by Krishnadevaraya for his proficiency in Sanskrit and Telugu languages.
TAMIL LITERATURE
The Vijayanagara rulers also patronized Tamil poets. Kumara Saraswathi wrote a poem describing the
marriage of .Krishnadevaraya with the Gajaparhi Princess. Krishnadevaraya patronised Tamil scholars
like Mandalapurusha, Jnana Prakasha, TatVa Prakasha and Harihara. Thus, the Vijayanagara period

witnessed intense literary activity. A number of works were written in regional languages or Desha
bhashas like Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of literature in
South India.
LITERARY WORKS OF VIJA YANAGARA PERIOD
1.
Sayana: Vedartha Prab.sha, Yagnatantra Sudhanidhi, Purushartha Sudhanidhi and Prayashchitta
Sudhanidhi.
2.

Vidyaranaya: Rajakalanirnaya, Shankaravijaya and Parashara

Madhaviya.
3.

Ishwara Dikshit: Commentaries on the Ramayana.

4.

Madhva Mantri: Tatparyadipika.

5.

Rajanatha II: Saluvabhyudayam.

6.

Rajanatha III: Achyutaramabhyudayam.

7.

Gangadevi: Madhuravijayam.

8.

Tirumalamba: Varadambika Parinaya.

9.

Immadi Devaraya: Mahanataka Sudhanidhi and a Vritti on the Brahmasutras of Badarayana.

10.

Krishnadevaraya: Amukta Malyada, Jambavati Parinaya,

144

Madalasachadta, Sakalakatha Sangraha, Rasamanjari, Jnana Chintamani and Satyavadhu Santayana.

11.Ratnakara Varni: Bharatesha Vaibhava.
12. Kumara Vyasa: Gadugina Bharatha.
13. Narahari: Torave Ramayana.
14. Lakshmisha: Jaimini Bharatha.
15. Kanakadasa: Mohana Tarangini, Nalacharitha and
Haribhaktisara.
16 .Chamarasa:- Prabhulinga Lile.

17.Virupaksha Pandi-ta: Chennabasavapurana.

18.Allasani Peddanna: Manucharitamu.
19. Nandi Timmanna: Parijatapaharanamu.
20.Ramabhadrakavi: Radhamadhava.
21. Dhurjati: Kalahasti Sataka.
22. Pingali Surana: Kalapurnodaya.
23. Ramaraja Bhushana: Vasucharitamu.
24. Tenali Ramakrishna: Udbatacharya Chari tam and Panduranga
Mahatmyam.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Vijayanagara rulers evinced keen interest in art and architecture. The Monuments of the
Vijayanagara period are aweinspiring. The architecture of this period is manifested in full colour and
glory at Hampi. Now, the place is in ruins. These remains recall the glory of the ancient forgotten empire
of Vijayanagara. They speak volumes about the artisitic taste and architectural skill of those days. The
Vijayanagara rulers preserved the traditional style of architecture. Percy Brown has called the
Vijayanagara art as"the supremely passionate flowering of the Dravidian art".
The main features of Vijayanagara temples were as follows:
1.

The temples are surrounded by a strong enclosure and have high gateways.

2.
The gateway is crowned by a lofty gopura known as Rayagopuras. The gateways are built by
Granite stones and the Gopuras are made of brick, wood or stucco.

145

3.- The Gopuras, as they rise to great heights are decorated with . statues of Gods and human beings on
its tiers.

4.

Every temple has a Kalyana Mantapa and a number of other small Mantapas.

5.

The main temple consists of an additional Garbhagriha for the female deity.

6.
The most remarkable feature of the Vijayanagara temples is the intricate carving on the pillars.
A nUl1ber of pillars were carved in unique style. The pillars rose to a certain height and over the round
shaft of the pillar, miniature pillars were carVed called compund pillars.

The Vijayanagara rulers were great builders. Some of the magnificent temples of the Vijayanagara
period are the Vithalaswami temple, Hazara Rama Tmple, Bhuvaneshwari shrine, Virupaksha
Kodandarama shrine etc at Hampi or Vijayanagara. Some temples of this period have been found at
Chidarri.baram, Sringeri, Kanchi, Kuruvatti, Tadapathri arid Lepakshi. The beauty and charm of the ruins
depict the aesthetic taste and the architectural skill of the Vijayanagara rulers.

The Vittalaswamy temple is the most magnificent temple. The construction of this temple was started
during the rule of Devaraya Stone chariat, Hampi

146

II. It was beautified during the rule of Krishnadevarya, Achyutaraya and Sadashivaraya. The temple is
dedicated to Vishnu. It is built in a courtyard measuring about 500 feet by 310 feet. Three rows of pillars
surround the courtyard. The Courtyard consists of three
entrances from East, South and North with high Gopuram. It is a low structure of about 25 feet in
height. The temple consists of the Ardhamantapa, Mahamantapa and the Garbhagriha. Facing the
entrance of the Mahamandapa is a stone structure shaped like a Ratha. It is carved out like a temple car
in an exquisite style. It consists of huge stone wheels.
The Bhuvaneshwari shrine in the Virupaksha temple is built in Chalukyan style. The Vidyashankara
temple at Sringeri is built in Hoysala style in memory of Vidyashankara, the teacher of Vidyaranya. This
temple was built based on the Sri Chakra plan. The Mantapa consists of twelve pillars. They signify the
twelve houses of the zodiac. The rays of the Sun falls exactly on the indicated pillar at the dawn of the
first day of every Solar month.

Krishnadevaraya undertook the construction of the Hazara . Rama temple to ommemorate his victories
in the East. It is a small artistic temple. It consisted of the family deity of the royal family. It was built
mainly fQr the royal family to worship God in privacy. It is surrounded by a 24 feet high wall. The temple
consists of a Garbhagriha, Kalyana Mandapa and other small structures. The walls of the temples are
decorated by carving scenes from the Ramayana. The Virupaksha temple and Ganapati temple are also
the noteworthy temples of the Vijayanagara period.
Apart from the temples belonging to the Vijayanagara period, various buildings have been excavated in
Hampi. The ruins contain huge structures which have been destroyed, and only portions of them remain
to bring back to us the glory of the once prosperous city. Krishnadevaraya built the Audience hall and
the throne platform to commemorate his yictory over Orissa. The Audience Hall contains hundred
pillars. Ten pillars are in ten rows. The throne platform is square in plan. This was used for private
audiences. The upper part of the platform is decorated by.beautiful moulding in stone. The lower part
contains bands of figures and animals. Some of the other ruins of Hampi are the Kamal Mahal, Queen's
bath, the

147

Fort Watch-tower, elephant and horse stables, Rajatulabharam (Royal Balance) and the Tankashala
(Royal Mint). An enormous statue of Ugra Narasimha carved out of a single boulder of granite, a stone
Shivalinga, Ganesha and Narasimha images have been found at Hampi.
PAINTINGS
The art of painting flourished under the patronage of the Vijayanagara rulers. Lepakshi, called as the
Ajanta of the Shaivas contains many paintings belonging to this period. The entire roof is covered by
Paintings of the scenes from the epics, Ramayana and the Mahabharatha and the Puranas. The most
remarkable paintings at Lepakshi are the Girija Kalyana, Dakshinamurthy and Rama's coronation. The
ceilings have been decorated with different forms of Shiva. Shivd has been depicted as 'Gowriprasadaka'
or Shiva appeasing Gowri in an excellent manner. These paintings depict to us the artistic taste of the
people. The blending of colour and imagination has led to the manifestation of beauty at its best in the
paintings.

Some temples belonging to the Vijayanagara period are outside Karnataka. During the rule of
Achyutaraya (1530-42 A.D.), the Lepakshi Veereshwara temple and the Tadapatri Shiv a temple were
constructed. These two temples are famous for the beautiful sculptures and paintings of the
.Vijayanagara period. TheTadapatri Shiva temple consists of a Gopuram famous for its decoration by a
variety of sculptures. The skill of the sculptor who carved it is higly appreciable. At Lepakshi a huge

Nandi measuring 28' 16" has been found. Many artistic sculptures have been found in the Veereshwara
or

148

Papanatheswara temple. In this temple we have the images of Nataraja, Ardhanarishwara, Gangadhara,
Veerabhadra, Mahishasuramardini, Mohini, Vishnu, Ashtadikpalas, Saptarishis and other images. These
sculptures have al;o been found in the half-constructed Kalyana Mantapa and the sculptures on the
pillars of the completed Rangamantapa.
ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN VISITORS ABOUT THEJ SPLENDOUR OF VIJAYANAGARA
The Vijayanagara empire had achieved political stability. The period witnessed economic prosperity. The
contributions of the Vijayanagara rulers to literature, art and architecture were highly commendable.
The splendour and glory of the Vijayanagara empire has been described by the foreign visitors. They
have left behind accounts by which we have secured enough information about the socio-economic and
cultural life of the people of the Vijayanagara times. The foreign visitors have expressd wonder about
the magnificence of Vijayanagara. Traders from Persia, Arabia and Portugal visited the Vijayanagara
empire. Their valuable accourits have helped scholars to reconstruct the political, social and economic
conditions prevailiilg in Vijayanagara.
Nicolo Conti, an Italian traveller visited Vijayanagara in 1420 A.D. during the time of Devaraya 1. He has
given a vivid description of the city of Vijayanagara. His accounts also reveal to us the social conditions
prevailing in Vijayanagara. It is evident that polygamy and Sati system prevailed during that time. Nicolo
Conti does not mention the name of the king but only describes him. He has described the three
festivals, UgadiJ Deepavali and Mahanavami.
He also throws light on the Gold mines in Golkonda. His observations have provided valuable
information about the king. Abdur Razaak was a Persian ambassador who visited the court of Devaraya II
in 1443 A.D. An ambassador from Vijayanagara was sent to welcome him at Calicut. He wrote a work
called 'The History of Persia'. This work throws light on the administration and social life of the
Vijayanagara period. He has narrated about the attempts to assassinate the Emperor. He observed that
there were nearly 300 ports like Calicut. The seven walled city contained fertile land and was well
populated. The city contained fine gardens, bazaars, houses

149

etc. He also describes the King's palace, King's throne and the splendour of the city on festive days. He
describes the absolute power of the king. Razaak notes that nearly 12,000 policemen maintained peace
in the city. There were nearly 1000 elephants. Craft guilds and merchant guilds also existed during that
time. Abdur Razaak also describes the grand dress of the king. He has also given an account of the
Mahanavaini festival. He visited. the royal court and saw the King's throne. He also watched some girls
in fine dresses dancing behind the curtain opposite to the king. The throne he saw was made of Gold
and precious stones. He also refers to a conspiracy to murder Devaraya II.
Niketin was a Russian traveller. He visited Vijayanagaraduring the last days of the Sangama dynasty.
According to Niketin, wars took place between Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani kings. The
Vijayanagara army consisted of one lakh foot soldiers and nearly 50,000 horses. The Hindu Sultan was a
powerful prince. The city of Vijayanagara was surrounded by three forts. It was situated in a strategic
position with a river on one side, a jungle on another side and by a dale on one more side.
Durate Barbosa, a Portuguese visited Vijayanagara in the beginning of the rule of Krishnadevaraya.
According to him, 'the kingdom of Narasinga or Vijayanagara was very rich, with large city, towns and
markets. He describes the port of Bhatkal. The main exports of Vijayanagara were Iron, spices and drugs.
The main imports were horses and pearls. He gives us information about the king and his administration.
The king was served by women. When the king died, about five hundred women burnt themselves with
him. The Yijayanagara kings were always engaged in constant wars with the kings of the Deccan region.
The king consulted the Governors and his officers in council about administrative matters.
Domingo Paes was a Portuguese traveller who visited Vijayanagara in 1520 A.D. He visited the kingdom
when the empire was at the height of its glory and splendour. He gives a detailed description of the city
and a temple he saw at Dharwad. We have a description of the Vijayanagara city with its beautiful
buildings and palaces. The Brahmanas held a position of respect and enjoyed the favour of the king. He
tells us that the King of Vijayanagara was

150

respected and feared by the people. Domingo Paes refers to the wars between the Vijayanagara Raya
and the Gajapati of Orissa. The king had 12 queens, of whom three of them were prominent. One of
them was the daughter of the Gajapathi of Orissa. Domingo Paes also tells us that foreign visitors were
received with honour by the Vijayanagara ruler. The king mentioned by Domingo Paes was
Krishnadevaraya. Paes was surprised to see the splendour of the Vijayanagara city. According to him, the
city was beautiful and prosperous with the king's palace, the temples, the stone car, the beautiful
streets with rows of fine houses and bazaars. Pearls, rubies, diamonds, emeralds and other precious
stones were sold in the bazaar. He says that the Vijayanagara city was "as large as Rome and very
beautiful to the sight. Domingo Paes also refers to the beautiful temple of Vittalaswami and the royal
Hampi temple. He has also given a detailed account of the feasts, rituals and ceremonies. The accounts

of Domingo Paes are highly valuable as it throws light on the administration of the Vijayanagara rulers,
and the prosperity of the Vijayanagara empire. According to Domingo Paes, Krishnadevaraya's army
included 103,000 infantry, 32,600 cavalry and 551 elephants, besides an unaccounted host of camp
followers. Chariots had gone out of use. The efficiency of the huge army was not proportionate to the
number of the force.
Fernao Nuniz visited Vijayanagara in 1535-36 A.D., when Achyutaraya was ruling the kingdom. The
chronicles of Nuniz consisted of 23 chapters. The first four chapters contain information about the
Sangama dynasty. Fourteen chapters give us information about the life and the rule of Krishandevaraya.
The work throws light on the social life of the people. Nuniz has given lot of information about
Krishnadevaraya, from his accession to the throne till his death; He also gives information about the
contemporary social life of the Vijayanagara society. The work of Fernao Nuniz gives us a description of
the economic prosperity of the Vijayanagara empire.
The accounts of Abdur Razaak, Niketin, Durate Barbosa, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz have provided
valuable . information about the political, eonomic and social life of the people at the time when the
Vijayanagara empie was at the height of its glory-aI).d splendour.
2.7 THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
During the time when the Vijayanagara rulers were ruling over major parts of Karantaka, the Northern
region of the Deccan came under the control of a Muslim dynasty. At first, the Muslim kingdom was
established at Gulbarga and it came to be known as the Bahmani kingdom. Gradually the Bahmanis
extended their control over Bijapur also. Later on, the Adil Shahi dynasty was established there.
The Bahmanis and the Adil Shahis played a significant role in the history and culture of Karantaka. There
are numerous literary works written in Arabic, Persian and Urdu languages which throw light on the
history and culture of the Bahmani kingdom. Isami who wrote Futuh-us-Salatin throws light on the
establishment of the Bahmani kingdom at Gulbarga. Mahmud Gawan was also a great scholar whose
works like Manir-ul-Insha and Riyaz-ul-Insha provide us with some information. Shaikh Adhari wrote a
historical work called Bahman-Nama-i-Dakhini. Apart from the various literary works of the age, coins,
monuments and a few inscriptions have thrown considerable light on the rule of the Bahmani Sultans.
ORIGIN
The Delhi Sultanate was established in North India by about 1206 A.D. when Qutub-ud-din Aibak started
his rule. After the Slave dynasty, the Khalji and Tughlaq dynasties ruled over DeIhL During the rule of Alud-din Khalji, the first Muslim forces invaded the Deccan..region. However, parts of the Deccan region
became a part of the Delhi Sultanate due to the campaigns of Mohammad-bin Tughlaq. During the first
five years of his rule, the whole of Deccan as far as Mad urai was occupied. However, Mohammad-binTughlaq was unable to maintain his control over the region to the South of the Krishna- Tungabhadra
river. Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq appointed Qutlugh Khan as the viceroy of the Deccan. He was popular
among the masses, but he was recalled by the Delhi Sultan. Thus, a revolt was organized by the Amir-iSadahs of Gujarat. The

152

Sultan proceeded Southwards and suppressed it. In 1346 A.D., one of the nobles, Ismail Mukh, an
Afghan at Devagiri (Daulatabad) revolted against Sultan Mohammad-binTughlaq. He declared his
independence. Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq moved from Gujarat and attacked the forces of Ismail Mukh,
who was unable to face the Delhi forces. He lost Daulatabad to the enemy. But at that time, one of the
trusted generals of Ismail Mukh known as Zafar Khan led the Muslim army in the Deccan and reoccupied
the throne. In 1347 A.D., he was crowned as the Sultan. He assumed the title, Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman
Shah.
THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF
THE BAHMANIS
ALA-UD-DIN HASAN BAHMAN SHAH(1347-1358 A.D.)
The Southern Amirs, under the leadership of Ismail Mukh were unable to face the Delhi forces. So he left
the leadership of the revolt to Zafar Khan or Hasan Gangu. He founded the Bahmani kingdom with
Gulbarga as his capital. There are different theories about the background of Hasan Gangu. Wedo not
have definite information -about his early life. According to Ferishta, Hasan was a native of Delhi andwas
in the service of a Brahmin astrologer. He discovered a pot full of Gold coins in the field which he carried
to his master. The was impressed by his honesty. He informed about it to the Sultan who appointed
Hasan Gangu as the commander of one hundred horses. The Brahmin prophesied that one day Hasan
Gangu would become a great man. Hasan promised him that if he ever became the king, he would
assume the title 'Gangu'. After Hasan became the Sultan, he appointed the Brahmin astrologer as his
minister. But theopini6n of Ferishta that the Bahmani kingdom emerged on account of a Brahmin has
been regarded as baseless. The recent researches conducted have led to the growth of a new theory
that Hasan was the descendant of Bahman Shah of Persia.
Ala-lid-din Bahman Shah was the founder of the Bahmani kingdom. He was an excellent administrator.
He sent his commanders to subdue the chiefs of Qandhar, Madhuri, Maram, Akkalkot and Kalyani as
they were a menace and threat to the peace and security of the kingdom. Kapayanayaka, the ruler of
Warangal

153

had to sign a peace treaty with the Sultan. A rebellion was also suppressed at Sagar. Ala-ud-din Bahman
Shah also subdued Jamkhandi. When Ismail Mukh, the former. Sultan tried to revolt, he was captured
and imprisoned. Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah was an ambitious person. When he ascended the throne he
had to face many difficulties. There were several Hindu chiefs who allied themselves with the opponents
of Hasan Bahman Shah. He declared Gulbarga as his capital and renamed it as Ahasanabad. Later on he
shifted it to Daulatabad and renamed it as Fathabad (City of victory). He died in 1358 A.D. He was an
efficient administrator. He organized the administration based on the pattern in which the
administrative system of Mohammad-bin-Tughl-aq had been formulated. He divided his kingdom into
four Tarafs consisting of Ahasanabad, Daulatabad, Bidar and Berar. He established the Bahmani kingdom
on a firm foundation.
MOHAMMAD SHAH I (1358-1375 A.D.)
Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah was succeeded by his eldest son, Mohammad Shah I. His sovereignty
was recognized by the Caliph of Egypt. He was engaged in constant wars against the Vijayanagara rulers.
The religious differences between the Hindus and Muslims led to the rivalry between the Bahmanis and
the Vijayanagara rulers. They also contested to occupy the KrishnaTungabhadra region. Kapaya Nayaka
of Warangal extended support to the Rayas of Vijayanagara. " The Bahmanis defeated Kapaya Nayaka
also forced Vinayaka Nayaka to pay tribute to them. The Bahinani army occupied Golkonda. The Nayaka
also presented the Turquoise throne to the victor. Bukkaraya, the Raya of Vijayanagara was also
defeated by the Sultan. He built the J ami Masjid at Gulbarga in 1367 A.D. He was a pious ruler and
strictly banned drinking. He patronised many scholars. He was one of the greatest rulers of the
Bahmani dynasty.

SUCCESSORS OF MOHAMMAD 1
Ala-ud-din Mujahid was the son and successor of Mohammad I. He was an expert in warfare. He earned
the title 'Balwant'. He engaged himself in a fight against the Rayas of Vijayanagara and had to face
defeat. Ala-ud-din Mujahid was murdered by Oaud, his cousin. Daud Shah also did not rule for a long
time in peace. He

154

was also murdered. He was succeeded by Mohammad II. He ruled for nearly nineteen years. He was a
peace loving prince. He encouraged the study of science and literature. He also established many
educational institutions at Gulbarga, Khandar,Ellichpur, Daulatabad and other places. Many scholars
from various parts of Asia visited his royal court due to his generosity. Hafiz, the famous Persian poet
was unable to visit the Sultan's court but he composed a song in praise of Mohammad II. The Sultan was
pleased and rewarded him. Mohammad II was an authority on kingship. His main aim was to care for the

welfare of the people: When a severe famine broke out in Gujarat and Malwa, he made arrangements
for the supply of foodgrains to the famine- affected areas. He died in 1397. His reign was followed by
the rule of Ghiyas-ud-din Tahmatan and later on by Shams-ud-din Daud II. Towards the end o( 1397 A.D.
itself, their rule ended due to the internal intrigues. Later on, the grandson of Hasan Bahman Shah, Firoz
ascended the throne.
TAJ-UD-DIN FlRUZ SHAH (1397-1422 A.D.)
Firuz Shah was one of the greatest rulers of the Bahmani dynasty. He indulged in too much drinking and
was a lover of music. He had to face the attack of Harihara II who tried to occupy Raifhur. However
Harihara II was killed treacherously and the war came to an end. The Vijayanagara army under Prince
Bukka also tried to occupy Raichur. Bukka was also killed by treachery by Qazi Siraj when Bukka was in a
drunken state. In 1406 A.D., Devaraya ascended the throne of Vijayanagara. He was attracted by Parthal,
the beautiful daughter of a Goldsmith who lived at Mudgal. Thus, he attacked Mudgal which was under
the control of the Banmani Sultan. Devaraya I was defeated by Firoz Shah. Devaraya had to pay a heavy
war indemnity. He sued for peace by giving his daughter in marriage to the Sultan. He gave Bankapura as
dowry. The age of Firuz Shah witnessed intense literary activity. Firuz Shah was a person who had keen
interest in art and architecture. He built a mosque at Gulbarga. It is the only mosque in India that is
completely covered by a roof. Firoz Shah established an Observatory at Oaulatabad under the guidance
of Hasan Gilani, a great Astronomer. He beautified his capital and also built a new city called Firozabad.

AHMED SHAH I (1422-1436 A.D.)

155

Ahmed Shah, brother of Firuz Shah ascended the throne. He transferred his capital from Gulba:rga to
Bidar. He waged wars against Telingana, Malwa, Gujarat and Warangal. His expedition to Gujarat led to
heavy loss of treasury, and it was not profitable. The Thakt Mahal and the Sultan's tomb were the
outstanding monuments constructed during the rule of Ahmed Shah I. Ahmed Shah was a highly
religious and spiritual person. He was known as Ahmed Shah 'Wali' or saint by the people of Deccan.
During his rule, Bidar became the center of literary activity. He patronized many scholars wh.o came
from Iran and Arabia. Ahmed Shah himself was a great scholar.
.

AHMED SHAH II (1437-1458 A.D.)

Ahmed Shah I was succeeded by his son, Ahmed Shah II. He encouraged the Afaqis or foreign Muslims
who were Turks, Arabs, Mongols and Persians by birth. On account of it, he incurred the displeasure

ofthe Dakhinisor the local Muslims. Two rival groups, constantly fighting against each other were
created. Ahmed Shah II sent his brother, Mohammad to wage a war against the Vijayanagara Raya. But
Mohammad himself revolted against Ahmed Shah II and occupied Naladurg, Mudgal and Raichur. The
Sultan led the army personally and defeated Mohammad but he pardoned him. The Sultan led another
expedition against Devaraya II by 1444 A.D. After crossing the Raichur doab, Devaraya II occupied
Mudgal. The Sultan Ahmed IIwon a glorious victory against the Vijayanagara ruler and forced him to pay
tribute to the Bahmani Sultanate. Ahmed II defeated the ruler of Sangameshwara and married his
beautiful daughter and called her 'Zeba Chehra'. He neglected his senior queen, Agha Zainab and had to
face the attack of her father, who ruled over Khandesh. Nasir Khan of Khandesh attacked Berar and
captured it but his army was defeated by Ahmed Shah II successfully. Ahmed Shah II was a benevolent
ruler. He built many mosques, . schools and hospitals. He passed away by 1458 A.D.
SUCCESSORS OF AHMED SHAH II
Ahmed Shah II was succeeded by his son, Ala-ud-din Humayun
(1458-61 AD.). He ruled only for three years. He has been described

156

as a tyrant. He was murdered by one of his servants. After Humayun Shah, Nizam Shah (1461-63 AD.)
ascended the throne when he was just an eight year old boy. His mother carried on the administration
on his behalf. She was assisted by Khwaja Jehan and Mahmud Gawan. After the death of the young
prince in 1463 AD., his brother Shamsuddin Mohammad III (1463-1482 AD.) ascended the throne.
Mahmud Gawan was appointed as the Prime Minister. Mahmud Gawan played a significant role in
Bahmani politics as the Sultan was just ten years old. His contributions to the political integrity and
culture of the Bahmani kingdom is noteworthy.
MAHMUD GAWAN (1411-1481 A.D.)
Mahmud Gawan was one of the most attractive persons in the history of medieval Karnataka. He was
born in 1411 AD. in Persia. By 1453 AD., he came to meet Mahibulla Kirmani, a religious man in Bidar. He
came with the intention of carrying on trade. He visited the court of Ala-ud-din Ahmed Shah II. The
Sultan was impressed by his intelligence and sincerity. He offered Gawan an administrative post. Soon
he proved to be trust worthy and a sincere worker. He served the Bahmani state during the rule of
Humayun also. When Nizam Shah ascended the throne, he was only seven years old. The Queen-mother
entrusted the administration of the kingdom to Mahmud Gawan and relied on his advice and guidance
in taking all major decisions. Nizam Shah was succeeded by Mohammad III who was just ten years old. In
1463, by the dint of his hard work and merit, Mahmud Gawan rose to the position of the Wazir or the
Prime Minister. He earned the title 'Khwaja-e-Jahan'.

Mahmud Gawan was an Afaqi Muslim. When he came to power, it aroused the jealousy among the
Dhakini Muslims. During his period, the rivalry between the Afaqis and Dhakinis began to increase.
Mohmud Gawan at first paid attention to the establishment of unity and integrity of the kingdom. He
repulsed the attack of the enemies threatening the peace of the kingdom. In 1466 AD., Mohammad
Khalji of Malwa tried to enter the Deccan region. The Bahmanisdefeated him and he signed a peace
treaty which lasted till the .end of the Bahmani rule. The Bahmimis under the leadership of Mahmud
Gawan also interfered in the politics of Orissa. After the death of Kapileshwara, Mangal'Rai and Hamvira
claimed the

157

throne. Hamvira appealed to the Sultan, Mohammad Shah to help him. By the help of the Bahmani
forces, Hamvira ascende_d the throne of Orissa, arid assumed the title, "Purushottama". Mahmud
Gawan subdued many chieftains in the western coastal region between 147073 AD. and established
peace and security in the kingdom. The entire coastal region till Goa was occupied. By 1474 AD., the
Bahmani forces also had to face the revolt of Purushottama of Orissa. The ruler of Orissa was forced to
retreat. Kondapalli as well as Kondavidu were destroyed. Rajamundhry also became a part of the
Bahmani kingdom.
In 1481 AD., Mahmud Gawan led a campaign against Kanchi.
He sacked the city and gained enormous amount of treasure. The power and glory of the Bahmani
Sultans reached its zenith under the able guidance of Mahmud Gawan. Th Vijayanagara ruler, Saluva
Narasimha also had to accept defeat under the hands of Mahmud Gawan. Thus, the Bahmani kingdom
extended from Goa in the West to Orissa in the East and from Khandesh in the North to the
Tungabhadra in the South.
Mahmud Gawan was one of the most efficient administrators.
He divided the kingdom into eight units and classified them into four Tarafs or provinces. He tried to
prevent the outbreak of revolts. He had to face the serious problem of the cdnflict between the Afaqis
(Shias) and the Dhakinis (Sunnis). He tried his level best to diffuse the tension between the warring
factions. He also reorganized the revenu collection in the State. He was a renowned as a great patron of
learning. He was the founder of a Madrasa at Bidar. It was established in 1472 AD. It consisted of four
blocks of three-storeyed buildings. It consisted of a library, lecture halls, a mosque and accommodation
for professors and students. A library consisting of 3000 manuscripts was donated by Mahmtid Gawan
and he was also an eminent scholar. His most famous works were Manazir-ul-Insha and'Riyaz-ul-Insha.
The works of Mahmud Gqwan contain the letters written by him to various other people on different
topics. Thus, the age of Mahmud Gawan was on age 9f intense literary activity.

Mahmud Gawan was free from all vices. He was hated by the .
Dakhinis for his ability and character. They planned a conspiracy to put an end to his growing popularity.
They produced a forged

158

letter to the Sultan and convinced him that Mahmud Gawan had invited the ruler of Orissa to invade the
Bahmani kingdom. The Sultan was infuriated and ordered the execution of Mahmud Gawan, who had
been one of the most loyal ministers. He was not-even given an opportunity to convince the Sultan
about his innocence. This marked the beginning of the decline of the glory and prestige of the Bahmani
Sultans. Mahmud Gawan had been a loyal minister who was being punished for no fault of his. The
minister told the Sultan that the death of an old man like was of little consequence but to the Sultan it
would prove to be the ruin of an empire and of his own glory. Mahmud Gawan who was 73 years old
was killed due to the death sentence in 1481 A.D. Internal intrigues led to anarchy and instability in the
kingdom. The Sultan realized that he had been cheated. Later on, the Sultan repented for his hasty
action. He did not live long and he died in 1482 A.D. The death of Mahmud Gawan was a great loss to
the Bahmani kingdom. He had served with sincerity and his aim was to promote the welfare of the
people. He had guarded the integrity of the empire with zeal and vigour. His conquests and literary
achievements also contributed to the growth of a rich culture in the Bahmani kingdom. With the death
of Mahmud Gawan, the security of the Bahmani kingdom also vanished .
DECLINE OF THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
After the death of Mohammad III, only weak and incompetent
persons ascended the Bahmani throne. In 1482, Mahmud Shah (14821518 AD.) ascended the throne. He
was a pleasure-loving prince. He left the administration in the hands of Qasim Barid. During his period,
the Bahmani kingdom began to disintegrate. Malik Ahmed Nizam-ul-mulk founded the Nizam Shahi
dynasty at Ahmednagar and Yusuf-Adil Shah established the Adil Shahi dynasty at Bijapur. At Golkonda,
Kutub-ul-Mulk established a new dynasty. Mahmud Shah was succeeded by his three brothers, Ala-uddin III, Valiullah and Kalimullah. They ruled till about 1525 A.D. The rise of Krishnadevaraya as the ruler
of Vijayanagar a kingdom also created many problems to the Bahmani Sultans. Many frontier areas of
the Bahmanikingdom were occupied by the Vijayanagara armies. The decline of the power and prestige
of the Bahmani Sultans was marked

159

by the growth of five independent Muslims kingdoms. They were 1. The Adil Shahis of Bijapur, 2. The
Barid Shahis ofBidar, 3. The Qutub Shahis of Golkonda, 4. The Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar, 5. The Imad
Shahis of Berar.
THE CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE BAHMANIS
ADMINISTRATION
The Bahmani Sultans had evolved a well organized administrative system. The Sultan enjoyed enormous
powers. He was regarded as 'Zilli Allah' or the 'Shadow of God'. He was the Commandr-in-chief of the
army. He was the highest court of appeal and his main duty was dispensation of justice. Although, the
king enjoyed absolute power, the Council of ministers was consulted on all important political matters.
The ministers were appointed by the Sultan himself. He could dismiss 'them according to his will.
The Council of ministers consisted of
1.

Vakil-us-Sultanate (The Prime Minister).

2.

Amir-I-Jumla (The Finance Minister).

3.

Vazir-I-Ashraf (The foreign Minister).

4.

Sadar-I-Jahan (The Chief Justice).

5.

Kotwal (The chief Police officer). 6. Nazir (The chief Accountant).

The Bahmani kingdom was at first divided into four provinces or Tarafs. They were Gulbarga,
Daulatabad, Bidar and Berar. The provinces were under the control of Tarafdars. They were entitled to
collect revenue and they maintained their own armies. They enjoyed enormous powers in administering
the provinces. They provided immense assistance to the Sultan in administrative matters. During the
rule of Mahmud Gawan, the four Tarafs were reorganized and further classified into eight Tarafs
(Provinces). A centralized administrative system was formed. The feudal system was destroyed gradually
in order to maintain peace and security in the kingdom. The Tarafs were further divided into Sarkars
(Districts) and Paraganas (Tilluks). The Paraganas consisted of a number of villages. Each Tarafdar had to
maintain an army and assist the Sultan during war times. The central army consisted of 50,000 infantry
and 25,000

160

cavalry. The salaries of the army officers were fixed by the Central Government. 1/6th of the gross
produce was fixed as the State revenue. Land was measured and classified according to the fertility of
the soil. Irrigational facilities were also provided by the Central Government. Taxes were levied on
imports like Silk, gold, Silver, and Jewellery. The Bahrnani Sultans issued different types of coins:

Mohammad Shah I, Firuz Shah, Ahmed Shah Iland some other famous rulers issued Gold coins. The Gold
coins were equal in weight to the Dinars. Silver coins were issued by all the rulers of the Bahrnani
dynasty. The coins bear the titles of the Sultans like "The Father of Victory" and "The Father of Wars".
Three mints were established at Ahasanabad, Mohammadabad and Fathabad. The administrative
system of the Bahmanis was based on the Muslim pattern of administration.
SOCIETY AND RELIGION

The life of the people in the Deccan region and the description of the splendour and pomp of the
Bahmani Sultans have been described in the works of Isami and Niketin, the Russian traveller. The staple
food of the people in the Deccan region was Rice. People also consumed Wheat, Jowar and Pulses. The
feasts of the Bahmani Sultans indicate that a variety of dishes were prepared. The Muslims consumed
meat and liquor. Their dinner during feasts consisted of chicken roast, lamb roast, cooked vegetables,
delicious sweet meats and juicy almond puddings. At the end of the dinner, Betel Nuts and Betel leaves
were offered to the guests. The people belonging to different castes did not live together. The food and
habits of Brahmanas were extremely different from the Muslims and the rest of the Hindus. Although
the Hindus consumed meat, fish and eggs, they did not eat beef. However, the Brahrnanas did not eat
meat and restrained themselves from drinking wine. Their food was simple and they ate only two meals
per day. They consumed Ghee, milk and certain herbs and vegetables. The culture of the Hindus and the
Muslims was very different from each other. The Hindus as well as Muslims lived in joint families.
Polygamy was a cornman practice. The dress of the Hindus and Muslims was completely different.
Hindus studied the ancient scriptures like Vedas, Upanishads and philosophy. The Muslims studied
Arabic literature,

161

Grammar, logic and law. While the Hindus celebrated festivals like Holl, Dussehra and Diwali, the
Muslims celebrated Id, Muharram and Bakrid. Thus, two communities with of different customs,
traditions and habits co-existed in the Deccan region.
The rule of the Bahamani Sultans witnessed the growth of the two sects among the Muslims in the
Deccan. They were the Dhakinis and the Afaqis. They were constantly waging wars against each other.
The majority of the people residing in the Deccan region were Hindus. A certain number of Jews,
Christians, Lingayats and Jains also inhabited this region. During the rule of the Bahmani Sultans, the
Muslim cultlire inluencedthe life of the Hindlts to a large extent. The local people of this region were
forced to adjust to an alien culture. Sufism also played a predominant role in Muslim religion. There was
vast differences between Hindu religion and Muslim religion. The establishment of the Bahmani
kingdom also marked the beginning of Sufism in the Deccan region. The mystics belonging to the Chisti,

the Qadri and the ShaUari orders began to migrate to the Deccan. The Chisti Sufis interfered in political
affairs of the Bahmanis. Bande Nawaz Gesudaraz, a famous Chisti saint of Gulbarga played a
predominant role in Bahmani politics. He was responsible for the growth of the popularity of the
Sultan's brother, Ahmed. Thus, Firuz was succeeded by his brother instead of his own son. With the
death of Gesudaraz in 1422, the Chisti traditions in Gulbarga also came to an end. Gradually, the
Bahmanis at Bidar patronised the Sufis of the Qadri order and the Sufis of the Shattari order received
patronage under the Sultans of Bijapur.
LITERATURE
The Bahmanis were patrons of learning and literature. Outing the rule of Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah, Mir
Mohammad Bakshi and Sadrush Sharif were the astronomers and mathematicians. The court physicians
of his time were Hakim Alimuddin and Hakim 'Nasirud-din. Sultan Mohammad Shah II was also well
versed iidslamic sciences. He himself was a scholar of great repute. He built a Madrasah for the
education of orphans in 1378 A.D. Several schools and colleges were' started. Mohammad Shah II
delivered lectures on logic, Mathematics and Goemetry. Mahmud Gawan, the Prime minister of
Mohammad Shah III contributed greatly to the field of

162

literature. He' himself was a great scholar. He wrote the Manzir-ullnsha and the Riyaz-ul-Insha. He
encouraged scholars who came from Arabia. He established a Madrasah at Bidar. He also donated
nearly 3000 books to the college library. With the establishment of the Bahmani rule, the Deccan
became a seat of cultural activity and Persian began to develop under royal patronage. Hasan Bahman
Shah started an annual festival to give audience to poets and scholars. Some nfthe Persian writers were
Isami, Mulla Haravi, Hakim Tabriz, Hakim Shirazi, Ain-ud-din Bijapuri and Sharif Samarkhandi. Isami
wrote the Futuh-us-Salatin, similar to the Shah Nama, describing the achievements of the early Muslim
cpnquerors of India ending with the establishment of the Bahmani kingdom. Khwaja Gesu Daraz, the
Sufi Mystic wrote a number of books on religion. His most famous work was Anisul-Ushshaq. Ahmed I
patronised Shaikh Nasirud-din and Shaikh Adhari. The history of the Bahmani rulers was composed in
verse by Sheikh Adhari known as Bahman-Nama-iDhakini. Thus, the Bahmanis have contributed
significantly to the growth of literature.
LITERARY WORKS OF THE BAHMANI PERIOD
1.

Mahmud Gawan-

Riyaz-ul-Insha and Manir-ul- Insha.

2.

Isami- Futuh-us-Salatin.

3.Khwaja Gesu Daraz- Anisul-Ushshaq.

4. Shaikh Adhari-

Bahman Nama-I-Dhakini.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Bahmani Sultans were great patrons of art and architecture.
The architectural remains of the Bahmani period have been found at Gulbarga, Bidar and other places.
Many magnificent mosques, Mausoleums, palaces and cities were built. The architectural style evolved
during the Bahmani period consisted of the fusion of Hindu and Islamic styles. The influence of Persian
style is also a predominant feature of Bahmani style of architecture. Mostly religious structures were
built rather than secular buildings.
The Bahmani architecture is clearly evident in the various tombs and mosques at Gulbarga. The tombs of
Hasan Bahman Shah, the founder of the dynasty, Mohammad Shah I and Mohammad Shah II are
renowned for their simple decoration and massive structure. The

163

Jami Masjid was built by Mohammad Shah I at Gulbarga in 1367. It

is about 216 feet in length and 176 feet in breadth. The prayer chamber has a huge dome which is 40
feet in diameter. The building has four small domes in each corner. It consists of a central courtyard
covered by 63 sm.all domes. One of the most remarkable monuments at Gulbarga is the Bande Nawaz
tomb. The decoration of the building bears the influence of Hindu style of art. Another itnp0rtant
monument at Gulbarga is the Shah Bazaar Mosque. The prayer hall is about 150 feet in length and 60
feet in breadth. The Haft Gumbad complex consists of a group of tombs 6f Mujahi,d, Daud I and Firuz.
The tomb of Firuz is a massive double hall structure. It is about 158 feet In length and 78 feet in breadth
rising to a height of about 728 feet. It consists of two storeys. This building depicts to us the
advancement in tomb architecture .
The architecture of the Bahmanis has been manifested in the various palaces, fortresses, mosques,
tombs and Madrasahs' built at Bidar. The fortresses and the palaces are in ruins but they depict the
Perisn influence in Bahmani architecture. The palaces contain various halls and rooms like Rangin Mahal,
ThaktMahal, Diwan-i-Am and Zenana Mahal. The Thakt Mahal contains a facade decorated with the
figure of a tiger and a rising sun. It was built by Ahmed Shah 1. The walls ofthe Rangin Mahal is
decorated in. different colours. Of the mosques belonging to the Bahmani period, Solha Kumbha
mosque is famous. It consists of a large prayerhall measuring about 294 feet by 80 feet. The Bahmanis
excelled in the construction of tombs. At Bidar, 12 tombs have been found. The biggest tomb is that of
Ahmed Shah Wali renowned tor its Persian paintings and colour combinations; The most imposing
structure of the Bcihmani period is the Madrasah built by Mahmud Gawan in Bidar. The college is about
242 feet in length and 222 feet in breadth. It is about 56 feet in height. It consists of four blocks of three

storied buildings. It constains lecture halls, a library, a mosque and ample accommodation for both
professors and students. There are majestic minarets at the corners of the main facade. Thus, the
Bahmani Sultans contributed greatly to the field of architecture by their uniqe style and massive
structures.

2.8 THE ADIL SHAHIS OF BIJAPUR

. After the decline of the Bahmani kingdom, the AdilShahi rule began in Bijapur. The disintegration of the
Bahmani kingdom led to the growth of five Muslim kingdoms known as the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the
Barid Shahis at Bidr, the Qutub Shahis at Golkonda, the Nizam Shahis at Ahmednagar and the mad
Shahis at Berar. The Adil Shahi dynasty also produced a number of illustrious rulers like Yusuf Adil Shah,
Ismail Adil Shah, Ali Adil Shah I and Ibrahim Adil Shah II. They evolved an indigenous culture and
contributed richly to the fields of architecture and literature. The Adil Shahis ruled from Bijapurand
occupied major parts of Kama taka after tl;te collapsecifthe Vijayanagara empire.

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THEADIL SHAHIS

YUSUF ADIL KHAN (1490-1510)

Yusuf Adil Khan was the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty. He was a slave during his childhood. He was
a Turk by birth. He served the Bahmani kingdom as the commander of the army. At first, he was serving
in the royal kitchen of the Bahmanis" He became the attendant of Sultan Mohammad III. Gradually he
rose to the position of a Mansabdar. Due to his loyalty, he earned the title Adil Khan. When the
authority of the Bahmani Sultans began to decline, he declared his independence in 1472. He had the
Kutbah read in his name. Thus, he became the virtual ruler of Bijapur. Yusuf Adil Khan assumed the title
of Shah: by 149 A.D. He was an efficient administrator and he followed the policy of religious tolerance,
Yusuf Adil Khan had to face many problems when he came to power. The Vijayanagara ruler occupied
the Raichur doabregion. At the same time, Bahadur Gilani of Jamkhandi also attacked the Adil Shahi
kingdom. Yusuf Adil Khan concluded peace with both the powers, Later on, he seized the right
opportunity and reoccupied the Raichur doab and captured Jamkhandialso. Gradually, Yusuf Adil Khan

165

occupied Dastur Dinar, Kalyana, Gulbarga and Goa. Thus, by 1500, Yusuf Adil Khan had completed the
task of consolidating his empire.

. During the rule of Yusuf Adil Khan, the Portuguese came from India and settled down in the Western
coastal region. They began to hinder Muslim trade and commerce. Yusuf Adil and the rulers of Gujarat,
Ahmednagar and Calicut joined hands together and completely destroyed the Portuguese fleet in the
first battle of Chaul. But the Portuguese defeated the combined armies in the second battle. Yusuf Adil
Khan lost Goa to the Portuguese. -Although he ruled independently from Bijapur, he remained loyal to
the Bahmani Sultan. He passed away in 1510.
ISMAIL ADIL SHAH
Yusuf Adil Shah was succeeded by his sori, Ismail Adil Shah in 1510 A.D. He was very youg when he
ascended the throne. Kamal Khan acted as the regent. Kamal Khan aspired to become the ruler himself.
He imprisoned the Sultan, his mother and aunt, Dilshad. Agha. However Kamal Khan wcl$mwdered,bya
conspiracy hatched by Dilshad Agha. Kamal Khan had been Sunni by faith. Due to his death a civil war
broke out in the kingdom on account of the conflict between the Dakhiriis and the Afaqis. Ismail Adil
Shah suppressed the rebellion. The Vijayanagara ruler, Krishnadevaraya occupied Raichur doab in 1512.
Ismail tried to recaptUre tl1e doab but was defeated by the Vijayanagara forces in 1520. ThePortuguese occupied major parts of Goa. Ismail, however turned his attention towards Amir Barid,
defeated him and captured Bidar. By 1530, Ismail reoccupied the Raichur Doab by defeating the
Vijayanagara forces. Ismail fought constantly with the Barid Shahis and the Qutub Shahis. He died in
1534 A.D.
IBRAHIM ADIL SHAH I
Ismails's eldest son, MaUu Khan ascended the throne. He was a pleasure loving prince unfit to rule the
kingdom. He was deposed in 1536 and Ibrahim was crowned as,the Sultan. Tirumala and Ramaraya were
contesting for power in Vijayanagara. Tirumala requested Ibrahim Adil Shah I to attack the kingdom.
Accordingly, the. Sultan sent an army against Vijayanagara. But Ramaraya contacted the Sultan and paid
him eighty lakh Huns and concluded

166

peace with him. The relations between the Adil Shahis and the Vijayanagara rulers began to deteriorate.
Ibrahim tried to capture Adoni but it was in vain. The Nizarri. of Ahmednagar, the Qutub . Shah of
GolkondaandRamarayaofVijayanagara joined hands
against Bijapur in 1543. Ibrahim had to cede Sholapur to the Nizam
and he bought peace. With Ramaraya also he had to conclude peace and Ibrahim defeated the Golkonda
army. Ibrahim was busy dealing

. with the Portuguese when the Nizam formed another confederacy against Bijapur. The combined
armies attacked Bijapur and captured Kalyana, Raichur doab and Sholapur. Ibrahim Adil Shah had to face
many problems during his rule. He died in 1558 A.D.
All ADIL SHAH I

Ibrahim's son, Ali Adil Shah ascended the throne of Bijapur.

He developed friendly relations with Ramaraya of Vija ana gar a and a treaty was concluded in 1559. The
Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar was forced to surrender Kalyana to Adil Shah and he also submitted himself
before Rainaraya. The Nizam Shah tried to avenge the insult and sought the help of the ruler of
Golkonda. Once again, Ali Adi] Shah I, with the help of Ramaraya defeated Nizam Shah of Ahrnednagar.
Ramaraya actually benefited due to the war between the Adil Shahis and the Nizam Shahis. He
demanded territories for both the parties. There by Ramaraya secured Yadgir, Bagalkot, Kovilkonda. and
Panagal. Ali Adil Shah realized the tact and diplomacy of Ramaraya. Moreover, the Vijayanagara armies
committed untold atrocities in Ahmednagar. Mosques were polluted, women were dishonoured, Koran
was disrespected and Islamic faith was put into disgrace. AU Adil Shah and the other Muslim rulers came
togeteher for the first time in the naine of religion against Vijayanagara. The historic battle of RakkasaTangadi or the Talikota battle as fought in 1565. The Muslim armies won glorious victories. They moved
towards the capital two or three days after the battle. Ali Adil Shah secured the fort of Adavani from
Vijayanagata in 1568. Ali Adil Shah also fought against the Portuguese. He received only some
commercial concessions but was unable to aquire any territories. He turned his attention towards the
other areas and in the new capital of Vijayanagara in 1576 but he failed to do so. He was murdered and
succeeded by Ibrahim II

IBRAHIM ADIL SHAH II (1580-1625)

167

Ibrahim Adil Shah II was the greatest ruler among the Adil Shahi Sultans. He ascended the throne when
he was only nine years of age. At first, his aunt Chand Bibi acted as a regent. Between 1580 and 1589,
KamilKhan, Kishwar khan, Ikhlas Khan, Shah Abdul Hasan and Dilawar Khan served as regents one after
the other. By 1589, Ibrahim Adil Shah II assumed the reins of the Government and started his direct rule.
The Nizam Shah of Ahmednag'ar tried to trouble .Ibrahim in many ways. Ibrahim was free from the fear

of the Nizam only after his death in 1595. Ibrahim had engaged in wars againstAhmednagar for nearly
two years. Ibrahim Adil Shah subjugated the Nayakas in the Kannada region.
Akbar, the Mughal Emperor had occupied the whole of North India and sent his troops to occupy the
Deccan region. Ibrahim Adil Shah and other Deccan rulers joined hands together and defeated the
Mughal forces in the battle of Sonapet. However, Akbar passed away in 1604 and the Sultan was
relieved of the tension and anxiety. Ibrahim Adil Shah II wiped out the kingdom of Bidar in 1619. After
capturing Bidar, Ibrahim occupied Adoni and Kurnool. He tried to curb the growing power and activities
of Malik Amber of Ahmednagar. But Malik Amber defeated Ibrahim Adil Shah and entered Bijapur
triumphantly. Ibrahim Adil Shah died in 1627 .
. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was a great poet and musician. He was well-versed in Snaskrit. He wrote the 'Kitabi-Nauras'. He earned the title 'Jagat Guru'. He patronised many scholars and poets. The age in which he
ruled was the golden age in the history of Bijapur.
MOHAMMAD ADIL SHAH
Ibrahim II was suc.ceeded by his son, Mohammad Adil Shah.
In 1432, the Mughal army attacked Bijapur territory. Mohammad Adil Shah concluded a treaty and
secured peace. But Shahji, the Maratha chief was creating havoc in the area with the help of the Adil
Shahi minister. Hearing .gbout this, the Mughal Emperor, Shahjahan sent another army against Bijapur.
Once again a treaty was concluded. Later on, Mohammad Adil Shah started a large scale campaign. The
Bijapur Commander-in-chief, Randaula Khan captured Basavapatna, Ikkeri, Bankapura and Harihar. In
the second

168

expedition, Shahji Bhonsle led the Bijapur forces and occupied

Chikanayakanahalli, Belur and
Tumkur. In the. third expedition, in the Bijpur forces under Mustafa Khan captured Vellore and Jinji.
However, Mohammad Adil Shah lost many forts like Kondana, Torna and Purandar to Shivaji, the
Maratha chief. Mohammad Adil Shah died in 1656. During his rule, the glory of the Adil Shahi dynasty
reached its zenith .
DECLINE OF THE ADIL SHAHIS
ALI ADIL SHAH II

Mohammad was succeeded by his son, Ali Adil Shah I. He

. fought many wars against Shivaji, the Maratha chief. Moreover, he als'o had to face the onslaughts of
the Mughals. The Moghul forces under Aurangazeb marched into the Deccan and Bidar and Kalyana
were occupied. The Moghul army also laid siege on Bijapur. The Sultan had to pay heavy war indemnity.
Ali Adil Shah, with all these problems subdued Tanjore, Bidanur and Basavapatna. Ali Adil Shah Ii died in
1672.
SIKANDAR ADIL SHAH
Ali Adil Shah II was succeeded by Sikandar Adil Shah who was just five years old. He was the last ruler of
the dynsty. There were internal distrubances. At the same time, the Mughalsattacked Bijapur and
occupied it. Sikandar Adil Shah handed over his crown to the Mughal emperor and he died in 1700.
Thus, the glory and prestige of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur came to an end.
THE CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE ADIL SHAHIS ADMINISTRATION
The Adil Shahis of Bijapur formulated an administrative system similar to that which was followed by the
Bahmanis. The Sultan enjoyed immense powers. He was the supreme head of the State. His main duty
was to care for the welfare of the people. The Prime minister who was known cIs 'Vakil' assisted the
Sultan in administrative matters. He was the head of the army. He was in charge of the finance
department also. Two other ministers who
assisted the Sultan in administration were Sadar-Jahan, the minister of Justice and Shahib-Arz who was
the minister for military affairs.

169

There were several other officers who were in charge of various other departments. The Prime minister
or the Vakil was assisted by two secretaries 'Nazir' and 'Dabir' in supervising the finances and
conducting the administration. The Adil Shahis divided the kingdom into 12 Tarafs, namely Bijapur,
Belgaum, Bidar, Bankapur, Bangalore, Raichur, Madhurai, Miraj, Naldurg, Sholapur and Tanjore. The
Tarafs were headed by Tarafdarsor Governors. The Tarafs were divided into Paraganas. they consisted of
groups of villages.
SOCIETY AND RELIGION

The socio-religious conditions of the Bahmani period continued to prevail during the Adil Shahi period.
The Adil Shahis followed a policy of religious tolerance. Yusuf Adil Shah had married a Hindu girl and he
was sympathetic towards the Hindus, Ali Adil Shah I also delighted in having philosophical discussions
with Hindus and Muslims. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was such a benevolent ruler that the Hindus conferred on
him the title 'Jagat Guru' appreciating his noble ideas. Majority of the people living in Bijapur were
Hindus. The Adil Shahis constructed Hindu temples like the Narasimha temple at Bijapur and the
Siddeshwara temple at Athani. Liberal grants were made for these places of worship. Agriculture was
the main occupation of the people. Rice, Pepper,Cardamom; Cashewnuts, Coconuts, Jowar, Bajra,
Cotton, Sugarcane and Tobacco were cultivated. Cotton and Silk weaving and Diamond mining were
started. Bijapur was the capital and it was one of the richest cities, during that period. Some of the
important towns were Hubli, Belgaum and Athani. The major ports where trade and commerce was
carried on were Dabhol, Karwar and Raipur. The rulers were tolerant towards the Hindus. The Adil Shahi
period was one of religious harmony and economic prosperity.
LITERATURE
The Adil Shahi Sultans were learned men. They had keen interest in literature. They encouraged many
scholars and poets.
Scholars from Iran and Arabia adorned the Adil Shahi court. Ali Adil Shah I was a lover of books. He
maintained a huge library. Ibrahim Adil Shah II himself was an eminent scholar who wrote the 'Kitab-iNauras'. The Adil Shahis encouraged Persian Language and

170

neglected Arabic language. Many theologians and scholars were

patronized by the Adil Shahis. Syed Ahmed Harawi and Maulana Ghiyas-ud-din Kamal adorned the court
of Yusuf Adil Khan and Habibullah was the noted person in the court of Ibrahim Adil Shah. Bande Nawaz
wrote the 'Miraj-ul-Ashiqin'. Ghazals, Qasidas and Mathnavis were the common forms in Urdu
literature. Shah Miranji of Bijapur wrote two poems, Khush-Nama and Khush- Naqhz. Many other
scholars were also patronized by the Adil Shahis. Ferishta wrote Tarikh-I-Ferishta, a work on Muslim
History. Mulla Nusrati wrote the historical work called Ali Nama dedicated to his patron, Ali Adil Shah II.
He also wrote the work, 'Ibrahim Nama'. The o.ther great scholar of the age was poet Syed Miran Miyan
Khan. He popularized the Rekhti form of Urdu poetry. Dehlavi composed
'Ibrahim Nama' in Urdu.
LITERARY WORKS OF THE ADIL SHAHIS
1.

Ibrahim Adil Shah II- Kitab- I-Nauras.

2.

Bande Nawaz- Miraj-ul- Ashiqui.

3.

Miranji- Khush-Nama and Khush Naqhz.

4.

Ferishta- Tarikh-I- Ferishta.

5.

Mulla Nusrati- Ali Nama and Ibrahim Nama.

6.

Dehlavi- Ibrahim Nama in Urdu.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The contributions of the Bijapur Slltans to art and architecture is also appreciable. TheMuslim style of
architecture in the Deccan reached its zenith under the.Adil Shahis. They evolved a unique style of
architecture with distinct style. The artistic taste and architectural skill of the Muslims has been
maintained in full in dimensions in the monuments of Bijapur. The early monuments of Adil Shahi period
are simple and elegant. However in the later monuments, the grandeur of the Bahmani architecture has
been continued. A number of royal palaces were constructed by the Adil Shahis. Some of the
noteworthy palaces were the Gagan Mahflt Sangeet Mahat Mihtar Mahal and Asar Mahal. The Gagan
Mahal was built by Ali Adil Shah I. It has a huge arch of about 62 feet wide. The Sat Manzil was built by
Ibrahim Adil Shah II. It has ornamental windows and the richly decorated ceiling. The Asar Mahal was
built

171

by Mohammad Adil Shah. It was renowned for its paintings. The Mihtar MahaI is considered to be equal
to any other building in Cairo. It has won the adimiration of art critics like Percy Brown and Dr.
Fergusson.
A number of mosques have been constructed. The Jami Masjid is one of the most impressive buildings
with its dignity. It was built by Ali Adil Shah 1. It is the biggest mosque in South India covering an area of
100 square feet. The courtyard inside the mosque has a side of 155 feet and contains seven arches on
three sides with the central opening on the Western side. The simplicity of the structure, the huge dome
and graceful arches of the Jami Masjid depict the architectural skill and artistic taste of the Adil Shahis.
The two noteworthy monuments of the Adil Shahi period are the Mausoleums called 'Ibrahim Rauza'
and 'Gol Gumbaz'. The Ibrahim Rauza consists of twin buildings constructed on a raised platform. One of
the buildings is a mosque and the other is a tomb. The two buildings face each other with wide open
space between them. The entire area of the enclosure is about 450 square Jeet. It was built by Ibrahim
Adil Shah II and is about 115 sq. ft. in area. The interior parts of the tomb are profusely decorated. The
walls and pillars have been covered by floral and geometric designs. The Ibrahim Rauza is renowned for

its 'Hanging Roof'. It has been considered as a wonder by the Western architects also. Dr.Cousens has
called it as the 'Taj Mahal of the South'
The Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur is a world famous monument.
Mohammad Adil Shah built the Gol Gumbaz building covering an area of about 18,000 sq.ft. The building
is square in shape. It contains four octagonal towers in the four corners. The diameter of the dome is
about 144 feet. It is the largest dome in India. The Gol Gumbaz contains the world famous 'Whispering
G:illery'. People can hear the whispering of persons seated at a distance of 130 feet. This is a . wonder
which has not been found anywhere in the world. The massive proportion of the building, the simple
style in which it has been built with high degree of a'rchitecturcn-skiU and mathematical accuracy,
evoke the admiration of even the art critics .. It has been the pride of Bijapur. The buildings, palaces and
Mausoleums constructed during the time of the Adil Shahis depict to us the

172

manifestation of the Muslim style of architecture in full grandeur.

Painting was also patronised by the Adil Shahis. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was a musician, a poet and also a
painter. A large number of
portraits of Ibrahim Adil Shah II have been foUnd. One of his portraits has been found in the'Lalgarh
palace in Bikaner. There are paintings of landscapes, elephant fights and a seated Y ogini of Ibrahim's
time. There are all so paintings depicting hunting scenes and wrestling matches. The tWo illustrated
manuscripts of Mohammad Adil Shah's period 'Khawar Nama'

2.9 INDIA DURING THE DELHI SULTANATE ADMINISTRATION

NATURE OF GOVERNMENT
THE POSITION OF THE SULTAN
The majority of the scholars agree on the view that the Sultanate was theoretically a part of the
Caliphate. This view has been: supported by the repeated legeds on the coins issued by the Sultans of
Delhi. According to Prof Arnold, "Just as the prophet is the,viceregent of God and the caliph, the
viceregent of the Prophet, the monarch is the viceeregent of the Caliph." Thus no area where the. Caliph
was recognized should be legally independent. The Caliph, was the sovereign and no one could rule wi
thout his consent. According to Abul Fazl,''an ideal king is a wise, enlightened, just and God fearing man,
a lover of all people, cherisher of all sects and religions, shepherd of his subjects, iron-fortress and
celestial armour of the weak. Islamic law was of theocracy and cannot subscribe the view of Qureshi,

that it is theocentric because it ignores other aspects, viz., the fact that under the Sultanate of Delhi, the
civil was subject to Quranic law. the Muslims as an organized community have certain functions and
responsibilities which have been defined by the Shariat, the law of Islam. The Quran emphasized the
need of solidarity and unity among all Muslims. To prevent the misuse of power, it laid down that a
man's first obligation was to God and thus no believer of Islam should transgress the dictates of religion.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF DELHI.SULTANATE
Certain special features can be recognized in the administrative system evolved by the Delhi Sultans. The
form of Government aspired for appears to be that of a theocratic state. The Sultan of'

Delhi had to administer in accordance with the Islamic principles of sovereignty. The Sultan of India
regarded himself as the Deputy of the Caliph. It indicates the importance of the Caliphate in political
matters also. The Delhi Sultans evolved the theory of divine origin
of kingship. The state under the Delhi Sultans was to a considerable extent a military state and was of
a feudal character. The Ulemas also exercised considerabe influence in political matters. There was no
clear law of succession to the throne.
It is important to discuss the issue whether the Delhi Sultanate was a theocratic or a military state. It
appears thaT it was both a theocratic and military state. It consisted of both religious and military
elements. The Delhi Sultanate like all other Muslim states of the time was theocracy in nature. So its
political and administrative institutions were in theory derived from the Islamic law (Shariat) based upon
the precepts of Quran: Islamic Theocracy also means that the entire Islamic world was united under the
religious and political authority of the Caliph, the representative of the Prophet. Every Muslim state paid
allegianceto the Caliph. The Muslim Sultan was dependent on the Caliph. In the real Sense the Clliph
had to recognie the sovereignty of the Sultan for legitimate right of the king to rwe over a region as the
Deputy of the Caliph. Islam was the state religion and it was the prime duty of the Sultan to Promote the
spread of Islam. The theocratic law was supreme and the civil law was subordinate to it. The Ulemas
interpreted the Islamic laws and their a position or influence in society. The Sultan displayed immense
respect regarding the Shariat in matters relating to levying of taxes and religious propagation.
In India the Delhi Sultanate consisted of several elements of a military state. Usually it is said that in a
military state there is no place for religious tenets. But in the Delhi Sultanate military state derived
inspiration from religion. It is to be noted that several. foreigners like the Hunas, the Sakas and the
Kushan invaded India. However the Muslim invaders invaded India primarily with the intention of
spreading their religion. In fact Religion became a potent force for the Muslims in carrying on their
expeditions. They defeated the Indian rulers with their military skill and established their rule on the
basis of Islamic law.

175

Under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, the military commanders were appointed as governors or
'Iqtadars' ofthe 'Iqtas' of provinces or territorial units. A majorprotion of the state revenue was utilized
for maintaining a large well-equipped army. So military expenditure appears prominent as the state
suppressed internal revolts, maintained peace and defended the empire from foreign invaders on the
strength of its military force. The Sultan assumed the role of the Commander-in-Chief of the army. In
fact the pre-requisite qualification for the rulers was the display of prowess and ability. Apart from it the
Sultans promoted public welfare and undertook the construction of roads, canals, postal arrangement
and currency reforms etc. Many took interest in controlling the prices, The Sultans of Delhi also
patronized art, architecture, music and literature.
POSITION OF THE SULTAN
The Sultan differed from the Hindu sovereign. Firstly he did not come from the country he belonged to
but he came from Ghazni, Ghori, Kabul, Tehran etc. They were foreigners arid took time to adapt
themselves to the conditions in Hindustan. Secondly, Islamic law governed the political and social
outlook, whereas for the Hindus or non Muslims in India, the Dharmashastras governed them. The
Sultan came with a set of philosophers and missionaries and a set of systems to impose on the Hindus in
different territories .
The Sultan is the Khalifa of God. He rules by virtue of divine right. Hewas the Naib, agent of Imam, I.e.,
the Prophet. The Prophet was the agent of Allah. Ultimately God is the ruler of the Islamic world. Sultan
is the head of the State, commander of the forces, fountain of justice and the final authority in all
administrative matters. There is a variation from time to time in the state affairs under different kings.
Ala-ud-Din Khalji centralized all power in his hands and devoted all his time to the minutest details of
state affairs. Akbar set down a routine which he followed with such regularity that it became a tradition
in the dynasty.
The Muslim Jurists assign the following functions to the Sultan:
1.

To protect the faith as defined by Ijma.

2.

To settle disputes between his subjects.

3.

To defend the territories of Islam and to keep the highways and roads safe for travellers.

176

4. To maintain and to enforce the criminal code.

5.

To strengthen the frontiers of Muslim territory against possible aggression .

6.

To wage a holy war (Jehad) against those who act in hostility to

Islam ..
To collect rates and taxes.
To appoint officers to help him in his public and legal duties. To keep in touch with public affairs and the
condition of the people by personal contact.
The Sultan was the chief executive officer of the Muslim community within his dominions. He had a
responsibility towards his non-Muslims subjects as well which was carefully defined by the Muslim law.
The Sultan could not interfere with the personal law of any group among his subjects. The monarch had
to ensure the co-operation of a fairly large number of Ulemas, the learned theologians and lawyers. The
Sultan also relied on the active support of the nobles and public servants of various branches with
experience and technical knowledge .
The nobles and infuential theologians at the capital agreed upon a candidate and proclaimed him as the
Sultan. Then a formal oath of allegiance was sworn by them and later by the populace, This was often an
election only in name, because the candidate was decided on the basis of. victory in the battle. But it
had the advantage of being legal and conforming to the wished of the people. The right to dethrone a
monarch was the logical corollary of the elective monarchy. A person suffering from mental or physical
disability cannot continue to be sovereign. Islam was a state religion and all the Sultans took up the
spread of their religion. The upholder of Islam as a religion rested with the guardian of Millet (A general
body of Muslims where sovereignty has been vested).
ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY
The Delhi Sultans evolved an elaborate administrative machinery. A number of ministers were
appointed to assist the Sultan in .conducting the administration. There is an: Arab proverb that "The
bravest of men require arms anq the wisest of kings need ministers." And the sarp.e was true of the
Delhi Sultans.

177

WAZIR: The Chief Minister was known as Wazir. He was considered to be a partaker in sovereignty.
There were two types of Wazirs. Most of them possessed special and limited powers. A few of them
enjoyed unlimited authority and rule,d the empire in the name of the Sultan. He was the Head of the
Central finance office. He appointed and supervised civil servants. He organized the agency for revenue
collection. It was his duty to recover the money illegally spent by the local officers. It was his office
which maintained accounts, disbursed salaries and allotted assignments. The Wazir was to conduct
himself in such a way that he did not create too many enemies. Most of the Wazirs were men of culture
and refined taste.
NAIB-UL-'MULK: A noble was generally selected for this post.
Sometimes, it was merely an empty title but at other times, he was practically the absolute authority. He
was the head of the Military organization. He was the representative of the Sultan at.the capital and
dealt with all urgent and routine business.
ARIZ-I-MUMALIK: Ariz-i-Mumalik was the head of the ministry of war. He had to maintain the army in a
state of efficiency. He had to recruit officers and fix their salary. He inspected the troops once a year.
During war, all war preparations were in charge of Arizi-Mumalik. Although the General was appointed
by the Sultan, the choice of the troops was left to the Ariz-iMumalik. He accompanied the army and
looked after the supply and transport. After a victory, he supervised the collection of booty.
DIW AN-I-INSHA: The Diwan-i-Insha dealt with royal correspondence. ,Dabir-i-Khas presided over this
Department. He was the confidential clerk of the state. All correspondence between the sovereign and
rulers of other states, every order from the Sultan was first drafted in this department. Later on it was
taken to him for sanction after which it was copied, registered and then despatched.
DIWAN-I-RISALAT: There is a difference of opinion among scholars regqrding the functions of Diwan-iRisalat. According to Qureshi, it dealt with religious matters and was in charge of grant of stipends to
scholars and pious men. The view of Habibullah is

178

that he was a minister of foreign affairs and was in charge of diplomatic correspondence .
SADR-US-SUDUR: Sadr-us-Sudur was required to enforce Islamic rules and regulations. He was to see
that the Muslims observed those rules and regulations in their daily lives. This office was also called as
Diwan-i-Qaza. The head of this department was Qazi-i-Mamlikat or Qazi-i-Qazat.
BARID-I-MUMALIK: Baridi-Mumalik was the head of the state news agency. There was a local Barid at
the Head quarters of every administrative sub-division and it was the duty of the Barid to send regularly
news letters to the Central office. Only men of honesty were appointed to this post. If a Barid did not

report some act of gross injustice committed by a well-placed official, he had to pay with his life. He was
the confidential agent of the Central Government. He was to report on Government officials, financial
position, state of agriculture, coinage etc.
W AKIL-I-DAR: The Wakil-i-Dar was the chief dignitary of the royal household. He controlled the entire
royal household and supervised the payment of allowances and salaries to the permanent staff of the
Sultan. The royal kitchen, stables and even the children of the Sultan were under his control.
SAR-I-JANDAR: The Sar-i-Jandar was attached to the court.
He commanded the King's body gaurds called Jandars. He was a salaried officer and a high noble. His
primary duty was to guard the person of the king.
There were several other household dignitaries. The officials and non-officials together were called as
Arkan-i-Daulat. The nobles occupied the place next to the Sultan and played an important role in the
administration of the state. The nobles were mainly from ruling class and belonged to different tribes
and nationalities like the Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Egyptian and Indian Muslims. During the Sultanate
period, the number of Hindus nobles was extremely negligible. The nobles assisted the Sultan in the
expansion of the empire. They also assisted in suppression of rebellions of the NonMuslims. Sometimes
the nobles played an important role in the choice of the Sultan. In the absence of any iaw of succession,
they

179

sided with one or the other claimants of the throne. The nobles were ambitious. They were usually
divided into various factions and also formed several conspiracies. For instance Qutub-ud-Din Aibak
maintained a balance between the Turkish nobles whom he brought with him from outside India and
the non-Turkish nobles. He did not assign important posts to anyone faction alone. During the rule of
Iltutmish, the Corps of Forty Turkish nobles was formed. They were appointed on key posts in the
military and civil administration. They were appointed as officers in military and civil administration.
They began to influence the administration. However Iltutmish could command their unflinched loyalty
and he proved to be a successful ruler.
After the death of Iltutmish, the power of the famous Forty Turkish nobles began to increase. They
raised Rukn-ud-Din Firoz to the throne' instead of Razia. However within some time, Razia ascended the
throne. She tried to free herself from. the clutches of the Turkish nobles. She organized a group of nonTurkish and Indian Muslim nobles under the leadership of Yakut, an Abyssianian. The Turkish nobles
resented it and conspired against Razia and ultimately were successful in murdering Razia and Yakut.
The Turkish nobles acted as kingmakers till the rule of Balban,

Balban realized the need for curbing the influence of the Forty Turkish nobles in administrative matters.
He introduced stern measures against the Turkish nobles and elevated Non-Turkish, nobles' to
important adminstrative posts. He himself belonged to the famous band of forty Turkish nobles. He
wanted to rule in an . independent manner. He felt they were a source of danger to the stability of the
empire and a threat to the postion of the Sultan. He adopted all sorts of methods to eliminate them.
Even for the slightest mistakes he awarded death sentence to the Turkish nobles. He struck terror in
their hearts so that they did not dare to revolt against him. He confIscated the Jagirs of all those nobles
and introduced strict court etiquettes for the nobles.
Ala-ud-Din Khaljialso realized that the nobles were responsible for the disturbance of the peace and
order in the empire and he, took certa'in stern measures to curb their influence. He organized an
efficient espionage system in order to prevent the nobles from

180

conspiring against him. He also confiscated the Jagir of the nobles to prevent them from organizing
rebellions. After the death of Sikandar Lodi, the Afghan Amirs placed their selfish interests above " the
interest of the state. They were successful in dividing the territory between two brothers namely Jalal
Khan and Ibrahim. They also
indulged in subversive activities. Two major groups were formed and they endangered the very
existence of the Lodi dynasty. Two powerful nobles i.e., Daulat Khan Lodi and Azam Khan Lodi invited
Babur to invade the Lodi State. Thus the rivalry among the nobles led to the decline of the power and
prestige of the Lodi dynasty. It also marked the establishment of the supremacy of the Mughals in India.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
THE IQTA SYSTEM
Under the Delhi Sultanate the Iqta system of provincial administration was evolved. 'Iqta' is an Arabic
word denoting a sort of a regional administrative unit. It is usually considered as equivalent to a
province. Intially the Delhi Sultans divided their empire into several 'Iqtas' or provinces. The Iqtas were
placed in charge of officers called Iqtadars (Governors). The number of Iqtas was not fixed. There was no
uniformity in administration of the Iqtas. Usually the head of the Iqta' was called Iqtadar. Sometimes
offices designated as Naib (Sultan), Nazim (might) and Wali (saint) also headed the administration of the
Iqtas. Each Iqta was under the charge of an experienced general who was usually a member of the royal
family or a notable' Amir' (noble) and the confidant of the Sultan.
The Iqtadar was appointed by the Central Government and he was under the supervision of the Central
Government and he had to carry out the orders of the Sultan. He enjoyed complete freedom in the
administration of the provinces. He maintained a large army and he had to render military service to the

Sultan whenever asked for. He maintained law and order in his territory and protected the life and
property of the people. He appointed the soldiers in his army. He also enjoyed the right of collecting
revenue in his territory.

181

He also administered the expenditure on the maintenance of the army and other administrative
expenditure. He sent an annual report of hi income and expenditure to the Central Government.
Certain restrictions were also imposed on the authority of the Iqtadars. It is important to note that the
office of the Iqtadarwas not always hereditary in character. The position of the Iqtadar depended on the
will of the Sultan. The Sultan could take back the Iqta whenever he pleased. The Iqtadars were liable for
transfer from one place to another. They could not engage in wars of extension without the prior
approval of the Sultan. He also had to send a part of the booty to the royal exchequer. The elephants
and the members of the royal family captured during wars had to be sent to the Sultan. The Iqtadar did
not have the right to hold his own court. He could not use a canopy or royal emblem. He had no right to
mint coins in his name and he had no right to get the Khutba read in his name in the mosques. Only
when the Sultan was weak and incompetent the Iqtadars enjoyed greater powers.
There were two types of Iqtas during the rule of Ala-ud-din Khalji viz., (1) Iqtas which had been under
the DelhiSultans froin the very beginning (2) The territories brought under the control of Ala-ud-din
Khalji due to his campaigns. The Iqtadars of the second category enjoyed more powers so that the newly
acquired territories could be brought under more effective control of the Sultanate. Apart from the
Iqtadars there were several other officers of the Central Government. The successful functioning .of the
Iqta system depended on the power of the Sultan and on the ability of the Iqtadar. Gradually the Iqtas
were divided into smaller units called Shiqs, Paraganas and the villages. The head of a Shiq was called
Shiqdar. The important officials in the Paragana were the Amil or the Munsif ie., the treasurer and the
Qanungo. The village was the smallest unit of administration and it was administered by local hereditary
officers and the Panchayat of the viallge. The Panchayat solved the local disputes. It also looked after
education and sanitation of the village. The Chaudhuri, the Patwari, the , the Muqaddam and the
Chaudars were the hereditary officers of the village who helped in the collection of revenue. The Sultan
or the Governor or officials of the state normally did not interfere in the village administration.

182

FINANCE AND REVENUE SYSTEM

The Delhi Sultanate had two sources of revenue. They were religious and secular. The religious taxes
could be demanded only from the Muslims and were grouped under the name of Zakat. The Zakat when
assessed on value or weight was 1/40th of the property of the individual citizen.
The Secular taxes were Kharaj, Jizya, the tax imposed on nonMulsim traders and taxes imposed on the
spoils of war, mines and treasure troves. Kharaj was levied on land held by Non-Muslims. The Jizya was a
poll tax charged from non-Muslims. It was a religious tax levied on non-Muslims in return for. which they
received protection of life and property and exemption from military service as non-Muslims were not
entitled to live in a Muslim country. Jizya was not levied on women, children, monks, beggars and the
disabled persons. It was not even levied on Brahmanas. The Spoils of war was known as Ghanimah. Out
of all the booty colleCted 1/5th was to be kept for the state and the rest was to be distributed among
the soldiers. The share of the state was known as Khums.
The main source of income of the Sultan was land revenue.
There were four kinds of lands viz.,- (1) Khalsa land (2) Land divided into Iqtas (3) land held by Muftis for
a number of years or for lifetime (4) Princicpalities,of Hindu chiefs who had come to terms with the
Sultan and the land given away to Muslim scholars and saints as gift.
Khalsa land was directly administered by the Central Government. The State dealt with local revenue
officers and not with individual peasants. The revenue collectors were called as Amils and they collected
tax from Muqaddams and Chaudhuris who later realized it from the cultivators.
Ushr was the land tax which was collected from Muslim peasants. It was 10% of the produce of the land
watered by natural resources and 5% on the land which enjoyed irrigational facilities. A 5% tax was
levied on the sale and purchase of horses. So also during the rule of Ala-ud-Din Khalji house tax and
grazing taxes were levied. 1/51h of the produce of the mines was also regarded. as the share of

183

the state. Even 1/51h of the buried treasure was to be handed over to the royal treasury. All the
property of the deceased person who had no heirs passed on automatically to the state.
Ala-ud-dinKhalji confiscated the lands held by Muslim grantees and religious lands held as Inam, Idarat
and Wakf. The State demand was increased to one half of the produce. Mohammad- bin-Tughlaq
increased the state demand to 50% in the doab. The increased tax was realized in spite of famine inthat
territory and the Doab region was ruined. Firuz Tughlaq constructed canals in his private money. He
abolished as mgny as 24 taxes. When the canals irrigated the wastelands, Firuz Tughlaq charged 1 /5th

of the produce. The practice of conferring presents was started under the Delhi Sultanate: It continued
even during the rule of the Mughals.
JUSTICE
Under the DelhI Sultanate, the department of JustIce was most ill-organized. The Sultan himself
dispensed justice through the Diwan-i-Qaza. He granted justice through the agency of Diwan-iMazalim.
Mohammad Tughlaq set up a separate Department called Diwan-i-Siyasat. The Governors were required
to sit as courts of Mazalim. They were helped by Sahib-i-Diwan and the Qazi. The court of Mazalim heard
the complaints against officials.

The chief Qazi was in charge of the whole legal system and
administration of religious affairs. He heard appeals from lower courts and appointed local Qazis. There
was a Qazi in every town and his duty was to settle disputes, supervise and manage the property of
orphans and lunatics. He was responsible street maintenance also. The Qazis were not under the
Governors as they were directly appointed by the Central Government.
Amir-i-Dad presided over the court of Mazalim in the absence of the Sultan. In the presence of ,the king,
the Amir-i-Dad was responsible for executive and administrative business of justice. He controlled the
Kotwal, the police afld Muhtasib. His office maintained copies of documents registered with the Qazis.
SOCIAL LIFE DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD The most prominent feature of Indian society during the
rule of Delhi Sultans was that it was divided on the basis of nationality. Earlier such distinctions were
insignificant. However after the

184

establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi such differences appeared to be more pronounced. It was the
foreign Muslims who constituted the ruling class. They enjoyed high status in society and enjoyed
several privileges. They were granted extensive Jagirs in return for their services. They exercised
immense influence in political and , administrative matters. Those foreign Muslims belonged to different
nationalities such as the Persians, the Afghans, the Egyptians, the Turks and the Abyssinians. So in such
an army and polity there was lack of unity. The Turks claimed superiority over all others till the 13th
century. While the foreign Muslims began to settle down in India by marrying the local natives, even
such people who indulged in intermarriages acquired high status in society.

Some of the natives who accepted Islam religion can be classified as Indian Muslims. Some of the Indian
Muslims also consisted of the descendents of converted Muslims. The foreign Muslims looked down
upon the Indian Muslims. Such distinctions also existed. So the Indian Muslims were denied the same
status and privileges and the foreign Muslims. Only a few Indian Muslims were permitted to occupy high
administrative posts.
The distinction between foreign Muslims and Indian Muslims was also based on religious sect, education
and professions. The Sunnis were supported by the Sultans of Delhi and the Shias had entered India
after the Arab cqnquest of Sindh and they were powerful in Sindh and Multan. Usually there were
clashes between the Shias and the Sunnis. Scholars and soldiers enjoyed considerably good status on
account of their profession. The artisans and the peasants occupied the lowest rung in the social
stratification during the Delhi Sultanate.
In Indian society a large number of people were Hindus and a large number of people belonged to
several castes and sub-castes. They were treated as second rate citizens of the state. They were
permitted to work in the revenue department. They monopolized trade and agriculture. Society mainly
consisted of privileged and unprivileged. classes of people. There was no middle class. The members of
the royal family, the nobles, Ulemas, courtesans and other learned men belonged to the privileged class.
The rest of the populace constituted the unprivileged class. The Sultan, the princes

185

and the Governors of provirices belonged to the royal class. The nobles, ministers and landlord belonged
to the aristocratic class. The nobles imitated the Sultan in maintaining large Jagirs and living in luxury.
They also maintained a large number of slaves and lived in great pomp and luxury.
Apart from the nobles, the priestly class or the Ulemas also enjoyed high status in society. They exerted
immense influence on the Sultan in administrative matters. The peasants occupied the lowest rung of
society and had to live a subsistence living. It is interesting to note that slavery existed during the Delhi
Sultanate. Slaves were sold in the markets in some towns. The slaves were provided with good eduction
and training. They also had the opportunity of improving their careers. For instance Malik Kafur who
rose to the postion of an eminent general.
The postion of women deteriorated in society. Monogamy was the usual practice, but among the rich
polygamy was prevalent. The practice of Sati existed in Hindu society. Widow remarriages were
discouraged. The Purdah system was strictly observed by Muslim women. In Muslim community
polygamy existed. The nobles and. rich Muslims maintained a number of wives. Very little attention was
paid to the education of women. The upper caste Hindus were strict vegetarians., while the Muslims
were non-vegetarians. Martial races among the Hindus were mostly non-vegetarians. Among the
Muslims the Sufis and their followers avoided the consumption of meat. According to the Quran,

consumption of liquor was prohibited, yet it continued to prevail among the people belonging to the
wealthy class.
According to Dr.A.L.Srivastava, "We have unbroken tradition corning down from hundreds of years that
the Turkish rule was oppressive." However according to RC.Majumdar, "It is true that the Hindus
occupied a large number of junior posts and towards the close of the period occasionally a few high
offices in civil administration and more rarely in the army. But they had no political status and lived on
suffrage in the land of their birth, which was regarded as, and publicly declared to be, a Muslim state
and country." According to Dr.K.S. Lal, the Muslims were the conquerors and the Hinds conquered.
Bitterness, therefore, was natural.

186

However he also states that straIned relations to some extent were

on account of the nature of Muslim laws which were applied to a non-Islamic country like India.
However some of the Bhakti saints (Hindus) and Sufi saints (Muslim saints) emphasized on the spririt of
brotherhood and harmony between the Hindus and the Muslims.
ECONOMIC CONDITION UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
During the Sultanate period, India enjoyed economic prosperity in the general sense. The accounts of
foreign travellers throw light on the gold, silver, diamonds and pearls found in India. Ferishta speaks of
Mahmud of Ghazni who carried away immense wealth. Simqarly during the Tughlaq period, Timur
plundered vast booty in Delhi. But the state did not evolve a comprehensive economic policy.
Descriptions of famous and prosperous cities have been found. The Sultans of Delhi, nobles, governors,
merchants and elites of society possessed immense wealth and enjoyed the comforts of material life.
The monuments constructed during that period indicate the economic prosperity of the Sultanate
period. A number of palaces, fors, mosques, and temples were constructed during this period.
Agriculture continued to be the main occupation of the people and land revenue.constituted the main
source of income to the state. According to Ibn Batuta, a traveller who came from North Africa to India
in the 14th century, Agriculture was in a state of great progress. The Ganga-Yamuna doab remained
always famous for its fertility and largescale production. The soil was fertile that it produced two crops
every year. Rice was sown three times a year. Sesame, sugarcane and cotton were grown in abundance
and it provided raw materials to the industries. Rice of Sarsuti, Sugar-cane of Kanauj, wheat and betel
leaf of Malwa, wheat of Gwalior, ginger and spices of Malabar, grapes and pomegranates of Daulatabad,
betel nuts of South India and a large variety of oranges were popular in India and also in other countries.
Cereals, pulses and fruits were produced in almost all parts of India.

The experiments of the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs did not yield permanent results.On the whole, any big
improvement in the method of production, a more equitable distribution of economic wealth, a better
adjustment of the economic position of the various

187

social classes was outside the policy of the State. The peasants formed the majority of the populace.
They worked hard to eke out a living. They lived in subsistence conditions. Usually they paid 1/ 3rd of
the produce as land revenue to the state.
During the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, different types of industries also flourished. Cotton, Silk and
woollen cloths were produced in large quantities. The art of embroidery was popular and some of the
clothes wre studded with gold, diamond, pearl, silver and other precious stones. Indian textiles were in
great demand in other foreign countries. Indian cotton was more valued than Silk. Bengal and Gujarat
became the main centres of cotton textiles. Apart from it, carpet weaving, mat work and leatherwork
also began to flourish. Gradually sugar industry, paper industry, metal works, stone. cutting, sandalwood
carving and other industries were also developed. The Sultans had established several Karkhanas
(Workships).
It was an age in which trade and commerce flourished immensely. Delhi was the largest city and was
famous for trade and commerce. Daultabad, Lahore, Multan, Kara, Lakhnauti, Anhilwara and Cambay
were florushing trade centers. The Arabs carried on trade through the Indian ocean. Cotton, silk, opium,
Indigo; sea-pearls, sandalwood, saffron, ginger, sugar, coconuts and cereals were the main exports of
India. Horses, salt, rosewater, colour velvets, perfumes, wines etc were imported from other countries.
Goa, Chaul, Cochin and Quilon were the important regions on the western sea coast of India thorugh
which brisk trade was carried on. India also enjoyed favourable balance of trade as the Indian goods
were in great demand in other foreign countries.
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE DELHI SULTANATE
The contribution of the Delhi Sultans to culture of India has also been commendable. They came from a
unique cultural background with distinctive features and they cast.their influence on the culture in India
also. The Delhi Sultans patronized scholars, poets, sculptors and architects. A large amount of literature
was produced and a large number of monuments have been left behind by the Delhi Sultans and they
speak volumes about their cultural contributions.

188

LITERATURE DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD

The Sultanate period witnessed. the growth of literature in,
different languages., The most important aspect to be noted is that' historical texts which had so far
remained neglected in India were prepared. Moreover the age also witnessed the growth of literature
several regional languages. Initially literary works were composed in Persian and Arabic languages. The
most outstanding scholar of the age was AI-Beruni. He wrote the Tehqiq-i-Hind (11 th century A.D.). He
was a contemporary of Mahmud Ghazni and he has left behind valuable information about the
conditions prevailing in India during the 1ph century. During the 13th century the famous scholar Hasan
, Nizami wrote the work Taj-ul-Maasur. 'In this work he narrates the important events during the rule of
the Slave dynasty. Another outstanding scholar of the age was Zia-ud-din Barani. He wrote the work
Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi. He has provided information about the Tughlaq dynasty. Barani hailed from Baran
(present Bulandshahar) but lived in Delhi at the court of Muhammad Shah Tughlaq and Firoz Shah
Tughlaq. In his work he provides details of " the history of the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th and 14th
centuries. However his accounts are biased and are filled with exaggeration. He was associated with the
Ulemas and hence he was highly critical of Moharnmad-bin- Tughlaq.
Ibn Batuta (1304-137), a traveller and scholar who came from North Africa to India spent nearly 8 years
in India and he described the state of affairs during the period of the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs. He served
Muhammad Tughlaq as ambassador to China. Ibn Batuta of the 15th century wrote the Kitab-ur-Rahlah
regarding the Lodi dynasty.
Ferishta wrote the Tarikh-i-Ferishta during the 16th century. The work is known as 'Gulshan-I-Ibrahim'. It
is written in Persian language. The book has been translated into English and published under the title,
'History of the Rise of the Mohammedan power in India', till the year A.D. 1612. Feristl provided details
about the prevailing conditions during the period of the Delhi Sultanate and the condition in the
Bahmani and Vijayanagara kingdoms. He also, provides some information about the early Mughal
period. Ferishta's

189

work has been regarded as quite authentic. His work covers the history of India from the 13th to the
16th centuries.
The Hindu rulers, particularly those of Gujarat, Warangal and Vijayanagara gave encouragement to
Sanskrit literature. A large number of works dealing with philosophy, poetry, art, astrology, music and
medicine were written during this age. The most outstanding Sanskrit work has been Rajatarangini (11th
century) written by Kalhana. It is a work on the history of Kashmir and it is regarded as the first work of
HistOlY produced in India.

By 1300 A.D. Parthasarathi Mishra wrote several works on the Karma Mimamsa, of which the 'Sastra
Dipika' is popular. The Yoga, Viasesika and Nyaya systems were expounded in several works . during the
period. Chand Bardat the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan wro'te the famous work Prithviraj Rasa
describing the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan . The Hamir Madamardana by Jay Singh Suri,
Pradyumnabhyudaya
by Raviverma, Parvati Parinaya of Va mana Bhatta Bana and the Vidya Madhava and the Lalita Madhava
by Rupa Goswami were the important dramas of the period. The smriti and grammatical literature
flourished in Mithila and Bengal. The most famous writers were Padmanabha, Datta, Vidyapati
Upadhyaya and Vachaspati of Mithila and Raghunandan of Bengal. Vidyanatha, the court poet of
Pratapa Rudra of Warangal composed 'Pratapa Rudra Ya.sobhushana', a treatise on poetics. There also
instances of Muslim scholars possessing knowledge of Sanskrit.
The Bhakti saints also enriched literature. They wrote several works in Hindi. Mention may be made of
Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas and Mirabai who enriched Hindi literature. Guru Nanak wrote in Ponjabi
language. Chandi Das, Vidyapati and Chaitanya composed devotional songs in Bengali. Narsim Mehta
enriched Gujarati literature. Kabir's Dohas and Sakhis are famous. Mi;a Bai sang in the Braja Bhasha. The
lyrics of Chandiclas are still popular in Bengal. Under the patronage of the Mulism rulers of Bengat Hindu
epics were translated into Bengali. The Bhagavatawas translated by Maladharavasu. Amir Khusro was a
prolific writer who was the first Muslim to write in Urdu. Under the Vijayanagai rulers, several literary
works were composed in Tamit Telugu and Kannada also.

190

It is important to note that due to the interaction between the Hindus , and Muslims, Urdu language
also developed in India. It grew due to the mingling of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and ideas with
languages and concepts of Sanskritic origin is a proof of the linguistic synthesis of the Hindus and
Muslims.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Sultans of Delhi evinced interest in art and architecture also .. In the costruction of buildings they
imitated the pattern of Iran and Central Asia. However they were unable to produce exact replicas of
those buildings. They also employed Indian craftsmen in the construction of buidings and the influence
of Indian craftsmen has been well depicted in the buildings of the Sultanate period. Though the
buildings were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, still they
were constructed by Hindu craftsmen had added a touch of artistic taste to those buildings. So IndoIslamic style of architecture blossomed in India.

A large number of buildings were constructed by the Delhi Sultans. Many of htem were constructed by
using the materials of the temples destroyed by the Muslim rulers. Quwat-ul- Islam mosque in Delhi is
said to have been constructed by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak by demolishing a Hindu temple. So also Alai-dinka-Jhopra", a mosque at Ajmer was built on the ruins of a Hindu building.
Usually in the Hindu architectural structures square pillars supported the temple roofs. In Muslim
architecture arches were used. Apart from arches, domes were constructed over the buildings and
minarets were built on the sides. The use of arch and dome added to the unique style of architecture
evolved by the Muslim rulers. So the construction of a large number of pillars to support the roof was
avoided. The Hindus carved the figures of Gods and Godd-esses on the sides of pillars, walls and ceilings
also. They also carved flowers, creepers and temple bells. The Muslims avoided the carving of any living
things on their buildings. However as the Muslim buildings were crafted by Hindu craftsmen, they
decorated them by carving flowers and creepers. Apart from it the buildings were decorated with
geometrical designs. Even the use of Quranic Ayats' in the buildings served both religious purpose as
well as decorative purpose. During the Sultanate period, several types of

191

coloured stones like red, light black, yellow and white marbles were used.
During the rule of Qutub-ud-Din Aibak the 'Quwat-ul-Islam mosque was constructed at Delhi. It is said
that he also started the construction ofthe Qutub Minar at Delhi which was completed by Iltutmish.
Some historians are of the belief that it was built by Iltutmish in memory of a popular Sufi saint, Qutbud-Din Bhaktiyar Kaki. The tower of the Minar was originally 71.4 mts. High. The circumference at the
base is 15 mts. And at the top the circumference is just 3 mts. There were five storeys in all. At the end
of each storey, thereis an enclosed space fot the visitors to go round it. It is constructed of red sand
stone only. Qutub-ud-din Aibak also built
the Adai-din-ka Jhopra at Ajmer. During the rule of llttmish the tomb of his eldest son, Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud was constructed at Sultan Garhi (Delhi). This was the first tomb built in India by the Turks.
Iltutmish also built the Dargah of Moin-ud-din Chisti. Balban's tomb in Delhi is built in pure Islamic style.
During the rule of Ala-ud-Din Khalji the buildings were constructed from perfectly Islamic point of view.
The monuments of his period are regarded as the best examples of IslamiC art in India .
He constructed a new town at Delhi known as Siri, a few kms. from the Qutub complex. The Dargah of
Hazrat Niza'm-u-Din Aulia was also constructed. The Alai Darwaza, a huge gateway was constructed near
Qutub Minar and is described as "an invaluable treasure of Islamic culture". It is built of red sandstone
and marble. The Ayats (verses) from the Quran are beautifully engraved on the arches. A huge tank
called Hauz':'I-Alai was constructed near Siri in area of more than seventy acres. This tank was
surrounded by a wall made of stone and lime mixture.

During the rule of the Tughlaq dynasty not much attention was paid for ornamentation of the buildings
as the Tughlaq rulers were rather puritanical in their outlook. Stone buildings were built with more of
Hindu influence. Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq built the new city of Tughlaqabad to the east of Qutub area in
Delhi. He also constructed a palace and is own tomb. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq built a new city called
Jahanpanah near the Siri fort in Delhi. He also constructed the Adalabad fort near Tughlaqabad.

192

During the time of Firuz Tughlaq there was intense architectural activity. A number of towns were
established and several buildings were constructed. The special fature of the architecture of his period
was the extensive use of uncarved stones in large quantities. So the buildings of his age lack
architectural beauty. According to Ferishta, FiruzShah constructed 20 palaces, 20 cities, 30 schools, 30
mosques, 100 hospitals,S tombs arid 150 bridges. The most outstanding buildings of his age have been
lound the new city of Firozabad near the old city of Delhi, the palace fort known as ,Kotla Firuz Shah
within it, Madrasa (College and his own tomb near Hauz-i-Khas.
During the rule of the Lodi Sultans the tombs were constructed on a raised platform. Some tombs were
built within parks. For instance the Tomb of Sikander Lodi with Lodi gardens (New Delhi). Some tombs
were octagonal. The most famous mosque of the Lodi period was the Moth ki Masjid in New Delhi.
Many provincial rulers also patronized art and architecture and developed their own distinctive styles.
The Delhi provincial styles of architecture essentially resembled that of Delhi but differed in certain
details. The Jaunpur style depicts more of the influence of Hindu art. Tehatala Devi Masjid is one of the
finest specimens of this style. The Bengal style was characterized by the use of Bricks. The Adina Masjid
at Pandua, built by Sikander Shah was one of the largest mosques renowned for its magnitude and
beauty. The Dakhil Darwaza at Gaur is a superb example of architecture in brick and terracotta. In the
province of Gujarat, archite.cture reached its highest development during the reign of Muhammad
Bagarha. The Jami Masjid of Ahmed Shah at Ahmednagar and the Muhammad Bagarha's great mosque
of Champaner were the most remarkable structures of the age.
The Gujarat style of architecture was dominated by Hindu tradition. But in Malwa, Muslim influence was
predominant. At Dhar, the old capital of Malwa, two mosques were built wholly out of the remains of
old buildings. The buildings at Mandu, the new capital are Muslim in design and resemble the buildings
of Delhi. The most remarkable buildings of Mandu are the Jami Masjid, the Hindola Mahal, the Hawa
Mahal, Hushang Shah's tomb and the palaces of Baz Bahadur and Rupmati. The Sultans of Kashmir also

193

constructed buildings based on Hindu tradition but they decorated them with Islamic motifs.
DECLINE OF THE DELHI SULTANATE AND RISE OF INDEPENDENT STATES
The Delhi Sultans ruled from 1206 to 1526 A.D. During that period five major dynasties ruled over India
with Delhi as their capital. The Slave dynasty came to power in 1206 and ruled till 1290. Later on the
Khalji dynasty came to power in 1290 and ruled upto 1320. The Khaljis were succeeded by the Tughlaqs
who held the reins of the Government from 1320 to 1414. Later on the SayYid dynasty exercised
authority from 1415 to 1451. The last Muslim dynasty to rule over Delhi was the Lodi dynasty from 1451
to 1526.
The signs of decadence of the Delhi Sultanate were evident towards the end of the Tughlaq dynasty
itself. Within a short time the Deccan states in the South declared their independence. Similarly Bengal
in the east and Sind and Multan in the north-west broke away from the control of the Delhi Sultans.
Grcidully the governors of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh also declared their
independence. Finally Rajasthan also asserted its independence. The emergence of these independent
states and their history is also rather interesting in tracing the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
BENGAL
Bengal was invaded by Ikhtiyar-ud:'Din Muhammad Bin Bhaktiyar, who was the commader of
Mohammad.of Ghori. In 1204, he conquered Nadia, one of the capitals of Lakshmana Sena of Bengal.
It was during the item of Balban that the governor of Bengal revolted and tried to rule in an independent
manner. Firoz Tughlaq made two attempts to' capture Bengal but failed. For nearly two centuries Bengal
enjoyed its independence as it was situated far away from Delhi. During that period Bengal was ruled by
several Hindu and Muslim dynasties. During the rule of Sher Shah, Bengal was annexed in 1541.
Ala-ud-Din Hussian ruled over Bengal from 1493 to 1519. He followed a policy of religious tolerance. He
also developed immense , reverence towards the Bhakti saint, Chaitanya. Even his prime minister was a
Hindu. He had appointed Hindus in various posts.

194

His chief physician, chief bodyguard and the master of the mint as well as hisprivate secretary were
Hindus. The Sultans of Bengal beautified their capitals,Pandua and Gaur with magnificent , buildings.
Along with architecture,literature also flourished in Bengal.
GUJARAT
Gujarat was a in a strategic position. It became a flourishing centre of trade and commerce. It was a rich
province due to fertile soil, flourishing sea port arid the development of handicrafts. The wealth of

Gu[arat attracted several Muslim invaders. Mahmud Ghazni plunaered its important places and temples.
He invaded Gujarat and plundered the temple of Somnath which was known for its immense wealth. In
1297, Ala-ud-Din Khalji annexed Gujarat. From then onwards Gujarat was administered by a Muslim
Governor. By 1410 the governor of Gujarat, Zafar Khan himself declared his independence. There was
constant rivalry between Gujarat and Malwa.

After Zafar Khan, Ahmed Shah assumed power and qlled from 1411 to 1422. He is regarded as the real
founder of the kingdom of Gujarat. He beautified Gujarat by constructing many buildings and also
shifted his capital to the new city of Ahmedabad. The most famous ruler of Gujarat was Mahmud
Begarha. He ruled for 521ears from 1459 to 1511. He indulged in a series of wars and supported the
Bahmani Sultans against Malwa. He also confronted the Portuguese by securing the support of the
Egyptian fleet. However he failed to check the Portuguese influence in the coastal regions and finally he
had to sue for peace.' During the rule of Mahmud, Gujarat became a powerful state in North India.
During his time art and literature also flourished. Mahmud sacked Dwaraka twice and destroyed several
temples there. Bahadur Shah was another outstanding ruler of Gujarat. He conquered Malwa in 1530
and plundered Chitoor, the capital of Mewar. However he was defeated by Humayun, the Mughar
emperor. Finally Gujarat was annexed by Akbar in 1572.
MALWA
Geographically Malwa occupied a strategic position. The 'territories of Malwa included the region
between the rivers Narmada

195

and. Tapti. It commanded the major trunk route between Gujarat

and North India and the roads linking North and South India. By occupying Malwa. The whole of North
India could be controlled. Moreover the occupation of Malwa would provide access to the p regions of
East, West and South India. Malwa also acted as a barrier against the ambitious rulers of Gujarat, Mewar
and the Lodi Sultans of Delhi. It was in 1305 that Malwa fell into the hands of Ala-ud-Din Khalji and
remained under the Delhi Sultanate till 1401. Finally Malwa became independent after Delhi was sacked
by Tamer Lane. Most of the rulers of Malwa remained intolerant towards Hindus. Mahmud Khan Khalji
(1436-69) who was the most powerful ruler of Malwa destroyed several Hindu tmples. He fought against
the rulers of neighbouring states. His archrival was Rana Kumba of Mewar.
KASHMIR

Kashmir was a Hindu kingdom with a vast majority of Hindu population till the middle of the 14th
century. It remained unaffected by the rule of the Delhi Sultans. During the rule bf Akbar it became a
part of the Mughal empire. In 1315, Shah Mirza, a Muslim adventurer from Persia entered the service of
a Hindu ruler. After the dea'th of Udayana, the ruler of Kashmir in 1338 A.D. his queen assumed the
reins of the Government as her sons were minors. By then Shah Mirza had become powerful. He
imprisonedthe queen and her sons and declared himself as the ruler of Kashmir. The outstanding rulers
of Kashmir were Sikandar Shah and Zainul Abidin. Sikander Shah ruled between 1389 and 1413. He was
a religious bigot. He ordered that all the Brahmanas and learned Hindus should embrace Islam or leave
the valley. He also indulged
in destruction of temples, he assumed the title, "Buth-Shikani' or Idol-breaker. It is said that only a few
families of Brahmins were
left in KaslUnir as others were either converted to Islam or turned
out of Kashmir. Zainul Abidin ruled Kashmir from 1420 to 1470
A.D. He ruled for about 50 years. He is famous as Akbar of Kashmir.
He followed the policy of religious tolerance. He also encouraged education, art and architecture. He
also took measures to promote
the welfare of his subjects. He withdrew the orders of Sikandar Shahj which were formulated against the
Hindus. During his reign several

196

Hindus who had been harassed during the rule of Sikardar Shah returned to Kashmir once again. He also
made liberal grants to Hindu temples. He abolished Jizya, the tax levied on Hindus. He also forbade cow
slaughter. He appointed Hindus in high administrative posts, He concluded matrimonial alliances with
Hindus. Two of his queens were the daughters of a Hindu ruler of Jammu.
Zainul-abidin took measures to promote agriculture and to protect the interests of the peasants. He
instructed the revenue collectors to be honest and to take steps not to harass the peasants. During his
rule a number of canals were excavated to provide irdgational facilities. He also made grants of grain
and fodder to the people during natural calamities. He also conducted land surveys. -Land was
measured and land records were maintained.
During the reign of Zainul Kas.hmir also witnessed economic prosperity. He encouraged the
development of several crafts such as jewelary making, shawl weaving and stone cutting. He sent two

skilled persons to Samarkhand to learn the art of paper making and block binding. Trade and commrce
also flourished during his time. A number of taxes were abolished and new currency reforms. were
introduced. Th prices of the ommodities were fixed inorder to establish control over the market.
The Sultan patronized many scholars and poets. He himself was a man of letters. He was well-versed in
Persian, Kashmiri, Sanskrit and Tibetan languages. He was an eminent poet also, During his time, several
works were translated into local languages. The Mahabharatha and the Rajatarangini were translated
into Persian language. He"had immense love for music. The ruler of Gwalior sent him two music books
written in Sanskrit. Zainul maintained cordial relation with the rulers of Mecca, Egypt and Khorasan.
JAUNPUR
Jaunpur is in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The city of Jaunpur was founded by Malik Sarvar, a noble of the
time of Firoz Tughlaq in 1394 A.D. The dynasty which he established ruled for about 100 years and the
dynasty consisted of six rulers. Malik Sarvar assumed the title Sharqi so the Kingdom of Jaunpur is also
called as Sharqi. It extended from Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh to Darbanga in
197

North Bihar and from the boundary of Nepal in the North to Bundelkhand in the South. There were
constant conflicts between Delhi and Jaunpur. In 1505 Jaunpur was annexed by Sikandar Lodi. J aunpur
was the seat of learning art, and architecture so it was famous as Shiraj of the East. Many rulers
patronized the growth of literature and architecture. Ibrahim Shah ruled from 1402 to 1436. He Y
patronised several eminent scholars and poets. Malik Mohammad Jayasi who wrote the famous work
Padmavat was a native of Jaunpur. The city was beautified with several magnificent mosques and
mausoleums. Mention may be made of Atal Masjid, a marvel of Sharqi architecture.
MEWAR
Mewar was the stronghold of the Rajputs. Some of the great rulers of Mewar were Rana Hamir, Rana
Kumba, Rana Sanga and Maharana Pratap. The city of Mewar brings back memories of bravery, honour
and respect. The kingdom prospered during the rule of RanaHamir Rana Kumba ruled between 1438 and
1468 A.D. He was known for his prowess and ability. He was the son and successor of Rana MokaI. He
assumed power in 1433 A.D. He secured the support of Bhil Chiefs. Initially he had to face a number of
problems. Finally he consolidated his position with great diplomacy. Rana Kumba conquered Bundi,Kota,
Chatsu, Malpura, Amber, Dungerpur etc. He also annexed Sambhar, Didwana, Mandorem, Nagaur,
Ranthombore, Sirohi, Gagran, Ajmer, Mandalgarh, Abu and Toda .. He defeatetl Sultan MahmudKhalji of
Malwa. According to inscriptional evidence, he captured Mahmud and imprisoned him. However he
released him after six months. Thisproved to be a danger to Rana Kumbha. Mahmud Khalji made
adequate preparations and invaded Mewar. Rana Kumbha defeated the confederacy of Mahmad of
Malwa and the ruler of Gujarat. He succeeded in defending his territories.

Rana Kumbha also patronized art and literature. He was a great musician himself and played theVeena.
He wrote the works, Sangit Raj, Sangit Mimamsa, Sangit Ratnakar and Sudprabandh. He erected the
Victory Tower at Chittor to commemorate his victories. He also strengtherted the fortifications of
Chittor and constructed a road running through its seven doors. He constructed the city of

198
Basantpur. For the defence of the kingdom, he built five forts of Kumbalgarh, Achalgarh, Maddan,
Kolana and Vairat. During his rule a number of palaces, schools and temples were constructed.
He also patronized fampus scholars. The inscriptions of Victory Tower were compsed by his court
poets Mahesh and Atri. However he had a very sad end. He was killed by his' own son.
RANA SANGHA (1509-28)
Rana Sangha's original name was Sangram Singh. He was the grandson of Rana Kumba. He was gallant
and ferocious in the battlefield. He lost one eye, one arm and had many scars on his body. He
established his supremacy over almost all the Rajput states. He fought against the rulers of Gujarat and
Malwa. He captured the ruler of Malwa who had been wounded in the battlefield and kept him at
Chittor till his wounds were healed. In 1519 he defeated the Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi. He wanted to
overthrow the rule of the Lodi dynasty at Delhi. So he invited Babur to invade India. Accordingly Babur
invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the famous battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. Rana Sanga had
expe'cted Babur to return to his native land. However Babur decided to remain in India. So Rana Sanga
declared war on Babur. However Babur defeated him in the battle of Khanua in 1527 A.D. Rana Sanga
escaped and tried to continue his struggle against Babur. Unfortunately he was imprisoned by his own
nobles who considered his schemes as highly dangerous. Maharana Pratap also belonged to this dynasty
that ruled Mewar. He was the most formidable enemy of Akbar. He was defeated by Akbar in the
famous battle of Haldighati.

200

a new school of Vaishnavism based on the doCtrine of love and devotion. He tried to break the artificial
barriers of the caste system. He wanted to wipe out the distinction between high and low castes. He did
not hesitate to dine with low caste people. His religion was open to all the people irrespective of the
caste to which they belonged.
Many cobblers, barbers, weavers and peasants also became the disciples of Ramananda. He used
vernaculars to spread his teachings so that his messages would reach the common people. He
introduced the cult of worship of Rama and Sita. He gave a special message to the low caste people.

JlJaathi paathi poochhai na koi Hari ko Bhaje so Hari ka hoi".

The meaning of this couplet is that nobody is going to question about the caste of the person; the one
who remembers God will be blessed by Him. Ramananda started a new philosophical and spiritual
outlook which appealed to thousands of people.
KABIR
Kabir lived sometime during the 15th century. There is nothing sure about Kabir's date of birth and his
parentage. It is said that he was born to a Brahmin widow who abandoned him near a tank in Banaras; A
Muslim weaver" Neeru took the baby and brought him up as his own son. As Kabir grew up, he began to
follow the profession of his foster father. Since his childhood, Kabir was inclined towards spiritual life.
Kabir became the disciple of Ramananda. He started preaching his own new philosophy. His teachings
Kabir were collected in the Bijak. Although he was a Muslim, he tried to propagate'; universal philosophy
by which he tried to develop a sense of unity and brotherhood between the Hindus and Muslims. He
condemned evil practices in society. His followers came to be known a Kabir-Panthins. He said "Kabir is
the child of Allah and Ram". He also said 'if you say that I am a Hindu,
then it is not true, nar am I a Mussalman. Mecca has verily became Kashi and Ram has becocme Rahim'.
He'campased many paems. His "Dahas" or cauplets are recited even to. this day by Hindus as well as
Muslims. He candemned castesim, idal warship and pilgrimage to holy places. He criticized the
supremacy of the Bar'ahmanas and the Ulemas. He believed that there was only ane sureme being but
Gad is knawn by different names like Rama, Allah, Hari, Khuda, Rahim etc.
He preache-d that Hindus and Muslims are pots made aut of the same clay. He felt that there is no.
necessity of building temples and warshipping idals to gain salvation. True devotion and true love
towards God alone can help people to proceed
on the path which leads to salvation.. When Kabir passed away,
both Muslims and Hindus who were his followers shed tears and
felt equlity for having lost a great saint. He was one of the enlightened socio-religious reformers in India.
CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU (1484-1534 A.D.)
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was ane of the greatest saints of the Bhakti mavement. He was born in a learned
family of Nabadwip in Nadia district of Bengal. Naida had been the center of Vedantic learning. At the
age of 22 when he visited Gaya, he was influenced by the teachings of a sage and develaped intense
devotion tawards Lord Krishn'a. The favaurite farm of warship of Chaitanya was through "Kirtan" or a
graup of singing and dancing accampanied by instruments like drums, cymbals etc. His ematianal
attachment to Lord Krishna immersed him in lang spells of ecstasy. He discarded all kinds of
discriminatian based an caste ar creed. So. permitted the people of all castes to. jain the "Kirtan"
assembly. He disliked the elaborate rites and rituals. He preached only the worship of Krishna.

He did not believe even in idal warship.

He preached only the idea of remembering God ond singing sangs in praise of God and immersing in
pure love and devotian towards God.
He travelled throughout India. He visited Brindavan, where Lord Krishna had spent his childhood. He
composed many devotional songs on Krishna. Many of his followers in Bengal and Orissa felt that he was
the incarnotian of Krishna and was called as 'Mahaprabhu'.
He showed great sympathy and compassion towards the weak and the poor people. He also. opposed
the caste system
and tried to spread the feeling of brotherhood among the people. The teachings of Chaitanya had a
deep impact on the minds of the people.
The philosophical views of Chitanya Mahaprabhu have been recorded in "Chaitanaya Charitamrita'.
It is a biography of Chaitanya written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.
GURU NANAK (1469-1538 A.D.)
Guru Nanak was born in 1469 A.D. at Talwandi in the Sheikhupura district of West Punjab. His parents
were Mehta Kaluchand and Tripta. Guru Nanak, as a boy was not interested in studies. He was more
inclined towards spiritual life. He spent most of his time among Sadhus. His father tried to ind uce in him
an interest in worldly life. He was married to Sulakhani. Nanak utilized the money which had to be
invested in business to feed Fakirs and the poor people. Nanak was totally detached fron: worldly life.
According to legendary accounts, when Nanak was bathing in the river, Kali Bein in Sultanpur Lodhi, he
remained for three days under water in deep meditation. Later he emerged as an enlightened saint. He
travelled far and wide. He visited the holy places of India like Hardwar, Jagannoth Puri and Rameshwara.
He also visited Mecca and Medina. The teachings of Guru Nanak were simple. He preached in Punjabi
language which was easily understood by the common people. He laid stress on monotheism. He tried
to establi-sh Hindu-Muslim unity. Guru Nanak condemned idol worship and polytheism. He advocated
the worship of a single God, the supreme being. He considered elaborate rituals and costly ceremonies
as wasteful, meaningless and useless. Nanak paid respect to all religions. He tried to spread the spirit of
religious tolerance. He believed in the theory of Karma and believed that the actions of a person
determine his birth. According to the theory of
Karma, each person will reap the fruits of his actions, either good or bad. Nanak felt that it is not
necessary to renounce life to attain salvation. The teachings of Guru Nanak have been compiled in the
Guru Granth Sahib which was originally called the Adi Granth. It is placed in the Gurudwara and
worshipped by the Punjabis. Guru Nanak had both Hindus and Muslims as his disciples. He eventually
settled down at Kartarpur near Jullandar and passed away in 1538 A.D. Guru Nanak advocated
chanting"Satnam" or'God's name in order to attain salvation. His followers came to be known as Sikhs.
VALLABHACHARYA (1419-1531 A.D.)

Vallabhacharyawas a Telugu Brahman. He travelled to many places and eventually settled down in
Benaras. He advocated Bhakti as a means of breaking the bonds of worldly lHe. He preached that there
is no distinction between the Atma and the Paramatma. He felt that bondage and desire begin at home
and only by giving up the life of a householder one can be free from all bondage. He felt that pure
devotion to God can alone help man to gain spiritual growth. Vallabhacharya propagated the worship of
Krishna. Thus, the Bhakti cult in North India also developed around the concept of worshipping Lord
Krishna as the incarnotion of Vishnu.
MEERABAI
Meerabai, a princess of the royal family of Mewar is also associated with the Bhakti cult. She was the
daughter of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar and the wife of Bhoj Raj, the heir apparent of Rana Sangha of
Mewar. She was intoxicated by devotion and love towards Lord Krishna.She spent most of her life in
Bhajan-Kirtan and in the company of the saints of Mathura and Brindavan.The central theme of Mira's
Bhajans was Giridhar Gopal (Lord Krishna). She renounced the luxuries of royal life a.nd became an
ard,ent devotee of Lord Krisna. She composed many songs in praise of lord Krishna. Her songs are
popularly known as Bhajans. They are sung all over India with devotion even to today.
SUFISM
The origin of Sufism is rather interesting. The popular belief is that Sufism is derived from two Arabic
words I.e., 'Saf' and 'Su'. The word 'Sar means a carpet. Since the Sufi saints meditated upon

204

God on a carpet, Sufism took its birth ie., pure people who meditated on a carpet. The word 'Sufi' is
derived from and other Arabic word 'Suf' which means 'Wool'. The Muslim saints who wore garments of
coarse wool began to be called Sufi saints. The first epoch of Sufism is said to have begun in the seventh
century A.D. Sufism entered India in the 12th .century with the Muslim invaders and became popular in
the 13th century .

THE MAIN FEATURES OF SUFISM

1. Sufism derives its inspiration from Islam. Usually the Orthodox Muslims emphasized on morals and
ethics or the code of conduct and indulged in blind observance of religious rituals. However the Sufi
saints emphasized on inner purity. So it was more spiritualistic in outlook.
2.
According to the Sufi saints God is. the beloved of the devotee and the devotee is eager to meet
his beloved (God).

3.
According to the Sufi saints the two important elements to reach Godhood was to develop love
and devotion.
4.
Along with Prophet Mohammad, the Sufi saints attached great importance to the 'Murshid" or
'Pir' (Guru)
5. Devotion is Jlore important than Roza (Fasting) or Namaz(Prayer).
6. Sufisim stressed on the-importance of a simple life.
7. Sufisim did not believe in the caste system.
8. The Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Perisan and Urdu etc.
9. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders.each under a mystic saint.

Sufism was a reformation movement started in Islam. It was started in Persia, at first as a reaction to the
constant feuds between the Sunni and Shia sects of Islam. The Sufis were those Muslims saints who
believed in equlity of all human beings. They tried to foster the growth of univer"sal brotherhood. The
Sufi saints were extremely simple in their dress and life style. They tried to propagate religious
tolerance. They condemned forcible conversion of people and religious persecution. The humanitarian
ideas of the Sufis had a great impact on many people. Their teachings led to the growth of unity
between the Hindus and Muslims. The most famous Sufi order of India was the Chisti Silsila. It was
established in Inqia by Khwaja

206

Hindus and Muslims. They enlightened the people by condemning the dogmatic and superstitious
practices. Th distinctions between people belonging to low castes and high castes that hact left HiI1du
society mutilated were criticized. The saints of Bhakti movement thus evolved simple religious doctrines
which appealed to the masses. They preached in the language of the people which helped the growth of
regional languages. Equality of all human beings preached by them led to the growth of brotherhood.
Thus, the work of the saints of Bhakti movement is highly commendable.

UNIT-III
THE MUGHALS

The power of the Mughal dynasty in India was establlshed by 1526 A.D. The founder of the Mughal
dynasty was Babur. The rule of 'the Mughals constitutes an important epoch in the history of medieval
India. There were many illustrious rulers like Babur, Humayan, Akbar, Jahangi"r, Shahjahan and
Aurangazeb in the long list of Mughal kings who ruled over India from their capital, Delhi. By their
conquests and annexations, the sense of political unity was created in India. They also cast their
influence on the socio-economic conditions prevailing in India. They contributed richly to the culture Of
India by being patrons of literature and architecture.
3.1 BABUR (1526-1530)
Zahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India.
He was born in 1483.
He became the king of Farghana at the early age of eleven.
Babur was a descendent of the great conquerors; Timur and Chengiz Khan .
Timur had extended his control over Europe, Moscow and many other places extending in the East till
China.
Babur was inspired by him.
He became an ambitious person.
When Babur ascended the throne he had to face many problems as he was surrounded by many
enemies.
Babur had to face the attack of Ahmed Mirza in 1495, but he defeated him successfully and killed him.
He captured Samarkhand in 1497.
At Samarkhand Babur fell ill and the rumour began to spread that he was dead.
The ministers placed Jahangir, the younger brother of Babur on the throne of Parghanit.
After Babur recovered from his illness, he proceeded from Samarkhand to recover Parghana.
Unfortunotely, he lost control over both the places. At Parghana,
Jahangir was in a powerful position and Samarkhand was occupied by his cousin, Ali.
By 1498, Babur was the king of no land.
By 1500, he occupied Samarkhand again but the Uzbegs under Shaibani Khan forced him to evacuate.
By 1502, Babur had lost control over both Farghana and Samarkhand Having lost power, Babur occupied
Afghanistan and became the ruler of Kabul between 1504 and 1526.

He occupied Kandhar and Herat.

By 1513, Babur was failed in establishing his control over Samarkhand and Bukhara.
Very soon, he was forced to withdraw his troops from Samarkhand as he-lost the war against Ubaidullah.
Babur turned his attention towards India which was under the rule of the Lodhi dynasty. Ibrahim Lodi
was ruling over India. His uncle, Ala-ud-din invited Babur to invade India .
THE FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT (1526) CAUSES
Babur was highly ambitious.
He was a descendant of the family to which Timur and Chengiz Khan belonged, He was inspired by them
to launch a career of conquests.
He tried to create an extensive empire in Central Asia and to conquer Samarkhand.
But it was dissatisfied by the Uzbegs.
Due to the internal schemings between the Uzbegs and the Persians, Babur could freely engage himself
in the task of conquering India.
He proved himself to be an excellent soldier by learning various forms of warfare.
The wealth of India lured Babur.
Since ancient times, India was known as the land of milk and honey.
The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain also kindled in Babur the passion to settle down in India.
It increased his ambition to capture India and establish a strong empire in India.
The weak political condition of India tempted Babur to attack India. Ibrahim Lodi was facing revolts from
his own kinsmen and nobles.
One of his uncles, Alam Khan Lodi claimed the throne of Delhi for himself. The Afghan rulers of Bengal,
Malwa and Gujarat were also his opponents.
Sind, Kashmir and Orissa were also independent but none of them were powerful.
The political condition of South India lacked stability.
The South Indian culture was not completely contaminoted by Muslim culture.
Although the Muslims had penetrated the Deccan region, the indigenous culture of the people in the
Deccan region continued to prevail.

The .Bahmani kingdom had disintegrated into five branches at Bidar, Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmednagar
and Ahmedabad.
Thus India lacked political stability and unity. A strong ruler was absent in India to fight against the
invasions of foreign powers.
Alam Khan Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi invited Babur to attack India so that they could capture Delhi with his
help.
Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur so that he could retain his control over Punjab. Babur invaded India five
times. The first four invasions were exploratory raids. In 1519, he captured Bajaur and Bhera and
returned back.
But before his second visit, these places had been lost.
For the third time in 1520, he entered Punjab and secured Sialkot and Sayyidapur.
In 1524, he captured as far as Lahore and Dipalpur.
He left Punjab under the care of Alam Khan Lodi and Dilawar Khan Lodi, who was the son of Daulat Khan
Lodi and returned to Kabul.
In 1525, Babur attacked India for the fifth time.
THE COURSE OF THE BATTLE OF PANIPAT (1526)
Babur made elaborate preparations to launch an expedition to conquer India.
Initially, he had to deal with Daulat Khan Lodi who had occupied Punjab.
He surrendered to Babur unable to face the efficient army of Babur.
He was imprisoned and sent Bhera but he died on the way.
Thus, Babur was successful in occupying Punjab.
He proceeded towards Delhi and was challenged by Ibrahim Lodi on the field of Panipat.
Babur wrote in his memoirs that he defeated Ibrahim Lodi with 12,000 soldiers.
Babur, probably started from Kabul with 12,000 soldiers but the strength of his army increased after the
conquest of Punjab.
Dr.A.L.Srivastava describes that the strength of Babur's army was nearly 25,000 soldiers. Some
historians have exaggerated the strength of the army of Ibrahim Lodi. It is said that there were nearly
1,000 elephants and 1,00,000 soldiers in the army of Ibrahim Lodi. The real battle started on the
morning of April 21, 1526 A.D. and by noon it was over.

Ibrahim Lodi was killed in the battlefield and his army was destroyed.
Babur dispatched his viCtorious forces to occupy Delhi and Agra.
On 27, April 1526, the Khutba was read in the name of Babur in the principal mosque in Delhi.
CAUSES FOR THE SUCCESS OF BABUR
The battle of Panipat has been regarded as historically an important event. It laid the foudation of the
Mughal empire. The empire was constituted mainly of Turks and the Turkish hegemony was established
in India.
The power of the Afghans was shattered. Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes "The battle of Panipat placed the
empire of Delhi in Babur's hands.
The power of the Lodi dynasty was shattered to pieces and the sovereignty of Hindustan passed to the
Chagatai Turks".
According to R.P.Tripathi, the battle of Panipat brought Babur to the end of the second stage of his
Indian conquests.
It sealed the fate of the Lodi dynasty and told seriously on the morale and already weak organization of
the Afghans. The soldiers and the peasantry alike ran away in fear of the conqueror.
Babur's superior generalship and the weakness of Ibrahim Lodi contributed to the victory of Babur.
He had maintained a well equipped and well-trained army.
Babur had come to power in an area where wars were common. He was a more experience person than
Ibrahim Lodi.
He was highly careful and possessed excellent foresight.
Ibrahim Lodi lacked these qualities. Babur had struggled all through his initial political career to ascend
the ladder of success. On the other hand Ibrahim Lodi had inherited a vast and prosperous empire
without his personal efforts.
He had no exposure in highpitched battles. He had lost the sympathy of the Afghan nobility and the
loyalty of his subjects.
The growing discontentment of the people against Ibrahim Lodi contributed to the success of Babur.
Babir decided to remain in India, although his soldiers were homesick: Many Afghan nobles also
surrendered to Babur.
However, Babur gracefully pardoned them. He divided the plains of Northern India among the nobles
and gave them the responsibility to conquer it.

Very soon a large part of North India came under the control of Babur. He faced a serious challenge to
his power from Rana Sanga of Mewar .
RESULTS OF THE BATTLE OF PANIPAT
Babur emerged victorious in the battle of Panipat. He laid down the foundation of the Mughal dynasty in
India. From then onwards the Mughals ruled for more than two and a half centuries in India.
At the same time the battle of Panipat marked the end of the rule of
Lodi dynasty in India.
According to Stanley Lane Poole, the biographer of Babur, "The battle of Panipat became a tomb for the
Afghans of Delhi.
Their state was destroyed and their strength was

absolutely crippled."

After the battle of Panipat, the mode of warfare also underwent a change in India. The use of artillery
became popular.
According to Lane Poole, Babur gathered immense booty to the extent that it surpassed his dreams. It.
also proved the military superiority of Babur. According to Rushbrook Williams, "After being successful
in this battle, the bad days of Babur carne to an end. Novy he had not to bother about his personal
safety or throne."
BATTLE OF KHANUA (KANWAH) 1527
Babur decided to remain in India as the Badshah of Delhi.
Rana Sanga of Mewar had agreed to support Babur against Ibrahim Lodi, hoping that Babur would
return back to.
Kabul after his raids were completed.
He aspired to capture Delhi for himself.
But Babur foiled his plans.
Rana Sanga thus gave shelter to Alam Khan Lodi, Hasan Khan Mewati and other Afghan nobles against
Babur.
The battle between the Rajputs and the Mughals became inevitable.
The forces of Rana Sanga of Mewar were extremely strong.
Astrology had predicted the doom of the Mughals.

Babur with his imposing character and personality gave up drinking wine in front of his troops and
appealed to the Muslims in the name of religion and to declare Jihad (Holy war) against the Hindus to
save the honour of Islam.
The' two amies met at Khanua, 10 miles ahead of Fatehpur Sikri. Babur says that there were 2,00,000
Rajput'soldiers. OrAL.Srivastava says that they were in the ratio of 2:1. The Rajput soldiers numbered
about 80,000 and the Mughal soldiers constituted 40,000 in total. The battle started on March 17, 1527.
Rana Sanga was wounded and the Mughals won a glorious victory.
Rana Sanga died in 1528 A.D.
Regarding the significance of the battle of Khanua, Rushbrook Williams says that the menace of Rajput
supremacy which loomed large before the eyes of the Mohammadans in India for the last few years was
removed once for all. The powerful confederacy of the
Rajputs was shattered completely.
Dr.R.P.Tripathi says that the battle of Khanua broke the Rajput confederacy and thus vanished the
nightmare of Hindu supremacy which had kept the Muslim states in Northern India in anxious suspense.
Babur's days of wandering had come to an end. At last fortune had smiled on him after his long struggle.
CONQUEST OF CHANDERI
Chanderi, near Bundelkhand was in the hands of a Rajput chief, Medini Rai Who had allied himself with
Rana Sanga and had fought against Babur in the battle of Khanua.
Babur decided to destroy his power and demanded Chanderi in exchange for Shamsabad.
When Medini Rai refused to comply with his orders, Babur attacked the fort of Chanderi from all sides in
1528 A.D. Medini Rai was killed in the battle.
The Rajputs fought till their last breath and sacrificed their life.
The Rajput women gave up their lives by committing Jauhar to save their honour.
The fort of Chanderi was captured by Babur. He entrusted it to Ahmed Shah, a descendent of the ruling
dynasty of Malwa.
BATTLE OF GHAGHRA (1529)
The Afghans tried to capture Delhi and to over throw the Mughal rule in India.
They were led by Nusrat Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bengal. They moved till Kanauj. Babur decided to
subdue them.Mahniud Lodi commanded a large army consisting of one lakh soldiers.

He marched towards Benaras and laid siege on Chuna):".

Babur sent his son, Askari against Mahmud Lodi and he himself later on led the march against the
Afghans.
The Afghans began to retreat when they received the news of the approach of Babur and many of them
surrendered.
Babur pardoned all those who asked for mercy but proceeded towards Bihar. He did not want to fight
with Nusrat Shah of Bengal.
So he assured him of his noninterference in Bengal if he would withdraw his support to the Afghans.
The Afghans forces under Mahmud Lodi were forced to fight against the Delhi forces on the banks of the
Ghagra in 1529 and were completely defeated.
Mahmud Lodi fled to Bengal and many Afghan rebels surrendered to Babur. Nusrat Shah and Babur
agreed to-maintain mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity.
Babur retained a part of Bihar under his control. The rest was restored to the Afghans on condition of
acceptance of his sovereignty.
DEATH OF BABUR
The battle of Ghagra was the last one fought by Babur in India.
There was nobody to challenge his sovereignty.
He had indubitably established himself as the invincible supreme authority. Some historians say that
Humayun, the eldest son of Babur fell ill. When he showed no signs of improvement, Babur walked
around the bed of Humayun and prayed to God to save the life of his son.
From that time onwards, Humayun began to recover and the condition of Babur turned from bad to
worse and finally he passed away. Dr.R.P.Tripathi says that the extremely tiresome life of Babur, his
indulgence in, opium, liquor ad the hot climate of In9ia resulted in his death.
He died on Dec 26, 1530 A.D. He nominoted his son, HumaYlffi as his successor.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
Babur engaged himself in a series of wars. Although he found, very less time, he introduceq certain
useful administrative reforms. He believed in the divine origin of kingship.
The Sultan's position was exalted to the highest level.
All the nobles had to profess unquestionable faith in the power of the Sultan. Babur introduced Persian
ways and manners in the court.

He provided stability to the Government.

Oak Chaukis were established at intervals of every 15 miles.
Horses were maintained in the Oak Chaukis to facilitate easy communication from one place to another.
Babur neglected the finance department and had to face financial crisis. He refused to accept the
authority of the Caliph. He followed a policy of religious toleration. He got the daughters of Medini Rai
married to Humayun and Kamran. He also accepted the son of Rana Sanga as his vassal.
He constructed many palaces, baths and mosques.
BABUR'S MEMOIRS
Babur's autobiography is called 'Tuzuk-i-Babari'.
It is popularly known as the memoirs of Babur. It was written in Turki. Babur has used flawless style in
Turki.
The work has Deen translated into English and French. The English version of Mrs.Beveridge from the
original Turki is extremely authentic and reliable.
From this work,
we get a vivid picture of the attitude of his soldiers.
He also compliments the fighting spirit of the Rajputs without bias. The work reveals to us that Babur
was a highly religious person and attributed his victories to Cod's grace and mercy.
He also gives a vivid description of the beauty of noture which he observed even in the midst of his
perious
journeys.
Babur has also described the people living in India.
According to him, they have no good looks.
Their handicraft is inferior in variety. There is no good bread, cocked food in the bazaars, hot baths,
colleges, candles and torches.
Peasants and poor people are almost naked. Gold and Silver is found in abundance in India.
Babur says that the profession of different craftsmen was hereditary. It appears that he was not
impressed very much by the culture of Indians.
Elliot and Dawson hold the view that Babur's memoirs form the best and faithful pieces 6f
autobiography extant. Rushbrook Williams says that "Babur's place in history rests upon his Indian
conquests, but his place in biography and literature is determined by his delightful memoirs."

Lane Poole observed, Babur and his successors have gone, his splendour and power are no more but his
autobiography is still there to remind us of the greatness of the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India."
ESTIMATE OF BABUR
Babur was -an excellent warrior and an eminent scholar. He rose to a pre-eminent position by his
prowess, ability and hard work.
He was extremely ambitious and a lover of noture. He recognized Jehad against the Non-Muslims as a
sacred duty.
V.A.Smith says that Babur was the most brilliant Asiatic prince of his age and worthy of a high place
among the soveeigns of any age or country. RP.Tripathi says that Babur combined the vigour and
hardihood of the Turks and Mongols with the dash and courage of the Persians. He was a fine fencer,
good archer and superb horseman. He was never discouraged by setbacks and he never shirked from
hard life. He was extremely resourceful in grave crisis and in the heat of battle.
Malleson says that Babur was a man of remarkable ability who spent all his life in arms. His contribution
to peaceful pursuits is in no way less considering his hectic career of conquests. During the rule
of Babur, several buildings were constructed at Agra, Fathepur Sikri, Bayana and Dholpur. He planted
several gardens of fruits and flowers. In his memoirs Babur wrote, "Six hundred and eighty labourers
used to work everyday on my buildings at Agra while 1941 stone cutters worked everyday on my
buildings at Sikri, Bian, Dhaulpur, Gwalior and Kol (Aligarh)."
According to Rushbrook Williams, Babur possessed these eight fundamental qualities: Lofty judgement,
noble ambition, the art of victory, art of government, the art of conferring prosperity upon his people,
the talent of ruling mildly the people of God, ability to win the heart of his soldiers and
love of justice.

3.2 HUMAYUN (1530-56)

Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Humayun was the eldest son 01 Babur. He was born at Kabul in 1508 A.D. His
mother was Mahim Sultana. Humayun received proper education and experience in fighting and
administration before his accession. He participated in the battles of Panipat and Khanua. He was
granted the Jagir of Hissar Firoza in 1526. He also secured the Jagir of Sambhal. When Babur died in
1530, an attempt was made to place Mahdi Khwaja, the brother-in-law of Babur who was an
experienced and competenl administrator on the throne of Agra. But this attempt was foiled and
Humayun had been nominoted as the successor of Babur before the death of Babur. He ascended the
throne in 1530 A.D. Humayun is the only king in the history of Mughal India who ruled for two distinct

periods, i.e., from 1530 to 1540 and from 1555-56, after remaining in exile for fifteen years. The literal
meaning of the name 'Humayun' is 'Fortunote', but through most of his life, he remained 'unfortunote'.

PROBLEMS FACED BY HUMAYUN

HUllayun ascended the throne as the ruler of a heterogenous empire. The Rajputs, Jats, Chandelas and
various other rulers who were independent considered the Mughal rule as alien. Humayun's greatest
enemies were the Afghans who still aspired to capture Delhi from the Mughals. Babur had distribued
money ... among the nobles and soldiers to gain their loyalty. He had an imposing personality. The series
of wars waged by Babur resulted in financial bankruptcy. Humayun inherited an instable empire. All the
three step brothers of Humayun were disloyal. Babur had assigned large Jagirs to his relatives. It made
them quite powerful and enhanced their ambitions.

217

The Mughal army consisted of Uzbegs, Chagatais, Mughals, Persians, Afghans and Hindustanis. Such an
army was effective only under Babur. Humayun was neither a capable commander nor a diplomat. He
failed to understand the magnanimity of his problems to provide strong leadership to his followers.
Humayun granted large territories to each of his brothers. He permitted Kamran to occupy Kandhar and
Kabul. Later on he also granted Punjab to him. He gave Sambhal to Askari and Mewat to Hindal.
Dr.A.L.Srivastava says' that it was a great blunder committed by Humayun because it divided the
resources and strength of the empire. But Dr.Tripathi says that Humayun had to do it according to the
tradition of the Mughals and the Turks otherwise there was
the danger of a civil war among the brothers. urn a Muslim state, the law of primogeniture does not
operate. Accession to the throne is determined only at the point of sword.
Lane Poole says UHumayun was incapable of sustained effort and after a moment of triumph would
bury himself in his harem and dream away the precious' hours in the opium eaters' paradise whilst his
enemies were thundering at the gate. Noturally kind, he forgave when he should have punished; light
hearted and sociable, he reveled at the table when he ought to have been in the saddle. His character
attracts but never dominotes. In private life, he might have been a delightful companion and a staunch
friend; his virtues were Christian and his whole life was that of a gentleman. But as a king he was a
failure. His name means fortune but there never was an unlucky sovereign more miscalled."
CONTEST WITH THE AFGHANS
1.
ATTACK ON KALINJOR(1531)- Humayun attacked Kalinjor as he wanted to thwart the growing
power of Bahadur Shah. He attacked it in 1531 A.D. Hebesiged the fort but before he could capture it,

news reached him that Sher Khan had captured the fort of Chunar and the Afghans under Mahmud Lodi
were advancing towards Jaunpur. Humayun thus agreed for peace with the ruler of Kalinjor. He returned
back with some money as compensation. Thus the attack on Kalinjor was unsuccessful.
2.
were

THE BATTLE OF DHAURIA (Dadrah) AND THE FIRST SIEGE OF CHUNAR (1532)- When the Afghans

218

consolidating their position in Avadh under the leadership of Mahmud Lodi, Humayun led an expedition
against them. He defeated the Afghans at Dhauria. Mahmud Lodi fled from the battlefield but he lost all
his prestige and never participated in politics henceforth. Next Humayun besiged the fort of Chunar
which was in the hands of Sher Khan. Humayun failed to capturre it even after a siege of four .. months.
By that time, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat enhanced his pressure on Rajasthan.
Humayun asked Sher Khan to accept his sovereignty and to send a contingent of Afghan troops to serve
him. Sher Khan agreed and sent his son, Qutb Khan to serve Humayun. Later on Humayun returned to
Agra. Humayun spent a large sum of money in the construction of a fort called Din Panah. In 1534, he
defeated Muhammad Zaman Mirza and Muhammad Sultan Mirza who revolted against him in Bihar.
CONTEST WITH BAHADUR SHAH (1535-36)
Bahadur Shah, the rttler of Gujarat entered into treaties with a few states of South India. He wasin
correspondence with Sher Khan and Nusrat Shah of Bengal against Humayun. He strengthened his
forces securing the services of a Turkish Gunner, Rumi Khan. Bahadur Shah desired to capture Delhi.
Humayun entered Malwa to suppress Bahadur Shah. By that time, Bahadur Shah besieged the fort of
Chitoor. Karanwati, the Rajmata of Mewar sent a Rakhi to Humayun and sought his assistance as a
brother. Humayun did
. not desire to attack BahadurShah until he was engaged in Jihad against the infidels of Mewar. So he
stopped at Sarangpur. Chitoor was captured by Bahadur Shah and plundered freely for three days.
Hurnayun wanted lo win over the people of Malwa who were against Bahadur Shah and arrange for
stoppage. of help coming to Bahadur Shah either from Mandu or Ahmedabad.
Bahadur Shah also reached Mandasor. He did not attack Hurnayun but took defensive postures.
Humayun kept his army out of the reach of the artilleries of Bahadur Shah. He also obstructed the
supplies to Bahadur Shah's army. Due to shortage of supplies, Bahadur Shah's army lost its morClle. He
fled without fighting in 1535. and took refuge in the fort of Mandu. Bahadur Shah fled to C:hampaner
and then to Cambay and Diu. He was pursued by the

219
army of Humayun. Champaner fell into the hands of the Mughals and Humayun got immense booty. He
appointed his brother, Askari as the Governor of Gujarat and left Hindu Beg for his help and returned to
Mandu. However, Bahadur Shah recaptured whole of GujaraL Humayun fled to Agra as he suspected his
brother, Askari who might have attacked the fort. Mandu was occupied by Mallu Khan in the name of
Bahadur Shah. Thus, the Mughals lost Malwa and Gujarat.
CONTEST WITH SHER KHAN (1537-40 A.D.)
Sher Khan had consolidated his empire in Bihar. He controlled the strong fort of Chunar. Nusrat Shah of
Bengal died at that time .. Thus Sher Khan attacked Bengal and besieged its capital, Gaur and forced
Mahmud Shah; Successor of Nusrat Shah to pay a war indeinnityof 13,OO,OOODinars. In 1537 A.D. he
once again attacked Bengal. Humayun decided to subdue him.
Humayun laid siege on Chunargarh, meanwhile Sher Khan had captured Gaur and looted all its treasure
which he transferred to the fort of Rohtasgarh for safety. Humayun began negotiations of peace with
Sher Khan. It was agreed that the province of Bengal would be handed over by Sher Khan to Humayun
and Sher Khan also agreed to pay Rs: Ten lakhs. But before the treaty was signed, a messenger of
Mahmud Shah of Bengal sought the help of Humayun. Immediately Humayun broke the negotiations
and proceeded towards Bengal.
Sher Khan deputed his son, Jalal Khan to delay the advance of Humayun. Meanwhile Sher Khan left
Bengal and reached Bihar. Humayun captured Bengal easily. He stayed at Bengal for eight months. He
captured Kora, Benaras and Shambal. He also laid siege to Chunargarh and Jaunpur. He virtually
blockaded the way of Humayun to Agra. By that time, Hinda, brother of Hurnayun declared himself as
the ruler of Agra. Humayun left Jahangir Quli Beg at Bengal and proceeded towards Agra in 1539 A.D.
THE BATTLE OF CHAUSA (1539)
Humayun took the route of the Grand Trunk road which passed through South Bihar which was under
the control of Sher Khan. Humayun reached Chausa, a place at the boundary between Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh. Sher Khan confronted Humlayun.He deliberately

220

delayed the battle so thatthe rains would cause much trouble to the mughal army which had camped in
the low land between the river, the Ganges and the Karmanasa .. The Mughals were attacked and taken
by surprise by Sher Khan and the entire army was destroyed. Humayun plunged himself into the river
Ganges to save his life and crossed it with the help of a water-carrier called Nizam. Sher Khan declared

himself as the Sultan and.assumed the title 'SherShah' after the battle of Chausa. He captured Bengal
and returned to Kanauj.
THE BATTLE OF BILGRAM OR KANAUJ (1540)
Humayun had forgiven his brothers Kamran and Hindal.
However, there was lack of unity among the brothers. Kamran left for Lahore with a large army. The
Mughals defeated the Afghan army in Malwa which was sent by Sher Shah under his son, Qutb ,_ Khan.
But they failed to take any measures against Sher Shah .. Humayun confronted Sher Shah near Kanauj.
The Mughal$ were defeated miserably. Humayun fled away. Sher Shah established himself as the
master of Delhi. Humayun first went to Lahore, then. ta Sind and finally left India to seek refuge at the
court of the Shah of Persia.
CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE OF HUMAYUN
According to R.P.Tripathi, the opposition of Humayun's brothers and weakness of his character were
responsible for his failure. The division of the empire among the brothers of Humayun weakened the
empire. But the division of the empire was inevitable as the was every possibility of the outbreak of a
civil war among his brothers. Another major cause which contributed to the failure of Humayun was that
Sher Khan possessed an equally effective artillery. Sher Shah was a better and more experienced military
commander than Humayun. Moreover Humayun was an unlucky person and was a poor judge of men
and circumstances. He lacked the leadership qualities and indulged himself in pleasure during times of
emergency.
END OF THE RULE OF HUMA YUN
Humayun remained in exile from 1540-55. In 1541, he married Hamida Banu, the daughter of the
spiritual preceptor of Hinda( called Mir Ali Akbar Jani. Akbar, his son was born in 1542 at Amarkot which
was ruled by a Rajput ruler. Humayun settled in

221
Afghanistan after the death of his brothers . Sher Shah died in 1545
A.D. He was succeeded by Islam Shah. Islam Shah died in 1553. His 12 year old son, Firoz Shah was
murdered by his maternal uncle, Mtlbariz who captured the throne and assumed the title, 'Mohammad
Adil Shah.' Mohammad Adil Shah left the affairs of the state to his Hind u minister, Hemu. In 1554,
Humayun proceeded towards Peshawar and captured the territory upto Lahore by 1555 A.D. Humayun
defeated Sikandar Shah of Bengal in the battle of Sirhind in 1555. He occupied Delhi in 1556. One day
when he was descending from the stairs of the library at Din Panah, he slipped and fractured his skull.

He died two days.1ater in 1556 A.D. He nominoted his son, Akbar as his successor to the throne before
his death. Lane Poole says, "Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it."
ESTIMATE OF HUMA YUN
Humayun was a highly cultured person. He was magnanimous and had an extremely polite personality.
But he lacked financial sense. He was addicted to opium and lacked discretion. He had the attitude
of.indifference in consolidating his gains. Petty success elated him and he indulged in merry-making and
revelry. He himself was the architect of his misfortune. He lacked the character of arriving at the right
resolutions at the appropriate time. He could not withstand sustained effort. He could not concentrate
on anything for a long period. He was unstable in thinking and his energy was misdirected. He did not
pursue anything for a long time. According to Dr.Ishwari Prasad, "Though not wanting in personal
courage, Humayun was not a great general like his father or strategist like Shersh." His military
campaigns were defective and were never executed properly. Rf,Tripathi says that Humayun was
neither favoured by luck nor so gifted by noture as to be able to sustain the weight of the great
problems which he was called upon to tackle. Still Dr.S.Roy has rightly commented, "With all his
weakness and failings, Humayun has a significant place in Indian history which is not, perhaps, always
duly appreciated. The well-timed restoration of the Mughal power was a real achievement which paved
the way. for the splendid imperialism of Akbar."

SHER SHAH (1540-1545)

EARLY LIFE (1472-1530)
3.3 SHERSHAH AND HIS SUCCESSORS (1540-56)

The original name of Sher Shah when he was a child was 'Farid'.
His father, Hasan and grandfather, Ibrahim Sur traded in horses.
Sher Shah belonged to the family of Surs.
Farid was born in 1472 A.D.
Hasan had four wives and eight sons. Farid and Nizam were born to his first wife whereas Suleiman and
Ahmed were born to his fourth wife.
Hasan was under the influence of his fourth wife and neglected his first wife and sons. Sher Shah looked
after the Jagir of his father for about twenty years (1497-1518).
He secured immense experience in land management.
By this he convinced great interest in bringing land reforms after he became the Sultan of Delhi.

After the death of Hasan, Farid became the master of the Jagir of Sahasram, Khawaspur and Tanda.
But the jealousy of his stepmother and brothers forced him to take up service under Bahar Khan Lohani,
the ruler of South Bihar to cOl,mteract the influence of Mohammad Khan Sur of Chaund.
At Bihar,' Farid earned the title 'Sher Khan' for killing a tiger, single-handed in a hunting expedition.
Bahar Khan Lohani appointed him as his Deputy in his administration.
In 1526 A.D. ibrahim Lodi was defeated in the battle of Panipat by Babur.
Many Afghan nobles declared themselves as independent Bahar Khan Lohani also became independent.
He assumed the title, 'Sultan Mohammad.' The influence of Sher Shah was so great on Sultan
Mohammad that he incur the jealousy of the other nobles.
He was forced to leave Bihar.
He took up service under Babur. He served in the military organization and observed the vanity of the
Mughals.
He left the Mughal service in 1528.
Sultan Bahar Khan Lohani of Bihar died in 1528.
His wife, Dudu appointed Sher Shah as the Deputy of her minor son, Jalal Khan.
In 1529, Sher Shah joined Muhammad Lodi to fight against Babur.
He knew fully well that Mahmud Lodi did not have the ability to defeat the mughals.
The Afgharts were defeated in the battle of Ghagra.
In 1529 A.D. Nusrat Shah of Bengal attacked South Bihar but was defeated by Sher Khan who had
monopolized its administration.
Jalal Khan fled to Bengal.
Sher Khan assumed the title 'Hazrat-Ala and bec Cime the virtual ruler of.
South Bihar.
He secured the fort of Chunar by marrying the widow of the ruler.
CONTEST FOR THE EMPIRE (1530-40)
In 1530 A.D. Humayun became the Mughal emperor and the Afghans decided to fight against him under
the leadership of Mahmud LodL The Afghan rulers assembled in Bihar and Sher Khan joined them

although he had no faith in the leadership of Mahmud Lodi. In the battle of Dhauria, Mahmud Lodi was
defeated by Humayun.
The exit of Mahmud Lodi from the Indian political scene provided Sher Khan an opportunity to lead the
Afghans against the Mughal.
Humayun attacked the fort of Chunar which was under the control of Sher Khan. The siege lasted for
four months.
But Humayun received the news about trouble brewing in Gujarat on account of Bahadur Shah.
He sued for peace and permitted Sher Khan to retain the fort.
Sher Khan agreed to send Ii contingent of troops to serve the Mughal government.
SHER KHAN AND BENGAL
Nusrat Shah was succeeded by Mahmud Shah in Bengal. Sher Khan attacked Bengal and looted it.
He defeated the ruler of Bengal in the battle of Surajgarh.
It was a turning point in the career of Sher Khan as he would never have emerged from obscurity into
the main stage of Hindustan in politics.
He forced Mahmud Shah to pay 13 lakh Dinars artd to surrender a large territory. Sher Khan led many
expeditions against Bengal to extort wealth from Bengal.
Although peace was concluded in 1536 with the ruler of Bengal, Sher Khan was determined to capture
the whole of it.
He made elaborate preparations and atacked Bengal in 1537.
Mahmud Shah realized the futility of fighting against Sher Khan and sought the help of Humayun.
Humayun was also alarmed by the activities of Sher Khan.
Humayun besieged Chunar in 1537.
He spent six months to capture it. The greatest blunlder of Humayun was that he had spent a lot of time,
money and energy in occupying Chunar.
When Humayun was busy occupying Chunar, Sher Khan conquered the Bengal territory between
Monghyr and Gaur and succeeded in looting Gaur and returned back to Bihar.
In 1538, he captured the fort of Rohtasgarh to give shelter to his women.
According to one view, Sher Khan requested the Hindu Raja of Rohtasgarh to give shelter to his women.

The Hindu Raja agreed to it and Sher Khan smuggled a large number of armed Afghan troops in covered
litters who were disguised as women.
Once the Afghans entered the fort, they captured Rohtasgarh fort.
Another version is that Sher Khan bribed the minister of the Hindu Raja who allowed the Afghans to
enter the fort.
Thus Rohtasgarh was occupied and Sher Khan placed his treasure at Rohtasgarh and prepared himself to
fight against Humayun.
OCCUPATION OF BENGAL BY HUMAYUN
Hurriayun started negotiations with Sher Khan and suggested
that he should surrender all his treasury and accept a small Jagir for himself.
When Sher Khan refused to accept it, Humayun suggested that he should surrender Bihar and keep
Bengal and pay an annual tribute of Rs. 10 lakhs.
Sher Khan accepted the proposal, but Humayun decided to conquer bengal.
Sher Khan transferred his treasure from Gaur to the Rohtasgarh fort and permitted Humayun to enter
Bengal without any opposition.
Humayun entered Bengal triumphantly and finding no opposition indulged in merry making for some
months.
Sher Khan marched towards Delhi when Humayun was reveling in Bengal. He disrupted the
communication between Delhi and Bengal.
Sher Khan had captured Kara, Kanauj and Sambhal By 1539, the entire region between the Kosi and the
Ganga came under the control of Sher Khan.
BATTLE OF CHAUSA
Sher Khan blocked the route of Humayun. There was no other alternotive for Humayun other than
waging a war' against Sher Khan.
His army could not procure essential articles also. The armies of Humayun and Sher Khan clashed
against each other for nearly three months.
However, there was no pitched battle to end up in a decisive victory for either of the armies.
Sher Khan tried to delay the final battle as much as possible. Humayun could not grasp the intention of
Sher Khan.
After three months, heavy rains flooded the Mughal - encampment completely.

It created havoc and confusion in the army of Humayun. At this crucial juncture, Sher Khan attacked
Humayun. The battle of Chausa took place in 1539., Humayun was defeated.
He plunged into the Ganges and saved his life with the help of a water carrier.
BA TTLE OF BILGRAM (KANAUJ), 1540
Humayun managed to escape and he reached Agra and consulted his brothers.
Kamran offered to fight against Sher Khan but Humayun did not accept the suggestion.
He wanted Kamran to lend only his army.
Finally Humayun mustered the support of 40,000 soldiers.
In 1540, he fought against Sher Khan at Kanauj. In the battle of Kanauj or Bilgram Humayun was
defeated.
Sher Khan established himself as the master of Delhi and Agra.
Humayun was invited by Maldeo of Marwar and he accepted the offer.
But on his way to Marwar, he learnt that Maldeo was planning to arrest him in order to please Sher
Khan.
He decided to go to Sind. He secured shelter form the Raja of Amarkot where Akbar was born in 1542.
Humayun left India and ultimately sought refuge in the court of Shah of Persia, Tahmasp. Sher Shah
ascended the throne of Delhi by 1540 and remained in power till 1545.
His successors ruled over Delhi till 1556.
The strategy used by Sher Khan was responsible for his victory over Humayun.
The moves of Humayun were ill-planned.
Although the Mughal forces were great in number with resources in abundance, Humayun failed
miserably due to the planning and calculations of Sher Khan.
Mighty brawn was no match for a nimble brain.
Humayun's ill-luck also contributed to the victory of Sher Khan.
The floods engulfed the camp of Humayun when he was in the midst of a crucial war. The defeat of
Humayun was a triumph for Sher Shah's flexible strategy over the rigid technique of the Mughals.
According to Dr.Ishwari Prasad the battle of Kanauj turned out to be a greater disaster thantherout of
Chausa and shattered for the time being at least the hopes of the Mughal revival.

CONSOLIDATION OF THE EMPIRE (1540-45)

REVOLT IN BENGAL (1954)
While Sher Shah was in Punjab, the Governor of Bengal, Khizr Khan had married the daughter Sultan
Mahmud.
He began to behave in an independent manner. Sher Shah led an expedition against Bengall.
He defeated Kuzr Khan and imprisoned him.
He introduced a novel system of administration in Bengal in order to prevent the outbreak of revolts in
future.
MALWA (1542)
Mallu Khan, the Governor of Gujarat in Malwa assumed independent status and took the title, 'Qadir
Shah' after the death of Bahadur Shah.
He refused accept the sovereignty of Sher Shah.
Moreover Sher Shah also feared that Malwa would be captured by Maldeva of Marwar or Humayun.
Thus he decided to conquer it.
He conquered Gwalior and reached Sarangpur.
Qadir Shah voluntarily surrendered to Sher Shah.
The major portion of Malwa was annexed into the empire of Sher Shah. Mallu Khan' or Qadir' Shah
secured Lakhnauti or Kalpi as Jagir.
But Qadir Shah fled to Gujarat to save his life. Sher -Shah appointed Sujaat Khan as to Governor of
Malwa.
Sher Shah also compelled the Governor of the fort of Ranthombhor to surrender to him ..
RAISIN AND CHANDERI, 1543 A.D.
The forts of Raisin and Chanderi were under the control of Purah Mal, a Rajput.
In 1542; Puran Mal had acknowledged the sovereignty of Sher Shah.
However, Sher Shah received the news that Puran Mal was persecuting the Muslims and forced even
respectable Muslim women to take up the profession of singing and dancing.
Moreover, at that time Sher Shah was contemplating on the idea of capturing Raisin and Chanderi for
practical reasons.

He besieged the two forts. The Rajputs resisted Sher Shah for several months. He then promised on the
Koran to safeguard the life, property and honour of Puran Mal if he would surrender the fort to him.
Pur an Mal decided to hand over the fort to Sher Shah. The Rajputs along with Puran Mal came out of
the fort and encamped themselves near Sher Shah. The Muslims women folk wept before Sher Shah and
requested him to punish Puran Mal.
The Qazis also
advised Sher Shah to break his vow.
Sher Shah surrounded the Rajputs from all sides. The Rajputs killed their women and children.
They fought against Sher Shah till their last breath and died in the battlefield.
Some of them were captured by Sher Shah and were Q.. converted into slaves. The little daughter of
Puma Mal was left on the street for dancing and was given to itinerant minstrels (Bazigaran) so that they
may make her to dance in the bazaars.
The entire race of Puran Mal was destroyed. The loyal noble of Sher Shah, Qutub Khan who had been a
party to the promise given to the Rajputs committed suicide in shame.
Dr.Ishwari Prasad observes, "Such was the inhuman barbarity of Sher Shah towards an enemy who had
relied upon plighted faith."
WAR AGAINST MALDEO OF MARWAR
Maldeo became the ruler of Marwar.
He Jailed to Gapture Humayun as desired by Sher Shah.
Sher Shah wanted to attack Marwar.
Kalyan Mal of Bikaner and Bikramdeva sought the help of Sher Shah against Maldeo.
Sher Shah attacked Marwar in 1544 A.D.
at the head of 80,000 troops. Maldeo faced Sher Shah at Jodhpur.
He commanded a strong force while Sher'Shah was short of supplies.
Sher Shah deliberately dropped a letter near the camp of Maldeo rousing the suspicion of Maldeo
towards his nobles. A few Rajput chiefs also separated themselves from the main army and left it
disorganized.
Sher Shah left two persons, Khawas Khan and Isa Khan' ,to reduce Matwar.
Then he proceeded towards Mewar.

MEWAR
Mewar had become a weak state after the defeat and death of Rana Sanga.
Balbir, an usurper had occupied the throne after killing Vikramjit, though the infant child of Vikramjit
was saved by his nurse, Panna.
That very child, Uday Singh became the ruler of Mewar in 1542 A.D.
but was not in a strong position at that time. So Uday Singh submitted to Sher Shah without any
resistance. The whole of Rajasthan came under the rule of Sher Shah.
BUNDELKHAND (1545)
Sher shah decided to conquer the fort of Kalinjor.
The ruler of Kalinjor, Kirat Singh had been loyal to Humayun.
His son, Vir Bhanu had helped Humayun to escape qfter he was defeated in the battle of Chausa.
Kalinjor was of great importance to Sher Shah.
He also wanted to possess a famous dancing girl at the court of Kirat Singh.
Raja Birbhan Baghela of Rewa took refuge in the court of Kirat Singh.
Sher Shah demanded his release. Kirat Singh refused to do so. Thus, Sher Shah attacked the fort of
Kalinjor in 1544 A.D. The Afghans captured the fort after eight months. One of the rockets when fired
against the gate of the fort, rebounded and fell into the heap of ammunition lying near the place where
Sher Shah was standing.
It led to an explosion in which Sher Shah was seriously burnt. Sher Shah died in 1545 A.D.
Sher Shah succeeded in capturing practically entire Northern India except Kashmir, Assam and Gujarat.
He also proved himself to be a capable administrator.
ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
IshwariPrasad has rightly observed, "The Government of Sher Shah, though autocratic was enlightened
and vigorous."
Sher Shah paid due respect to the sentiments and tradition of the Afghans to win their support and
loyalty.
His ministers enjoyed very less power when compared to the ministers of the Mughals. All major
decisions were taken by Sher Shah alone .. He worked hard for 16 hours per day.

Dr.R.P:Tripathi and Dr.P.Saran are of the opinion that Sher Shahwas merely a reformer and not an
innovator.
Sher Shah enjoyed extensive powers as the-Head of the state, but his administration was autocratic and
the same time enlightened, benevolent and vigorous.
He did not pay much attention to the Ulemas.
He exercised both civil and military powers and strove for the benefit of the people.
Different departments were created to conduct the administration.
It can be said that the administrative system was more a replica of the administrative system which
prevailed under the Delhi Sultanote.
The Wazir was the Head of Diwan-i-Wazirat.
He was in charge of the income and expenditure.
He also supervised other ministers.
The Diwan-I-Ariz was the department in charge of recruitment, organization and discipline of the army.
The Diwan-i-Risalat was the external affairs department which was in charge of sending and receiving
ambassadors and envoys.
It also dealt with diplomatic correspondence.
The Diwan-i-Insha was in charge of royal correspondence.
The minister in charge this department had to draft royal orders and proclamations and had to look into
the dispatches also.
Correspondance yvith Governors and local officers was carried only through this department.

The Diwan-i-Qaza was under the control of the Chief Qazi.

His duty was dispensation of justice and supervision of judicial administration.
The Diwan-i-Barid was the intelligence bureau.
It consisted of a large number of news writers and spies. Thefunction
of different departments were similar to those which had prevailed during the rule of the Delhi
Sultanote.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Under Sher Shah's rule, there was no uniformity in the administration of provinces but they were kept
under strict discipline.
No Governor ever dared to revolt. Although the Governor of Bengal revolted, he was subdued
immediately.
Sher Shah established a new type of provincial administration in Bengal which was divided into a large
number of Sarkars.
A civilian Was at the head of the entire province and he was given a sm.all army for his help.
He supervised the various officials of the Sarkar and also settled the disputes.
During the rule of Sher Shah the provinces were divided into Sarkars
The two important officials of a Sarkar were Munsif-iMunsifan and Shiqdar-i-Shiqdran.
The Munsif-i-Munsifan was a judicial officer who settled civil disputes. The Shiqdar-i-ShJqdaran was
entitled to maintain law and order within the Sarkar.
The Sarkars consisted of a number of Paraganas.
The important officials of the Paraganas were a Shiqdar, an Amin, a Treasurer, a Munsif,a Hindi scribe
and Persian writer of Accounts.
The Shiqdar maintained his own small band of soldiers to maintain peace and security.
He collected the local taxes and used force to exact the dues from the people. He also presided over the
local courts dealing with the duty of collection of Government dues.
The ent'ire Revenue of the Paragana and the revenue collected, deposited with him. He maintained a
record of the income and expenditure of the Paragana.
The clerks were called as Karkuns. Records were maintained in Persian but another clerk maintained
duplicate records in Hindi for the convenience of the public.
The Patwaris, Chaudhuris and the Muqaddams acted as the intermediaries between the state and the
people.
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
Sher Shah introduced a novel system of assessment of land
revenue. He believed that the king has to strive for the welfare of the peasants.
He introduced the Ryotwari system of land tenure.

The state maintained direct relations with the peasants for the assessment and collection of land
revenue.
The system could not be introduced in Multan, Malwa and Rajasthan where the Jagirdari system
continued to exist.
Cultivators were asked to pay 1/3rd of the produce.
The peasants were given title deeds (Pattas) by the state specifying the revenue which they had to pay.
He punished those who harassed the peasants.
Land was measured and the record of the area of land held by each cultivator was recorded.
The average produce for each Bigha was calculated by taking into consideration the produce of the best,
middling and worst lands in every crop.
In every season the amount of area under each crop was entered in the records in the records for every
cultivator against his name.
A detailed record was maintained which indicated not only the entire cultivated area of a peasant but
also the sub-divisions.
Later on, only a record of the sub-units tinder cultivation was maintained and their area could be copied
from the earlier records.
It must have been a time consuming process and probably Sher Shah was unable to introduce a uniform
system throughout his empire .
The village headman collected the land revenue and he charged 5% for his labour.
Moreover, nearly 5% was collected for the expenses incurred on visiting public servants.
Whenever the crops were damaged,. remissions in land revenues were provided.
While the army was on the move or camping, the soldiers had to take care not to destroy the crops.
Whenever large areas of land were cultivated, the revenue of the state treasury also used to increase.
Cultivators were encouraged to bring more lands under cultivation. Moreover, cultivation of valuable
crops was also encouraged. Peasants were provided with interest free loans. The cultivators were
provided receipts for the amount paid by them so that they were saved from double payment.
The records of land assessment and revenue of the
state were maintained both in Persian and Hindi languages. The record prepared in Persian language
was sent to the capital.

Sher Shah passed orders that lenience should not be shown regarding revenue collection but there
could be leniency at the time of assessment. The maIn objective of SherShah was to check corruption
among the officials. The commendable contribution of Sher Shah in the field of revenue administration
was that he introduced a permanent schedule of rates and also defined the,mutual rights and
obligations of the peasants through Patta and Qabuliyat.
Sher Shah's revenue reforms suffered from certain defects. The share of the state was fixed as 1/3rd of
the average produce of three kinds of land. So the bad land was over charged and the good land was
undercharged: The share of the state was quite high and the revenue assessment was made for one
year only and it caused lot of inconvenience to the cultivators.
JUSTICE
Sher Shah paid great attention towards dispensation of justice.
No person could escape punishment on account of his status.
The Qazi presided over the courts. The punishments awarded to criminals were extremely severe.
The intention was to create fear in the minds of the people to refrain from committing crimes. Even
Government officials and the rich nobility were not spared.
Prompt measures were undertaken to maintain peace and security, within the empire. In the Sarkars,
the Shiqdar-i-Shikdaran was entrusted with the task of maintaining peace and tranquility.
A strong police force. was created and managed by the local authorities. The soldiers themselves were
appointed in the police department. The police system evoved by Sher Shah has been praised by many
historians. People were free from the menace of thieves and bandits. Travellers encamped at night
without any fear even in an uninhabited place They could place the goods under the tree and turn out
their mules to graze and sleep without any disturbance or anxiety. It is saId that during the rule of Sher
Shah an old lady could place a basket full of gold ornaments on her head and go on a journey and no
thief would come near her due to the fear of the punishment which would be inflicted on him.
TRADE AND CURRENCY
Sher Shah promoted trade and commerce. He abolished the
various duties levied at the frontiers of every province.
Only two types of duties were levied. A duty was levied on the goods which were brought into the
kingdom and another duty was levied on the sales of the goods. Many internal customs were abolished.
When Sher Shah ascended the throne the currency system was in a poor condition. There was no fixed
ratio between the coins of different metals.
The coins which had been issued by different earlier rulers were permitted for circulation at the same
time and it create confusion.

Sher Shah stopped the use of all old and debased coins and issued new coins of gold, silver and copper
of all denominotions of standard weights and of good metals.
His Silver rupee and the Copper dams had fixed relative values. His rupee minus its inscription lasted
throughout the Mughal period and was retained by the English also upto 1835 A.D. V.A.Sinith remarked
"This rupee is the basis of the existing British currency system."
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
Sher Shah constructed a number of roads and highways. One of the roads was constructed from
Sonargoan in Bengal to the Indus.
Another road wsa laid down from Agra to Burhanpur.
The third road linked Agrato Jodhpur and Chitoor.
The fourth road was, constructed from Lahore to Multan. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads.
Sarais were constructed and separate provision was made for Hindus and Muslims. The Sara is consisted
of a well, a mosque and an official called Imam. The Sara is were used as Oak Chaukis. A Daroga-i-Dak
Chauki was appointed by Sher Shah. A large number of news writers and news carriers were employed.
Sher Shah had an efficient Intelligence Department that kept him well-informed of all the happenings in
the state.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
Sher Shah was a Sunni Mussalman. He arranged charity for the poor and the needy. Dr..R.Sharma says
that 'it was not different from other Turk and Afghan rulers of the Delhi Sultanote."
Dr.R.P.Tripathi says that 'Sher Shah was a tolerant monarch which is proved by the activities pursued in
religion, literature and fine
arts during his time.'; But Sher Shahs intolerance is exhibited clearly when he declared Jehad on Rajput
rulers. His treatment of Raja Puran Mal of Raisin proves his religious bigotry.
Moreover he constructed a mosque destroying a temple at Jodhpur. However he was kind to Hindus
during peace times. So A.L.Srivastava holds the view that Sher Shah's policy was that Islam should be
given its due dignity and supremacy in the land but at the same time, Hinduism should not be held
inferior or degraded.
ARCHITECTURE
Sher Shah constructed the fort of Rohtasgarh on the banks of the river Jhelum. Ir: the Northwest, the
Purana Qila, was built.
At Delhi, a city established by destroying the city of Kanauj.

Sher Shah also tried to build a new city near the Purana Qila at Delhi. The mosque in thePurana Qila has
been regarded as a good example of Indo-Islamic architecture. Sher Shah constructed his own
mausoleum at Sahasram in Bihar.
The Mausoleum has been built in the midst of a lake on a lofty plinth and ranks among the most
beautiful buildings in India. Percy Brown.has praised every building of Sher Shah for design and
execution.
ESTIMATE OF SHER SHAH
Sher Shah was a great empire builder. On account of his efforts, he was successful in establishing the
power of the Afghans in Delhi by defeating Humayun who had inherited a strong and stable kingdom.
Sher Shah's military campaigns were marked by careful calculations and brilliant enterprise. The view of
RP.Tripathi is that if Sher Shah had lived longer, he might have taken the wind out of Akbar's sails. He
was undoubtedly one of the greatest statesmen among the Sultans of Delhi. He paved the way for the
highly enlightened policy of Akbar. Beyond doubt, he was the founder of the second Afghan empire.
Prof.s.RSharma says that although Sher Shah sat on the throne of Delhi only for five years, he left behind
him more than a mere territorial legacy. 'He e<:tablished his supremacy over the disunited Afghan
tribes.
Dr.Ishwari Prasad says that from a petty Jagirdar's sonin Bihar, Sher Shah rose to the position of
Emperor and he brought large and extensive teITitories under his sway. He drove the Mughals out of
India and humbled the pride of the noblest Mughals. The institutions , devised by him and the
unremitting industry with which he looked after the business of the state, won for him the admiration
and esteem of friends and foes alike.
Sher Shah tried to introduce a standardized administ.rative system. The land assessment and revenue
collection, although had their own flaws were definitely commendable for granting the ownership rights
to the peasants and establishing direct contact between the peasants and the state. Despite some acts
of religious bigotry Sher Shah's benevolence is evident as separate provisions was made for both Hindus
and Muslims in the Sarais. But he did not rise to the position of Akbar as he did not abolish Jizya and he
waged Jehad and went to any length, even breaking a vow to protect Islam. Sri Ram Sharma says that
the ruler who went on levying Jizya, who did not think it necessary to keep faith with a Hindu chief and
who proclaimed his victories by converting a temple into a mosque had yet to learn the elementary
principles of a secular state.
The judicial system under Sher Shah has been regarded as highly commendable. According to Abbas
Sarwari, "Travellers and way farers during the time of Sher Shah Suri's reign, were relieved from the
trouble of keeping watch, nor did they fear to be robbed in the midst of a desert. They encamped at
night at every place, desert or uninhabited, without any fear." He further wrote, " Arl old woman might
place a basket full of golden ornaments on her head and go on a journey and. no thief or robber would
come near her for fear of punishment which Sher Shah inflicted."Erskine wrote, "Sher Shah had more of
the spirit of a legislator and guardian of his people than any prince before Akbar." According to Sir

Wolseley Haig, "No other ruler from Aibak to Aurangazeb possessed such intimate knowledge of the
details of administration or.was able to examine and control public business so minutely and effectively
as he." Dr.V.A.Smith has praised Sher Shah by sayiFlg, "Sher Shah is entitled to the honour of
establishing the reformed system of currency which lasted throughout the Mughal period, was
maintained by the East India company upto 1825." In the words of Dr.R.P.Tripathi, "He (Sher Shah)
paved the way for the highly enlightened policy of Akbar."
SUCCESSORS OF SHER SHAH
ISLAM SHAH (1545-1553)- Sher Shah died in 1545. He had two sons, Adil and Jalal. Of the two, Jalal
ascended the throne although Adil was elder to him: and assumed the title of Islam Shah and ruled till
1553. At first, the Raja of Kalinjor was put to death. Anefficient espionage system was established. Islam
Shah was unable to win over the nobles and the signs of decadence of the Afghan empire were obvious.
Adil Shah tried to over throw Islam Shah. He was helped by KhawasKhan and other nobles in forming a
conspiracy. However, the conspiracy ended a failure. Islam Shah punished the erring nobles and
destroyed all the Afghan nobles who occupied high positions of prestige and authority. Islain Shah
lacked the qualities of his father.
MOHAMMAD ADIL (1553-57)- Islam Shah was succeeded by his son, Firuz. But, Firuz was killed by
Mubariz Khan, the son of Sher Shah's brother, Nizam. Mubariz Khan did not possess the qualities of a
ruler. He assumed the title "Mohammad Adil". He was licentious in character and was not interested in
administrative matters. He was unpopular. He could not display the ability of saving the Afghan empire.
The most striking personality of the age of Muhammad Adil was Hemu. He was the son of a Baniya in
Haryima. Initially he had been a salt-petre seller. Later on he was a weighman in the market. Under
Islam Shah, he became the superintendent of the market of Delhi. Then he became the chief of the
Daroga-i-Dak Chauki. The Dak Chauki brought him every day one seer of Suna-Moong or the best quality
of pulses and a maund of fresh rice from Bengal even if he happened to be on the banks of the Indus. He
wielded the sword 'with the same skill with whichhe held the balance. Abul Fazl says "Hemu undertook
all appoil1tments and dismissals and the distribution of justice. In his foresight, he got possession of the
treasures of Sher. Khan and Salim Khan and their elephant stud. For some days he took up the title of
Rai and then he fastened on th title of Raja on himself and assumed the style of Raja Bikramjit. Hemu
had to confront Akbar, the son of Humayun and the Mughal force in the battle 6f Panipat Hemu died in
the course of the war and it
signified the downfall of the Afghan empire. The Mughal empire was re-established by Akbar.
DECLINE OF THE AFGHAN EMPIRE
The successors of Sher Shah were weak and incompetent. They lacked zeal and enthusiasm. Islam Shah
was responsible for the destruction of many nobles who had rendered yeomen service to the state.
Mubariz.Khan indulged in wine and women and neglected the administration completely. The Afghan
character began tQ deteriorate. The swallowed the insults heaped on them by Hemu without protesting.

The condition of the peasants was neglected and adequate measures were not taken for speedy
dispensation of justice. The memorable reign of Sher Shah appeared to be only a fairy tale of the past.

3.4 AKBAR (1556-1605 A.D.)

Akbar was one of the greatest rulers of medieval Indian history. His importance as a historical personage
. lies in the fact that he established an . extensive empire. He could visualize the need for unity of the
NonMuslims and the Muslims in order to preserve the integrity of the empir.
He was endowed with a powerful personality, praise-worthy virtues and universal outlook.
He was responsible for reconstructing the tottering Mughal empire and for preserving and promoting
Mughal culture.
He contributed in: a significant way to the glorious legacy of the Mughals also.
CONDITION OF INDIA AT THE TIME OF AKBAR'S ACCESSION

During the time of Akbar's accession, North India was in a state of political chaos. There was a terrible
famine for two years and the economic condition was in a deplorable condition. Ceaseless warfare had
desolated many of the fairest provinces of North India. Akbar's own position was precarious as he had to
launch an expedition to recover his father's lost kingdom. Although Sikandar Sur was defeated by
Humayun, he was still in Punjab claiming to be the king of Punjab and Delhi. Especially in the eastern
provinces, the Afghans were strong under the leadership of Sultan Muhammad Shah Audali. Hemu, the
minister of Mohammad Adil was the most formidable rival of Akbar and he was determined to foil the
plans of Akbar to

238

occupy the throne of Delhi. The power of the Rajput princes of Mewar, Jaisalmer, Bundi and Jodhpur
had been enhanced and they were the archrivals of the Mughals. The wild regions of Gondwana and
Orissa acknowledged no master. The rulers of Gujarat arid Malwa had declared their independence.
Kabul was administered on behalf of Akbar by his half-brother, Mirza Mohammad Hakim. He was
extremely ambitious and aspired to secure a predominant position in India also. Hind and Multan were
far away, totally detached from the purview of the Delhi emprie. Kashmir was under an independent
ruler. In the Deccan region, the Muslim states of Bijapur, Bidar, Golkonda, Ahmednagar and Berar were

constantly at war. Moreover, theVijayanagara empire was firmly established as a bulwark against the
Muslim onslaughts.
HE MUST RISE TO POWER
Before discussing about the Second battle of Panipat, it is essential to know about Hemu. In fact it
appears that the historians have ignored Hemu. The second battle of Panipat took place between Hemu
and Akbar. So from this point of view throwing some light on Hemu appears to be apt at this stage. The
defeat of Hemu changed the fate and fortune of Akba,r and the Mughals. According to R.C.Majumdar,
"Historians, medieval and modern, have done scant justice to, and .failed to show due appreciation of,
the unique personality and greatness of a Hindu, during the heyday of Muslim rule in India who worked
his way from a grocer's shop to the throne of Delhi, and but for an accident in a battle which turned
victory into defeat, might have founded a Hindu ruling dynasty, instead of the Mughals in Delhi
The ability of Bemu was recognized by Islam Shah of Bengal and he was promoted to the post of the
head of the Department of Intelligence and he was also involved in some affairs related to giving military
commands. After the death .of Islam Shah, the Emperor Adil Shah appointed Hemu as his Prime
Minister. From then onwards even military administratiQn was entrusted to Hemu. He subdued several
rebellions and waged nearly 22 successful battles from 1553 to i555. Humayun, who had ascended the
throne of Delhi pased away in 1556. Tardi Beg was appointed as the Governor of Delhi and the 13 years
old Akbar was declared as the emperor. Hemu

239

advanced by way of Gwalior and Agra to reach Delhi and inflicted a severe defeat on the Mughal forces.
Hemu won over the Afghans by distributing the spoils of war and ascended the throne of Delhi with
their support. He also issued coins in his name and assumed the historic name, Raja Vikramaditya.
THE SECOND BATTLE OF PANIPAT (1556)
Hemu, the minister of Muhammad Adil was ambitious and skilled in warfare. After the death of
Humayun, he captured Agra and proceeded towards Delhi. Tardi Beg, the Mughal Governor was forced
to flee and Hemu was successful in capturing Delhi also. He entered Delhi in a triumphant manner,
assuming the title, Bikramajit. The news of the fall of Delhi and Agra alarmed the Mughals. Bairam Khan
decided in favour of recovering Delhi. Leaving Khwaja Khizr Khan at Lahore to deal with Sikandar Sur,
Akbar led the expedition against Hemu. Three fugitive governors of Agra, Delhi and Sambhal joined
Akbar and advised him to retreat to Kabul. Bairam Khan however silenced them by putting Tardi Beg to
death with Akbar's permission.
V.A.Smith has justified the execution of Tardi Beg by saying, liThe punishment although inflicted in
an irregular fashion without any trial was necessary and consequently just. It may be reasonably

affirmed that failure to punish the dereliction of Tardi Beg from his duty would have cost Akbar both his
throne and life." But Dr.Ishwari Prasad says "the manner in which Bairam brought about the murder
admits of no palliation even on the ground that the interest of state demanded the crime." J ahangir
also tells us tha t there was a: personal rivalry between Tardi Beg and Bairam Khan and he brought
about the downfall of his rival at the earliest opportunity. Moreo,:er, Bairm Khan's action was not totally
accepted by Akbar but he remained silent as .the circumstances demanded it.
Hemu won over his Afghan officers by a liberal distribution of wealth. He made elaborate preparations
to check the -advance of the Mughals. Akbar sent an artillery force Under the command Ali Quli Khan
Shaibani. Hemu's advance guard was defeated by Ali Quli Khan. Within a week or so the two main
armies met on the historic plain of Panipat in 1556. Bairam Khan commanded the 10,000 strong Mughal
army. The.other important persons in charge of the

240

command were Ali Quli Khan, Sikandar Khan Uzbeg and Abdullah. Khan Uzbeg. Hemu's fighting strength
consisted of 30,000 Rajput and Afghan Cavalry and 500 war elephants. His army was not equipped with
guns.
Hemu committed the blunder of directing the movements of his troops by personally commanding by
mounting an elephant. He exposed himself by sitting on an elephant. He was struck in the eye by a stray
arrow. He became unconscious. His army, presuming that its leader was dead, was seized with panic and
fled helter skelter in all directions. Hemu's elephant driver tried to take his unconscious master beyond
the reach of danger but was overtaken by the Mughal officer, Shah QuIi Mubarak who captured Hemu
and conducted him to Akbar.
Bairam Khan asked Akbar to earn the title of Ghazi by slaying the infidel, Hemu with his own hands.
The second battle of Panipat produced momentous results. The victory of the Mughals over the Afghans
was decisive. The Afghan sovereignty of Hindustan was destroyed forever. Sikandar Sur had sought
refuge in the Sivalik hills. Bairam Khan sent his troops to besiege the fort of Mankot in which Sikandar
Sur had shut himself. He surrendered and sued for peace. By 1557, Sultan Mohammad Adil died in a
conflict with the ruler of Bengal. Akbar established himsef as the sovereign of Delhi and established the
Mughal empire.
BAIRAM DHAN

Bairam Khan was a Shia who served Humayun and Akbar. He participated in the battle of Kanauj in 1540
and was imprisoned. He managed to escape and join Humayun. He accompanied Humayun in his

expeditions against Kabul, Kandhar, Punjab, Delhi and Agra,. He was the prime inspirer of Akbar to wage
the war of Panipat and to establish the Mughal empire. He has been accused . of the execution of Tardi
Beg but it was the need of the hour as he wanted to strike terror in the hearts of cowards and traitors.
He filled the much needed confidence among the soldiers to fight with the single minded determinotion
of winning the war.
After the battle of Panipat, Bairam Khan exercised immense influence over Akbar by virtue of his
experience and ability. At the age of fifteen, Akbar married the daughter of his uncle, Hindal. Bairam
Khan remained as the person who exercised real political

241

power. Bairam Khan married Akbar's cousin, Salima Begum and became closer to the royal family. He
took great interest in educating Akbar which began at Kabul. A Persian scholar called Mir Abdul Latif was
chosen as his tutor. However, Akbar did not learn to read but he learnt universal toleration. He refused
to read but he showed great skill in acquiring knowledge by having books read out to him. He had a
wonderful memory and had a great genius for organization.
Bairam Khan was in charge of the actual administration. Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur were annexed to
the Mughal empire. However, he failed in occupying Malwa and Ranthombhor. By 1560, he lost his
power. His fall has been attributed to a number of reasons. He favoured the Shias. He issued decrees
wih his own seal and did not give much importance to the Ulemas and the Sayyids. Bairam Khan also
showered favours on his friends'and followers. He granted the title of Panch Hazari to his close friends
and associates and it was resented by the other nobles as they were deprived of the . privilege although
they deserved it.
Bairam Khan was resented for having executed Tardi Beg. Akbar was then eighteen years old and he
resented the restrictions which Bairam Khan a strict mentor imposed on him. Bairam Khan punished the
royal servants severely for petty mistakes which they committed. The ladies of the court who disliked
the haughty ways of Bairam Khan poisoned Akbar's mind against Bairam Khan.
A rumour also began to spread that Bairam Khan was trying to place Abdul Qasim, son of Kamran on the
throne of Delhi. This was considered as the height of disloyalty.
Gradually Akbar decided to assume the entire power of the Government. Hamida Banu, the mother of
Akbar, Maham Anaga, Adham Khan and Shahab-ud-din, the Governor of Delhi alsq encouraged Akbar to
remove Bairam Khan from power. He proclaimed that he would govern the people on his own free will
and judgement as his education and amusements had come to an end. He sent a letter to Bairam Khan
to take up his pilgrimage to Mecca and also assund him that a suitable Jagir would be assigned to him
for his maintenance. Bairam Khan did not revolt and accepted the suggestion of Akbar. However, he was
highly offended when he rcieved the letter from his rival, Pir Mohammad. He rebelled

242

against Akbar; But at Jalandhat, he was defeated and taken as prisoner to Akbar. He was pardoned and
was permitted to carryon his pilgrimage. Akbar received him with 'the most princely grace and
presented him with a splendid robe of honour' when Bairam Khan surrendered to him. Such was the
magnanimous attitude of Akbar. Unfortunotely, he was murdered by an Afghan who owed him a grudge
at Patan in Gujarat. Bairam Khan's widow, Salima 'Khan became the second wife of Akbar and her son
was cared by Akbar. Abul Fazl writes if Bairam Khan was in reality a good man and of excellent qualities."
The view of Wolseley Haig is that it was chiefly due to Bairam Khan that Akbar owed his throne. With the
exit, of Bairam Khan, Akbar had to face a number of difficulties in his relations with the nobility between
1562 and 1567. Akbar came under the influence of his foster mother, Maham Anaga.She favoured only
unworthy persons.
ADHAM KHAN AND MALWA
The ruler of Malwa was Baz Bahadur. He was devoted to Music. He was fond of the company of dancers
and singers.
Among them the most famous was his mistress, Rupmati who was renowned for her beauty and poetic
talents.
Adham Khan was selected to lead the expedition against Sarangpur, the capital of Malwa. Baz Bahadur
was badly defeated and he fled from the battlefield.
All the treasure, property and family of Baz Bahadur including his beloved Rupmati fell into the Rands of
the victors.
Rupmati consumed poison and died to save her honour.
Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad inflicted untold misery on the people of the province. Adham Khan
sent only a fraction of the booty to the royal treasury.
Akbar was enraged beyond measure, He led an expedition and defeated Adham Khan. He was removed
from his office and Pir Mohammad was appointed as the Governor of Malwa.
DEATH OF ADHAM KHAN, 1562
Akbar had appointed his foster-father Shams-ud-din Atga Khan as his chief minister. It displeased Adham
Khan, Ahmed Khan, Munim Khan and others of the harem party. Adham Khan stabbed to death Shamsud-din who was engaged in' his official duties in
243

broad daylight. He next tried to kill Akbar himself. Akbar over powered him. He was bound hand and
foot and thrown down the palace terrace twice till he was dead. Akbar thus got rid of the baneful
influence of the harem party. He erected a fine Mausoleum on Adham's grave at Delhi and nqt only
forgave Munim Khan but also reinstated him as his chief minister
UZBEG REBELLION (1564-67)
Abdullah Khan Uzbeg was the most trusted officer of Akbar.
He had been instrumental in the conquest of Malwa.
In 1564, he revolted against Akbar with the support of a few Uzbeg nobles. Akbar forced him to retreat
to Gujarat and later on to Jaunpur.
Another Uzbeg chief, Khan Zaman also joined him. The Afghans had the biased feeling that Akbar was
against their race. In 1565, Ali Quli Khan revolted against Akbar. Akbar led an expedition against the
Afghans but was unable to suppress them completely as Akbar's brother, Hakim Mirza was creating
trouble for Akbar. After dealing with his brother, Akbar attacked the Afghans in 1567, and Khan Zaman
or Ali Quli Khan was killed.
WARS AND CONQUESTS OF AKBAR
GONDWANA- Akbar wanted to occupy Gondwana region. The state consisted of 53 forts. After the
death of Dalpat Shah, the ruler of Gond "kingdom, his widow, Durgavati acted as the regent on behalf of
her minor son, Bir Narayan. Akbar directed Asaf Khan
to subdue the old Gond kingdom. Asaf Khan was attracted by the wealth of Gond kingdom. Rani
Durgavati,a charming Chandela princess of Mahoba negotiated with Akbar.
When the talks failed, she confronted the army of Asaf Kh'an with great courage. Vir Narayan was
wounded and forced to retreat. Rani Durgavati stabbed herself to death to avoid capture and dishonour.
Vir Narayan was also defeated and killed. His women committed Jauhar. Asaf Khan acquired immense
booty.
WARS AGAINST THE RAJPUTS
Akbar concluded matrimonial alliances with a number of Rajput rulers.
Akbar married the eldest daughter of Raja Bahar Mal of Jaipur.
In 1570, he married the Rajput princess of Bikaner and Jaisalmer.
SIEGE OF CHITOOR(1568)

Different causes have been attributed to the expedition led by Akbar against Chitoor. Sir Wolseley Haig
says that all the Rajput chiefs had submitted to Akbar and it was Mewar alone that had stood aloof and
refused to enter into an alliance with the Mughal . empire. Akbar could not tolerate such a defiant
attitude. Moreover Akbar must have felt that if he could subdue Chitoor and convert the ruler of Chitoor
as his vassal, the other Rajput states like Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer would submit without fighting.
In this respect Akbar was right in his assessment. The rulers of Ranthombhor (1569), Jodhpur (1570),
Bikaner (1570) and Jaisalmer (1570) submitted to Akbar and entered into matrimonial alliances.
The ruler of Chitoor (capital of Mewar) was Uday Singh. He was an unworthy descendant of the family of
Bapa Rawal. He was incompetent and weak as a warrior. But the Rajputs put upa stiff resistance. Akbr
fired a shot at Jaimal Rathor to whom the defence of the fort was entrusted by the Rajput nobles .. Uday
Singh was panic striken and he retreated to the Aravali hills. The Sisodias were filled with despair. The
young Sisodia noble, Fateh Singh was popularly known as Fatha. He adorned yellow robes and
accompanied by his wife and mother led the attack. But the Rajputs were overpowered by the superior
number of Mughal soldiers.
Akbar entered the fort in a triumphant manner. 30,000 were massacred. Akbar commemorated the
heroism of Jaimal Rathor and Fateh Singh by erecting their statues mounted on elephants at the gate of
his palace at Agra. Asaf Khan was appointed as the governor of Mewar.
RANTHOMBHOR
Akbar sent an expedition to subdue Ranthombhor which was under the control of Raja Surjan Hara.
The fort of Ranthombhor was impregnable. The siege lasted for a month. Bhagwan Das of Amber paid a
visit to Surjan Hara and he was accompanied by Akbar in the guise of a mace bearer. The uncle of Surjan
recognized Akbar and concluded peace with him. Surjan Hara sent two of his sons to serve under Akbar.
He himself entered the Mughal service and later on became the Governor of Benaras.
KALINJOR
Kalinjor was under the rule of Raja Ram Chand of Rewa. He submitted to Akbar realizing the futility of
resisting Akbar. The occupation of Kalinjor was of great military importance to Akbar as it occupied a
strategic position in Northern India.
REBELLION IN JAUNPUR AND ACQUISITION OF CHUNAR
There occurred a serious rebellion in the province of Jaunpur. Sher Khan, the son of the late Muhammad
Adil Shah Sur invaded Jaunpur. But Khan Zaman, the Governor put up a stiff resistance. Khan Zaman
defeated the Imperial army. He appropriated most of the Afghan elephants and sent only nominal spoils
to Agra. Akbar hastened towards Jaunpur. Khan Zaman placed all the elephants at his disposaL Akbar
with his usual magnanimity accepted Khan Zaman's submission and sent him back as Governor of
Jaunpur. He dispatched Asaf Khan to occupy Chunargarh which Was under the control of the Afghans.
Chunar was occupied in 1561.

JODHPUR
Chandra Sen, the son of Raja Maldeo of Jodhpur served Akbar for some time but he defied the authority
of Akbar. He retired to the hill fort of Siwana. Akbar occupied Jodhpur and placed it under the control of
Rai Singh of Bikaner. Kalyan Mal, the father of Rai Singh paid homage to Akbar by giving his daughter in
marriage to him.
REVOLTOFMEWAR UNDER RAN A PRATAP SINGH (1576)
(THE HISTORIC BATTLE OF HALDIGHA)
The ruler of Mewar, Uday Singh died in 1572 and was $llcceeded by Maharana Pratap Singh. He
ascended the throne of Mewal' and secured the support of the Rajput nobles. He wandered through the
mountainous region of Western Mewar and secured intimate knowledge of the hilly region. He had a
powerful personality and vowed, "the son of Bapa Raw-al should bow the heqd to no mortal man". He
pledged to offer resistance to the Mughals.
Akbar aimed at establishing a united empire which implied the end of the independence of the Rajput
states. Pratap aimed at preservation of the identity of the Rajputs and was determined to maintain the
traditional purity of the family: War between Rana
Pratap and Akbar becam.e inevitable. Akbar sent a powerful army under Man Singh of Amber to invade
Mewar. He encamped on the plain at the northern end of Haldighati. Here the Imperial army was
attacked by Rana Pratap. The army of Rana Pratap Singh has
been estimated as 20,000 horsemen and that of Man Singh to 80,000. , Rana Pratap was saved by his
loyal troops. The Imperial army was too great a force for the Rajputs to face. The Rajputs lost heart and
began to retreat and the battle of Haldighati ended in a victory for the Mughals. Although Rana Pratap
was defeated in the battle of Haldighati, he continued in his struggle to win back his territory from the
Mughals. He was able to recover the whole of Mewar except Chitoor, Ajmer and Mandalgarh. His name
and fame began to spread throughout the length and breadth of India. Maharana Pratap Singh died in
1597 A.D. The most formidable enemy of Akbar was removed from the Indian political scene.
Badauni says that Akbar was l,ot pleased with Man Singh as he did not pursue the Rana and also did not
permit the troops to plunder the territory of the Rajputs. However, it is very evident that the Mughals
troops were too tired to pursue the enemy. Dr.R.P.Tripathi admires the heroism, sturdy independence,
love for freedom, readiness to suffer and sacrifice, courage, determinotion and indomitable will of
Maharana Pratap Singh but contends that the struggle between Pratap and Akbar was not a Hindu or
Mohammaden question or a conflict between Hinduism and Islam. Akbar. followed the policy of
coercion towards the Rajputs for the sake of convenience. He did not wish to annex the Rajput
territories. He was satisfied if the Rajput states merely acknowledged his. sovereignty and entered into
an alliance with him. The Rajputs were granted autonomy in all internal matters. Instead of fo.Howing
the annexationist policy to establish an Imperial empire, Akbar aspired to establish an extensive empire
by maintaining its unity and integrity with the co-operation of the Hindu Rajput rulers.

GUJARAT (1573)
Gujarat was a rich emporium of commerce between India, Turkey, Syria and Persia. It occupied a
strategic position as it was on the way to Mecca and Akbar was noturally anxious to bring it under his
control to ensure safe journey to the Haj pilgrims. Akbar's
rebellious relatives, the Mirzas had taken shelter in Gujarat and had established themselves in several
towns of this rich province. Fortunotely, a civil war was going on there and the party headed by ltimad
Khan appealed to Akbar for intervention. Muzaffar Shah III, the ruler of Gujarat had not authority over
his powerful vassals. Akbar's army did not meet with great resistance and Akbar took possession of
Ahmedabad. Muzaffar Khan III, the nominal ruler was captured. Akbar appointed Khan Azam (Mirza Aziz
Koka) as the Governor of Gujarat. Very Soon, Mohammad Hussain Mirza besieged the Governor of Khan
Azam in Ahmedabad. Akbar led an army covering a journey of 600 miles in 9 days and defeated the
rebels. He took Muhammad Hussain Mirza as a captive.
CONQUEST OF BENGAL (1592)
In Bengal Suleiman had established a new dynasty by 1564 A.D.
He recognized the sovereignty of Akbar. However, he was succeeded by Daud Khan in 1572 who defied
the authority of Akbar and captured the fort of Zamania. Akbar sent an army under Todar . Mal and
Bengal was annexed to the Mughal empire.
KABUL
Mirza Mohammad Hakim. Akbar's half-brother was the ruler bf Kabul. He did not like Akbar's spirit of
religious toleration. He instigated the rulers of Bihar and Bengal to revolt. Akbar proceeded to Kabul,
sending at the same time adequilte troops to Bihar and Bengal. He sent a strong force under Man Singh
to occupy Kabul. Hakim fled from Kabul and Akbar entered Kabul in triumph. The terrified Muhammad
Hakim sent a message of submission and was pardoned. Akbar appointed his step-sister and Mirza
Hakim's real sister, Bakht-un-nisa Begam as the Governor of Kabul and returned to Fatehpur SikrL After
the death of Mirza Hakim, Kabul was incorporated into the Mughal empire.
KASHMIR
Yusuf Khan, Sultan of Kashmir had sent his sons to wait on Akbar but had evaded appearing in person.
Akbar made arrangements for the subjugation of Kashmir and entruted the work to Qasim Khan, Raja
Bhagwan Das and other commanders. The Imperial army proceeded towards Srinag.tr in 1586 but was
disheartened due to rain and snow and agreed to conclude peace
with Sultan Yusuf Khan who was also eager to sue for peace. Yusuf Khan recognized Akbar as his
sovereign. He agreed to the recitation .of the Khutba in the name of Akbar and issuing coins in the name
of Akbar. However, Akbar disapproved the treaty. Yusuf Khan and
his son, Yaqub Khan were
arrested when they went to meet Akbar.

Yusuf Khan escaped and made preparations for war. Akbar compelled him to surrender.
CONQUEST OF SIND (1591)
Akbar subdued Bhakkar in 1574 but a large part of the territory of Sind still remained to be conquered.
In 1590, Mirza Abdur Rahim was appointed the Governor of Multan and he was instructed to take up
the task of occupying Sind. After two battles, Mirza Jani Beg of Sind surrendered to the imperial army.
CONQEST OF QANDHAR (1595)
Akbar aspired to conquer Qandhar. He sent an expedition when the Shah of-Persia was in great difficulty
due to the menace of the Turks and Uzbegs.
In 1595, Qandhar was annexed.
CONQUEST OF AHMEDNAGAR (1600)
Akbar turned his attention towards the Deccan region. His first expdition was against Ahmednagar.
Abdur Rahim and Prince Murad were sent in 1595 to occupy Ahmednagar. At that time, Chand Sultana
was acting as the regent on behalf of her nephew. She defended the city of Ahmednagar in a gallant
manner. There as no proper understanding and. communication between Abdtir Rahim and Prince
Murad. Both of them wanted to take the credit of occupying Ahmedmi.gar and their expedition ended in
failure. However, due to internal dissensions, Chand Sultana was murdered. In 1596, the battle was
fought between the Ahmednagar fores and the Mughal forces. None of them secured a decisive victory.
In 1600, Akbar occupied Burhanpur and he despatched prince Daniyal and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
to conquer Ahmednagar. With very less difficulty Ahmednagar was annexed to the Mughal empire.
ASIRGARH (1601)
Akbar decided to occupy the strong and well-equipped fortress of Asirgarh. Althoqgh the siege of
Asirgarh continued for six months, it could not be captured. At that time, the rebellion of Prince Salim
forced Akbar to abandon the campaign. Bahadur Shah was persuaded to visit the camp of Akbar for
negotiations but he was l) detained. In 1601, Akbar bribed the Khandesh officers and the gates of the
fort were opened by golden keys. Thus, Ahmedngar, Berar and Khandesh were annexed to the Mughal
empire. However, these areas could not be completely subjugated and the administration of those
provinces was difficult due to the distance from the Mughal capital.
THE PORTUGUESE
The Portuguese had settled down in the Arabian Sea coastal region. They disrupted the trade activities
and also persecuted the Muslims. The Deccan states had failed to defeat the Portuguese. The
Portuguese had conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1580 and had committed untold atrocities
on innocent men, women and children. In 1575, the Portuguese harassed the Muslim ladies who were
on their way to Mecca. They also tried to plunder Surat but it was averted as the Mughal forces arrived

there at the right time. Akbar could not deal with the Portuguese effectively as he lacked an efficient
naval system.
AKBAR'S POLICY TOWARDS THE HINDUS
Akbar followed a conciliatory policy towards the Hindus. The Muslim tradition was to indulge in
persecution of the Non-Muslims. Akbar had realized the need to secure the co-operation of the Hindus
in maintaining security in an extensive empire.
Akbar married a number of Hindu prince?ses. He permitted them to worship their Gods without any
hindrance in the palace itself.
He did not compel them to convert themselves to Islam. He was also deeply influenced by Hindu
scriptures philosophical doctrines.
Sheikh Mubarak and his sons, Faizi and Abul Fazl played an important role in shaping the attitude of
Akbar towards the Hindus.
Due to the influence of Sufi Saints, Akbar developed a liberal outlook and the feeling of religious
toleration.
In 1563, Akbar abolished the pilgrims' tax. While he encamped at Mathura, it was brought to his notice
that his Government levied a tax on the pilgrims who visited Hindu places of pilgrimage.
He felt that it was contrary to the will of God that anybody should be
AKBAR'S CONCEPT OF RELIGION
asked to pay a tax for worshipping God. Akbar abolished throughout his dominions the most resented
tax called Jizya which all nonMuslims were required to pay in 1564.
It caused substantial loss to the treasury. But he won the goodwill of a vast majority of the inhabitants
of the country. Akbar established a Translation Department for translating the religious books of the
Hindus into Persian language. His main aim was to promote cultural exchange and understanding
between the Hindus and the Muslims.
He also appointed Hindus to high administrative posts on the basis of merit. Todar Mal was appointed as
Finance Minister. Moreover Bhagwan Das, Man Singh, Todar Mal and Rai Singh were appointed as
Governors of various provinces. Hindus were .
appointed as Mansabdars also.
Akbar respected Hindu sentiments. As tDe Hindus considered the cow as sacred, the use of beef was
forbidden.
Animal slaughter was forbidden on certains days in 1583. In 1590-91, the consumption of the flesh of
oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, horses and camels was forbidden.

Akbar also participated in the festivals of the Hindus such'as Rakhi, Holi, Diwali and Shivarathri. He
discouraged child marriages and encouraged widow remarriages among the Hindus.
He condemned the custom of Sati. He had immense interest in learning about the philosophical
doctrines of the Hindus. So he held religious discussions in the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri.

AKBARS CONCEPT OF RELIGION

The religious policy of Akbar did not evolve all of a sudden. He remained as a staunch Sunni Muslim from
1556 to 1562. He practiced all the tenets of Islam. He prayed five times a: day. He observed fasting in
the holy month of Ram zanand he also honoured the views of the Ulerrias of Islam. But from 1562.there
was a marked change in his outlook.
According to Dr.Tarachand, his religion was the product of the synthetic effect of the Vedanta and
Sufism of the age.
Akbar developed deep interest in religion and philosophy and spent a lot of time in the company of
theologians and observed their arguments.
He developed the policy of reconciliation or 'Sule-Kul'.
This change of attitude took place due to the influence of his Hindu mother, his guardian and tutor,
Bairam Khan. He was also inHuenced by scholars
like Sheikh Mubarak and his sons, Faizi and Abdul Fazal who were Sufis. Akbar evolved a universal
religious outlook.
He was not an orthodox and rigid Muslim. He was immensely influenced by Hindu philosophy on
account of his association with his Hindu wives. Shaikh Mubarak and his sons, Faizi and Abul Fazl were
Stlfis. They inculcated liberal religious views in Akbar. In 1575, the Ibadat Khana or the House of worship
was specially constructed fat discussions on religious matters. He invited the exponents of Hinduism,
Jainism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
INFALLIBILITY DECREE (1579)

Akbar wanted to curb the power of the Ulemas. He tried to establish himself as the Head of the
temporal as well as the spiritual world.
He had the Khutba read in his name, According to the suggestion of Sheikh Mubarak Akbar became the
Mujtahid. He acted as the supreme arbiter in religious matters. He dealt with all civil and ecclesiastical
matters. A law was passed declaring Akbar as the final interpreter of Muslim law.

This has been called C).s the Infallibili ty Decree by V.A.Smith. By this decree whenever there was
difference of opinion among the Mujtahids on religious matters, the Sultan could interfere and issued a
decree to that effect by using his wisdom and deep perception.
The Sultan could issue any new decree in accordance with any verse of the Koran or for the real benefit
of the people and the notion. It was also made clear that any opposition to the Imperial decrees would
not be entertained.
According to R.P.Tripathi, the need for such a declaration of policy was obviQuS so far as the Muslims of
India were concerned. The Shias, Sunnis and Mahadavis had been frequently indulging in bloody
conflicts.
Religious clashes had led to immense loss of men and material. The most important aspect of the
declaration was that the policy of Akbar in unambiguous terms was valid both in India and outside.
Akbar did not identify himself with any sect or creed. He followed the policy of enlightened toleration
within the ambit of the Koran. The Infallibility Decree was passed to force the people to follow his
religious order.
But Prof.Shri Ram Sharma is of the opinion that it as not a decree and milch less an infallibility Decree.
Even Dr.A.L.Srivastava feels that the Infallibility Decree has been miscalled. Akbar became a Mujtahid in
a limited sense only.
All that it really accomplished was that it took away the right to persecute others for their opinions
from the Muslim Theologians.
The Infallibility Decree was resented by the orthodox Muslims and they interpreted the actions of Akbar
as blasphemous and that he was a non-believer.
DIN-I-ILAH.I (1581)
In 1581, Akbar promulgated the Din-I-llahi orTawahid-I-llahi which means Divine Monotheism.
Dissatisfied with tradition and authority, Akbar prescribed the man reason as the basis of religion and
extended complete religious tolerance to every creed in the empire.
In his anxiety to destroy religious discord in the empire, he made an attempt to bring about a synthesis
of all the religions known to him.
The Din-i-Ilahi was not a religion but a socio-religious order which was designed to unite diverse
communities in the land.
The principles of the new religious order were based on the principles of universal toleration (Sulah-ekul). They tried to inculcate the idea of unity of God.
The diversified religions in India were a great obstacle of the integrity of the empire.

Akbar decided to formulate a creed that should unite all men of goodwill.
He felt that he alone symbolized the unity and diverse elements which constituted the empire.
His

concept of monotheism and a divine religion can be described as:

"There is no God but Allah but Akbar is His Khalifa." According to Badauni and Bartoli (Jesuit writer),
Akbar convened a council of his principal courtiers and officers and formally promulgated the Din Ilahi.
He referred to the discord among the various creeds and emphasized the necessity of bringing them all
into one creed.
When a person desired to be a member, he was introduced by Abul Fazl who acted as the high priest.
Then the man with his turban in hand had to place his head at the feet of the emperor. The emperor
raised him up, placed the htrban back on his head and gave him the Shast (his own likeness) upon which
were engraved God's name and the phrase," Allahu Akbar", The members had to give a dinner in their
lifetime instead of following the old practice of holding a banquet in honour of a dead person. They
were required to give a party on the anniversary of their birth and to practice charity. They had to
abstain from consuming meat as far as possible and had to
refrain from using the vessels of butchers and fishermen. They were restricted from marrying old
women or minor girls. They were also expected to sacrifice their property, life, honour and religion in
the service of the emperor.
Akbar did not wish to use force to convert the people to the new faith. Badauni says that Raja Bhagwan
Das and Raja Man Singh raised a feeble protest. Although Akbar tried to influence his most worthy
officials by convincing them, he always respected the 'conscientious objector'. He never used his
authority to compel any person to accept his religious doctrines or novel ideas.
Badauni was one of the serious critics of the .'Din llahi'. He decried the order that the intention of the
new religious order was to subvert the creed established by the Prophet. Apart from Badauni, many
orthodox persons were skeptical about any new changes in the established rituals of Islam.
Akbar conducted ordinances particularly directed against Islamic practices. He forbade the use of the
name, Muhammad. He tried to prevent the construction and renovation of the mosques. At the time of
prayers, the use of silk dresses and costly. ornaments was also forbidden. Akbar did not permit
pilgrimages to Mecca. By his ordinances, the Mu.slim festivals. ceased to be celebrated. The mosques
and prayer halls were converted into stables and were given to Hindu Chowkidars. Akbar ordered the
destruction of the towers built for calling the Muslims for prayers. He enforced in his court the practice
of 'Prostration" which had been reserved only for divine worship. It is difficult to accept the views of
Badauni completely. There must have been an element of exaggeration in the writings of BadaLU1i. He
was jealous of Abul Fazl who earned the confidence and love of Akbar. His writings have been totally
biased and tainted by his prejudices. So it is difficult to accept the views of Badauni.

A certain amount of doubt lurked in the minds of the people about the real intentions of Akbar. He
showed an inclinotion towards Hindu customs and practices. He recommended divine worship of Sun
and he began to consider fire and light as symbols of divine power.
He began to appear in public with Hindu sectarian marks on his forehead.
He appointed Hindus in high administrative posts. He also participated in Hindu festivals. The orthodox
Muslims
condemned Akbar as a hopeless heretic.
The orthodox Muslims condemned him as a Hindu non-believer and a Parsi.
Akbar fixed the commencement of the Ilahi year of the Pad shah's accession to the throne. The
beginning of the new era was inaugurated by stamping the date on the coins and all official documents.
The court festivals were rearranged according to the commencement of the new era.
State patronage was not extended to the traditional Arabic learning. On the other hand the study of
Philosophy, Astronomy, Medicine, Mathematics, Poetry, history and literature received encouragement.
The Din-i-Ilahi was accepted by the people in various dimensions. Certain orthodox Muslims did not
welcome the change dnd considered it as blasphemy. Some pious uslims accepted the Din llahi not as a
new religion but as a religious brotherhood for uniting the 72 sects of Islam.
Those people who belonged to other religions considered the new religious order of Akbar as a unifying
force. Akbar's political intuition told him that it was the right period for him to assume the leadership of
bringing about a religious revolution: The new religious order of Akbar was based on rational and simple
principles. Birbal was the only Hindu who joined the new faith. The number of followers of Din-i-Ilahi
was very small and after the death of Akbar, it vanished completely. The religion which was to have
united all, pleased none. Only the essence of the Din-i-Ilahi continued to glow in the healts of the
people. The most enlightened concept of the manner in which he worship had a great impact on the
minds of the people even after the death of Akbar.
According to Sri Ram Sharma, it is a gross exaggeration to give Din-i-Ilahi the rank of a religion. It had no
books, no priests, no ceremonies and practically no religious-beliefs. It was an order rather than a
religion and more akin to free masonry than any religious movement." The view of lshwiui Prasad is that
Din-i-Ilahi was "an eclectic pantheism containing the good points of all religions- a combinotion of
mysticism, philosophy and noture worship. Its bas was rational; it upheld no dogma, recognized no Gods
or prophe and the emperor was its chief exponent." RP.Tripathi held the view that Din-I-Ilahi was not a
religion and Akbar never intended the establishment of a church. Akbar aspired to induce the sense of
unity by providing a spiritual guidance which would act as a common ground for people belonging to
different religions to ihteract. The politicaLsignificance of the Din Ilahi wa,s not of much consequence as
the number of adherents to the philos9Phy of Akbar was negligible. In the social sphere, the creation of
a new social. order to suit the changing needs' of society had been the main inspiring factor for Akbar to

launch the Din-i-Ilahi. Undoubtedly, in the religious field, the beginning of the Din-i-Ilahi throws light on
the spirit of rationalism which was introd\lced in religious outlook as a direct outcome of the Bhakti
movement. Moreover, Akbar was one of the pioneers who assumed the role of the temporal and the
spiritual world together in the real sense. None of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanote tried to provide
spiritual leadership to the empire like Akbar. Although Ala-ud-din Khalji had the ambition to begin a new
religious order, by the advice of the Ulemas he restricted himself only to the career of conquests. The
religious thoughts of Akbar reflect the spirit of his age. The impact of the Sufi saints changed the outlook
of the Muslims also although they adhered to their ri tes and rituals so strictly.
The main drawback of the Din- hIlahi was that it did not possess certain essential characteristics of a
religion.
It did not have any religious text or spiritual book. There were no set rules and regulations regarding the
prayers. The religion did not speak of any type of place of worship or any people who belonged to the'
clergy class. The only motivating force towards which the people look up for guidance was the
personality of Akbar. An attempt was not made to influence the people to embrace the new religious
order. Conversion of people by coercion or force was ruled out. In such an environment, Akbar's religion
possessed absolutely no ingredients necessary for a religion to thrive. The Din-i-Ilahi only preached
certain practical rules of conduct which alone could not suffice for the establishment of a religious order
which could last for a long time and cast a deep impression on the people. The Din-i-Ilahi appeared to be
a purely personal matter between Akbar and his loyal adherents who considered him as a Guru. It was
not enforced as a mandatory rule on his subjects. Through the Din-i-llahi Akbar only projected the moral
ad ethical principles which he professed,
The divine faith was of course a complete failure. As, a creed it was so simple as to fall under the
reproach of being vague and empty. Akbar's highest political object was the fusion of Hinduism and
Islam and the establishment of a cultural and political unity in the empire. The Oin-l-llahi perished with
the death of Akbar.
EVALUATION OF THE DIN-I-ILAHI
Akbar's Oin-i-Ilahi has been ciriticised on several grounds. It is regarded as the monument of Akbar's
blunder. Badauni was the serious critic of the Oin-i-Ilahi. He regarded the establishment of the Oin-i-Ilahi
as an un-Islamic act. According to Or.smith, "the whole scheme was the outcome of ridiculous vanity,
monstrous growth of unrestrained autocracy- a monument of Akbar's folly, not of wisdom." He also calls
it as a silly invention. Just as the new religion of Akbar drew the attention of several critics, it has also
won the admiration of several scholars and historians. Dr. Ishwari Prasad regards the Oin-i-Ilahi as very
rational containing good points of all religions. Havell thinks that with the new faith Akbar won an
imperishable name in Indian history.
According to Lane Poole, "The broad minded sympathy which inspired such a vision of catholicity left a
lasting impression upon a land of warring creeds and tribes and for a brief while created a notion where
before there had been only faction." According to Z.M.Zaffar, "The wisdom of Akbar's assumption of the
prophetic role'may be called in question but the noble ideal that prompted it deselves high praise and

not condemnotion. To achieve the aim of unification of India and consolidation of Mughal empire, it was
necessary first to conquer and then to command sincere devotion from all and later to sundry by grant
them the freedom of worship and the liberty of conscience. Therefore, Akbar gave up such a religious
code-in essence a political document-as would commend itself to the whole population. Malleson feels
that" Akbar's foremost aim was the union of Hindustan under one head which was difficult to achieve
had he persecuted all non-Islamic religions. To accomplish such a union it was necessary, first to
conquer, secondly to respect all consciences, and all methods of worshipping Almighty. According to
S.R.Sharma, Oin-I-Ilahi was the crowning expression of Akbar's notionalism.
AKBAR'S LAND REVENUE REFORMS

Akbar continued the land revenue system troduced by Sher Shah with a few necessary alterations.
He had established an extensive empire and found it necessary to provide to the needs of the state by
thoroughly revitalizing the financial position of the state.
Since land revenue constituted the main source of income to the state, Akbar during his long reign
planned out a perfect revenue system.
In 1582, Raja Todar Mal was appointed as Diwan-i-Ashraf. An agricultural experiment was conducted in
Gujarat to ensure steady supply of income to thestate by fixing the land revenue after proper
assessment. In the prevailing system, land revenue was fixed every year on the basis of the yield and
prices. On account of it, the share of the state varied every year.
Raja Todar Mal introduced certain laudable changes. He collected the aggregate rates of taxation for ten
years between 1570 and 1580.
1 /3rd of the average was considered as the basis of land revenue assessment. Todar Mal utilized a Jarib
of Bamboos which were joined together with iron rings to measure land.
Land was divided into four classes.
The Polaj land was the land under regular cultivation which yielded revenue constantly year after year.
Parauti constituted land which was left occasionally uncultivated so the it could regain its productive
capacity during the interval.
The Chachar land was left uncultivated for 3 or 4 years. Banjar land was the land which was left
uncultivated for 5 or more years. Th Polaj and Parauti lands were further divided into Good, Middling
and bad soils based on the fertility of soil. 1/3rd of the average yield of the three types of soil was fixed
as the share of the state. In the case f Banjar and Chachar lands, the share of the state was not fixed
atl/3rd but was increased only by progressive stages.

Raja Todar Mal fixed,the-value of the taxes paid in kind which could be converted into cash by taking an
average of the actual prices for the last ten years. The share of the state was fixed at 1/3rd and was not
expected to fluctuate now and then. The farmers were provided the choice of paying either in cash or in
kind. The rates of different types of crops varied. The rates of sugarcane, Indigo groundnut etc, was
different from the rates of wheat and Barley.
The Government officials undertook a tour in order to supervise the harvest. They also conducted a land
survey to estimate the exact area of land under cultivation and the areas of the land utilized for growing
different types of crops. The area of each crop in each holding was measured. According to the
prevailing rates, the Bitikchi calculated the revenue to be remitted by each cultivator to the royal
exchequer.
The most commendable feature of Raja Todar Mal's revenue policy was that arrangements were made
to provide loans to the cultivators which could be paid in easy annual instalments. The local conditions
were surveyed so that remissions of revenue were granted in bad seasons. The revenue collectors had
to prepare an official report about the work and character of their subordinotes. The holdings and
liabilities of the cultivator were recorded. The collectors were required to send reports of monthly
returns to the royal reasury. Accounts were maintained in Persian language. This type of land revenue
system was known as Zabti system. It prevailed in Bihar, Allahabad, Delhi, Agra, Multan,Lahore, Oudh,
Malwa and Gujarat.
The Mughal Government created'its own agencies for revenue collection. The Amil performed a number
of duties. He had to conduct a survey and prepare an estimate the quality of land under actual
cultivation and reclaim the wastelands. Care was taken so that none of the land was left outside the
purview of the state. The peasants were not to be harassed during revenue collection. The Ami was
assisted by Bitikchi, Potdar, Qanungo, Muqaddam and Patwari. He was required to examine the
registers maintained by Patwaris, Muqaddams anc Karkuns. The Batikchi supervised the duty of the
Qanungoes. He was required to be an efficient Accountant and a good writer. He had to be conversant
with the customary laws of the area within his jurisdiction. The Potdar was in charge of collecting
revenue from cultivators and issued receipts for all payments. The Qanungo was a person who
maintained information of the land history of the past. Each Paragana consisted of many villages. Each
village consisted of a Muqaddam or headman and a PatWari .
The revenue system of Akbar improved the condition of the . peasants. The share of the state was fixed.
Corruption among the
Government offices was curbed. The revenue of the state increase.d immensely. Akbar abolished a large
number of taxes and cesses. Jizya and Zaqat were abolished. Taxes on sale of ca ttle; salt, Turbans, hides,
blankets, houses etc. were also abolished. The Government cared for the welfare of the people during
famines or other notural calamities.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Akbar divided his empire into fifteen provinces. They were: Agra, Ahmedabad, Ahmednagar Ajmer,
Allahabad, Awadh, Bengal, Berar, Bihar, Delhi, Kabul, Kandhar, Lahore, Malwa and Multan.
Each province was governed, by a Subedar or Governor. He was assisted by a Diwan who looked after
the revenue records. The Bakshi took care of the needs of the army. The Kotwal was responsible for the
maintenance of law and order in the main cities. The Qazi was in charge of dispensation of justice in the
provinces.
The provincial ministers and officers followed the nomenclature of the Central administration and
performed similar duties. The provinces were further divided into Sarkars, and the Sarkars into
Paraganas and the Paraganas into villages. The Panchayats were concerned with the village
administration as well as dispensation of justice.
Usually the state officers did not interfere in the administration of the villages.
THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM
During the rule of Akbar, the Mansabdari system of administration was introduced. He derived this idea
from Persia.
The literal meaning of the word 'Mansab' is office or rank. The Mandabdars were employed in both civil
and military departments.
The two Departments were not totally bifurcated.
Officials were transferred from civil to military departments.
There were many grades of Mansabdars. The two major divisions of the Mansabdars were the Omrahs
and the other ordinary Mansabdars.
The Omrahs had a rank of more than 1000.
Those who held a lower rank were called Mansabdars. The holder of 1000 horses was called :is Yak
Hazari Omrah.
There were three classes of Mansabdars. A Mansabdar belonged to the first class if his Zat and Sawar
ranks were equal.
The Zat and Sawauanks were determined by the number of soldiers and.
horses under the control of the Mansabdar. A Mansabdar belonged to the second class if the SawaJ rank
was half of his Zat rank. A Mansabdar belonged to the thiro class if the Sawar was not present.
The Omrah were the pillars of the empire, according to Bernier. They enjoyed the most exalted positions
in the state Government All important posts in the courts, army, provinces and civil service were held by
the Omrahs. Their salary was fixed in accordance with the number of horses assigned to them.

The Omrahs reveled in pomr and splendour.

They adorned costly regalia and were often mounteo on elephants and horses.
They also moved about in palanquins. A number of servants and attendants waited on them.
The Omrans visited the king's palace thrice every day.
They accompanied the king on excursions and hunting expeditions.
They were required to give costly presents to the king on certain annual festivals. Another important
feature of the Mansabdari system was that the Omrahs were not compelled to maintain a fixed number
of horsemen, in consonance with their titles. Manucci:says that the Sultan permitted . the Omrahs to
maintain only one quarter of the number indicated in i:heir title.
The appointment of the Omrahs was based solely on the was and discretion of the Badshah.
The king could shower favoursona Mansabadar by permitting him to hold a high rank and maintain a
small troop of soldiers and horsemen. Sometimes, the emperor expected Mansabdars of lower rank to
maintain a large number soldiers and horsemen.
The Mansabdars were granted Jagirs bi which they procured reveue for their personal maintenance.
Some of the Mansabdars were paid salaries in cash through the royal treasury. The Jagir from where the
Mansabdar procured his sala was usually in the neighbourhood of the place where a Mansabdar was
posted.
The Jagir was never to be at the place where th1 Mansabdar was posted officially. The object behind it
was to prevenJ corruption and highhanded behaviour of the Mansabdar.
The post of the Mansabdar was not hereditary. Th1 appointment and dismissal of the Mansabdar
depended mainly or the will of the emperor. The Mansabdars could be elevated to th, highest position
or degraded to the lowest status according to the
whims and fancies of the emperor. The appointment of the ansabdaras
was based solely on merit. It was not necessary there y shoulhave belonged to the nobility only. Most of
the Omrahs had acquired a high position mostly by their prowess and ability. They were persons mostly
of low birth. No Mansabdar could claim any position by virtue of his birth. There was no law of
succession to the posts ot Mansabdars.

According to the law of escheat, after the death of the abdars, their property could be confiscated by
the Government.

Bernier says that the king gave a small pension to the widow and me allowance to his family. The
Mansabdars had the right to enjoy luxurious life style as long as they remained in office. They did not
have an opportunity to enrich themselves or acquire large properties.
This had a good impact because the Mansabdars realized that they could not leave anything to their
children, even if they lext.orted money from Mansabdar, nothing was left for his children .or family. The
Mansabdari system was extremely efficient during the time of Akbar.' The Mansabdari system began to
disintegrate during the Deccan wars of Aurangazeb.
LAST DAYS OF AKBAR
Akbar suffered from loneliness towards the end of his rule. The revolt of Salim and the murder of A.bul
Fazl, the close associate .of Akbar left him embittered. He fell seriously ill by 1604. Akbar called Salim to
his bedside and by gestures asked him to put the imperial turban and gird on the sword of Humayun
which hung at the f.oot of the bed.
He nominoted Salim as his successor. He died at the age of sixty three. He was buried at Sikandar near
Agra in a splendid Mausoleum which he himself had designed before his death.

ESTIMATE

Akbar was of medium height, of a wheat coloured complexion, with black eyes and eyebrows.
He had a forceful personality with a br.oad chest and long arms. He was capable of hard and sustained
w.ork. He W:lS a fine Polo player. He was endowed with an excellent memory. His creativity was
unsurpassed by any other ruler of medieval India. He was interested in manufacturing guns. He
invented a new machine by which seventeen guns could be fired simultaneously. He learnt merely by
listening. He never learnt to read or write. Stanley Lane Poole says that Akbar was "the noblest king tha t
ever ruled in India." He was the true founder and organizer of the empire. He represented the golden
age of the Mughal empire.
Akbar had a liberal and universal outlook regarding religious matters. Havell says that Akbar was neither
an ascetic nor a saint of the conventional type. Few of the great rulers of the earth can show a better
record for deeds of righteousness or ideals of religious life devoted to the service of humanity. Most of
the western scholars
. felt that Akbar's mission was mostly political in character rather than religious. He carved for himself a
permanent niche in the history of India and for the first time tried to spiritualise politics, Edwards and
Garrett observed that Akbar was "an intrepid soldier, a great general, a wise administrator, a benevolent
ruler and a sound judge of character. He was a born leader of men and can rightly claim to be one of the
mightiest sovereigns known to history."

Akbar is considered as.a notion builder and a great ruler. He was responsible for introducing a sort of
integration in medieval India. According to K.T.5hah, "Akbar was the greatest of the Mughals and
perhaps the greatest of all Indian rulers for a thousand years, if not ever since the days of the mighty
Mauryas. But without detracting in the least from the genius of the man of the inheritance of his birth, it
may yet be said that Akbar was so great, because he was so thoroughly Indianised." He introduced a
uniform administrative system. He introduced commendable revenue reforms. He followed a policy of
reconciliation towards the Rajputs. He also tried to create a universal religion to promote the feeling of
brotherhood among the people of his empire. He made Persian as the court language He also patronized
the growth of literature. During his period art and architecture also flourished under state patronage.
There are diverse views regarding Akbar. According to Dr. RP. Tripathi, the aim of Akbar was more
ambitious than that of notional king. Akbar in his view wanted to bring the entire world under his
control, as he was an expansionist. Regarding the spirit of toleration of Akbar, Fergusson has said,"there
is nothing more
remarkable in Akbar's character as his toleration which influenced all his activites. He had the same love
and appreciation for all his Hindu subjects as he had for his co-religionists."Of the Navaratnas who
adorned the court of Akbar, four of them were Hindus. Akbar made sincere efforts to bring about a
fusion of Hindu and Muslim styles of literature. Even in the architecture of his age, the blending of both
Persian and Indian art is evident in the buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra and Delhi. He established a
separate department for the purpose of translating the sacred books of the Hindus from Sanskrit
to Persian.

3.5 JAHANGIR (1605-1627 A.D.)

Akbar lost all his children in his youth. By. the blessings of Shaikh Salim Chisti of Fatehpur Sikri, his wife,
the princess of J aipur, Maryam-uz-Zamani gave birth to Prince Muhammad Salim in 1529. Prince Salim
had many wives. His most famous queen was Nur Jahan whom he married much later after he became
the Emperor. He was a spoilt child and was fond of wine and women. In 1586, he married the daughter
of Raja Bhagwan Das and Prince Khusrau was born.
Salim tried to become an independent ruler during the later period of Akbar's reign, but he reconciled
with his father. Murad and Daniyal, the other two sons of Akbar died at a very young age. Akbar did not
approve 9f the wayward behaviour of Salim. When Akbar showed affection towards Khurram, the son of
Salim, he grew jealous of it and suspected that his father was planning to deprive him of.his claim to the
throne. In 1602, Prince Salim brought about the death of Abul Fai whom Akbar loved immensely. Akbar
nominted Salim as his successor. He
assumed the title called 'Nurud-din Mohammad Jahangir Badshah Gazi'. Jahangirassigned high official
posts to those who were loyal to him. Among them one was Raja Bir Singh Bundela who had killed Abul
Fazl.

Jahangir tried to win the hearts of the people. He abolished many taxes and cesses. Government officers
were ordered not to confiscate any person's house. He also forbade the revenue officials to take
possession of the lands of the cultivator by force. He also prohibited the slaughter of

265

animals on certain days in a year. He ordered the construction of Sarais, Mosques and wells all along the
roads. He followed a liberal '<;, policy. He fitted a big bell at Shah Burj in the fort of Agra and its golden
chain was left in the open at the banks of the river Yamuna. Anybody could seek justice by ringing the
bell.
Jahangir issued 12 rules of conduct (Dastur-Ul-Amal). He issued the following orders for the welfare of
the people:
1.
Jahangir abolished Tagma and Meerwahi toll taxes and the taxes that the Subedars imposed on
the people for their expenses.
2. He ordered that the land-lords would not forcibly occupy the lands of the farmers.
3.
The Jagirs known as Aima and Madadgar, granted to the religious and charitable institutions
were allowed to remain under those institutions only.
4.
He banned the manufacture and sale of intoxicating drinks although he himself was addicted to
drinking.
5.
He ordered that the property of the deceased should pass over to their legal heirs and the
unclaimed property would automatically belong to the state and the income accrued from it was utilized
for public welfare.
6.

He banned the practice of mutilation of the limbs of criminals.

7.
Jahangir promoted the construction of mosques, sarais and wells on the road-sides which
reduced the dangers from thieves and dacoits ..
8.
He ordered the construction of Government hospitals and appointed physicians (Hakims) in
them.
9.
He banned animal slaughter on two days in a week, i.e., Thursdays, his coronotion day, and
Sunday, the day of his father and on certain other occasions of the year ..
10.
As Akbar respected Sunday as the day for the worship of the Sun, Jahangir also
respected,Sunday.

11.
Just like Akbar, Jahangir reinstated all the Mansabdars of Akbar's period and promoted them on
merit.
12.

The convicts who had served for a long time in jail were released.

266

REVOLT OF KHUSRAU (1606 A.D.)

Prince Khusrau was the eldest son of Jahangir. He was the nephew of Raja Man Sigh and the sonin-law
of Mirza Aziz Koka, the two not<}ble courtiers of Akbar. They tried to place Khusrau on the throne
instead of Jahangir. Jahangir kept Khusrau in semicaptivity and removed Raja Man Sigh from the
Governorship of Bengal. Khusrau fled from the fort of Agra and proceeded to Delhi. He had nearly
12,000 followers. He received the blessings of Guru Arjun Singh. Khusrau fought a battle against the
Imperial army at the plain of Bharowal. He was defeated and was captured while attempting to cross
the river Chenab. The prince was imprisoned and his followers were punished. Khusrau and his men
conspired to murder Jahangir as he was only his way from Kabul to Lahore. Prince Khurram came to
know about it and informed Jahangir about the conspiracy, Khusrau was blinded. Later on in 1621 he
was murdered by a hired killer at the instance of Prince Khurram.
Jahangir imposed a fine of Rs. 2,00,000 on the Sikh Guru, Arjun Singh for having bJessed Khusrav. He
refused to comply by the orders of the king. J ahangir led an expedition against him and killed him. The
relations between the Sikhs and the Mughals were embittered.
WAR AGAINST MEWAR
Maharana Pratap Singh had fought against Akbar throughout his life and retained a large part of Mewar
except Chitoor. He was succeeded by his son, Amar Singh in 1597. Jahangir dispatched Prince Parwez to
conquer Mewar in 1605 A.D. Amar Singh fought an indecisive battle with the Mughals. The army was
recalled by the Mughals due to some emergency caused by the revolt of Khusrav. In 1608, Mohabbat
Khan was sent against Mewar. Rana Amar Singh took shelter in the forest without submitting. In1609,
Abdullah Khan was appointed to fight against the Rajputs. But he was defeated at Ranpur. In 1610 A.D.,
Jahangir despatched Prince Khurram to subdue Mewar. Amar Singh was unable to withstand the
economic blockade. Finally a few Rajputs advised Amar Singh to make peace. A peace treaty was signed
between the Mughals and the Rana itl 1615 AD. Rana Amar Singh accepted the sovereignty of the
Mughal emperor. Amar Singh sent his son Prince Karan to serve in the

267

Mughal court. Jahangir restored all the territories of Mewar including the fort of Chitoor to the Rana on
condition that the 'fort would not be repaired.
The prestige of Rana Khumba and Rana Sanga was well defended by Rana Pratap Singh and Rana Amar
Singh against the Mughals. Jahangir provided the Mansab of 5000 Sawar and 5000 Zat to Prince Karan
and gave heavy presents to him. No other Rajput
had ever been honoured by the Mughal emperor in this manner.
CONQUEST OF KANGRA AND KISHTW AR (1620)
Jahangir directed the Governor of Punjab ,to conquer Kangra but he failed miserably. SoT ahangir placed
Prince Khurram in charge of occupying Kangra. After a siege of 14 months, the fort surrendered in 1620.
Dilawar Khan, the Governor of Kashmir subdued the Raja of Khistwar in 1620. Although the people
revolted against the oppressive rule in 1622, the revolt was suppressed and peace was established .
SOUTH INDIA
Jahangir tried to occupy Golkonda and Bijapur. Malik Amber, Vazir of Nizam Shah, ruler of Ahmednagar
checked the Muslim advances. He was appointed as Vazir in 1607. When Khusrau revolted, Malik Amber
brought abo'.1t civil and military reforms in the Deccan region. He took lessons from the revenue
reforms of Todar Mal. The state revenue was fixed at 2/5th to 1/3rd of the produce. Payment in cash
was preferred. This increased the economic prosperity of Ahmednagar. Malik Amber adopted guerilla
warfare against the Mughals. Malik Amber has been described as "In warfare, in command, in sound
judgement and administrative ,skill he had no rival or equa1." He saved South India from Mughal
onslaught.
.
The attack of the Mughals under Abdur Rahim Khan-I-Khana failed in 1608. In 1610, Prince Parvez and
Asaf Khan invaded Ahmednagar. But before its arrival Malik Amber forced AbdurRahirn-Kban-Kbanan to
retreat to Burhanpur and sign a peace treaty. They were recalled by Jahangir. Later on Jahangir
despatched two armies under Khan-i-Jahan and Raja Man Singh on one side and Abdulla Khan on the
other side. Both aspired to acquire the credit

268

of having defeated Malik Amber. They did not wait for each other's help. Thus the Mughals failed to
defeat Malik Amber.
In 1615 A.D., the Mughals defeated the combined armies of , Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda near
Rasangaon but it was indecisive. In 1616 AD., Jahangir entitled Prince Khurram as 'Shah' and despatched
him to the Deccan region. In 1617, a treaty was signed. A few forts including that of Ahmednagar were
surrendered to the Mughals. Khurram was conferred the title, 'Shahjahan' by Jahangir. However, Malik

Amber broke the treaty. He besieged the forts of Bijapur and Golkonda. Shahjahan captured Khirki and
laid siege on Daulatabad. Malik Amber sued for peace and Ahmednagar surrendered to the Mughals.
The Sultan of Ahmednagar also paid Rs. 12,00,000 and Golkonda Sultan paid Rs. 20,00,000 to the
Mughals. Malik Amber died in 1626 and in the very next year Jahangir died in 1627.
RULE OF NUR JAHAN
The love ofJahangir towards Nur Jahan occupies an important place in the history of Mughal empire. On
his own volition, he placed the entire administration in the hands of Nur Jahan. Nur Jahan's original
name was Mehr-un-nisa. Her father was Mirza Ghalib Beg who belonged to a noble family of Tehran
(Iran). Mirza Ghalib Beg migrated to India. He was introduced to Akbar by a wealthy merchant called
Malik Masur. By his honesty and hard work he rose tp the position of Diwan of Kabul. His daughter,
Mehr-un-nisa was married to Ali Quli Beg Istaglu who was a Persian adventurer. He was granted a Jagir
in Bengal and the title of 'Sher Aghan' was conferred on him. Jahangir learnt that he was defiant so he
brought about the death of Sher Afghan. His widow was brought to Agra and placed under Sultana
Salima Begum in 1607. In 1611, Jahangir fell in love with her and married her. She was given the title
'Nur Mahal' or light of the world. In 1613, NurJahan was elevated to the rank of Begum Pad shah or the
first lady of the realm. Her relatives occupied high posts. She appeared along with the emperor in
Jharoka-I-D.Tshan. Her name was engraved on coins. As Jahangir's . health lJegan to deteriorate, she
assumed the reins of the empire. Jahangir said, "I have sold my kingdom to my beloved queen for a cup
of wine a dish of soup.

269

Nur Jahan was a multi-talented person. She was endowed with arp intelligence and keen perception.
She designed different rieties of silk and cotton fabrics. She was an expert in preparing ttar or rose
perfume. She was courageous on hunting expeditions and killed
many tigers. She also accompanied Jahangir during wars and worked hard with remarkable presence of
mind.

Soon after her marrige with Jahangir, N ur J ahan formed a group of five- consisting of herself, her
mother Asmat Begum, her father Ghiyas Beg Itimad-ud-Daula, her brother Asaf Khan and Prince urram
(Son-in-law of her brother Asaf Khan). It clearly indicates at she was an ambitious person. Initially Nur
Jahan allotted owerful posts to the members of this group. Her father assumed ower as the prime
minister and her brother acted as the finance inister. The name of Nur Jahan was struck on .the coins
and in all irmans (royal orders) her name appeared along with Jahangir. She ccompanied Jahangir during
Jarokha-I-Darshan. She listened to the complaints of the people. She began to develop interest in
dministrative matters. Nur Jahan <1nd her group began to control .e entire administration of the state.

Even the highest dignitaries of the state had to listen to her dictates. All important appointments,
romotions, transfers and dismissals depended on the Will of Nur ahan. According to V.A.Smith, "She was
a power behind the one." Thomas Roe who visted the Mughal court during the time of Jahangir
remarked, "All power was vested in the Clique ijanta) f Nur Jahan at that time. It was impossible to get
any work done thout the help of her brother Asaf Khan and his son-in-law Prince 'Khurram. Her
influence had increased so much that even powerful IAmirs like Mohabat Khan feared her. Jahangir
himself was in ,pleasure day and night, resigning the entire administration to her." Between 1622 and
1627, Nurjahan became higly powerful in political matters. The main reason was the deterioration of the
he,lth of Jahangir. Moreover her daughter Ladli Begum, born .to her from her late husband Sher Afghan,
was married to Shahryar (Son of Jahangir) and she developed the desire that Shahryar should ascend the
throne after Jahangir and not Kurram (Shahjahan).

From 1611-1612, the political activities of Nur Jahan were extremely less. After 1622, J ahangir gave her
more liberty in

270

administrative matters. The crown prince, Khurram was married to Arjumand Banu Begum better known
as Mumtaz Mahal, daughter of AsafKhan in 1612 A.D. In 1626, MohabatKhan, a noble of Jahangir
revolted against Nur Jahan. But he was loyal to the throne. He was one of the ablest commanders of.
Jahangir. Mohabat Khan had suppressed the revolt of Shahjahan "also against the high-handed attitude
of Nur Jahan in the initial stages. Nur Jahan hated the growing power of Mohabat Khan. The revolt of
Shahjahm troubled the empire for three years.
Shahjahan asked Jahangir to grant the Jagir of Dholpur. Jahangir had agreed to do so. But Nur Jahan
poisoned the ears of the Emperor and Dholpur was transferred to the name of Shahryar, son-in-law of
Nut Jahan who was nicknamed as "Nashudai" or "Good for nothing", by his contemporaries. Shahjahan
sought the help of Malik Amber Of Ahmednagar. He laid siege to Burhanpur fort. But, Mohabat Khan
saved it. Shahjahan was forced to surrender. He begged J ahangir for mercy. He surr,enqgred the forts of
Rohtasgarh and Asirgarh to the Imperial army. He sent his sons, Dara Shikoh and Aurangazeb as
hostages ensuring his good conduct in future. His reolt shook.the empire for three years.
Nur Jahan separated Mohabat Khan from Prince Parwez. She influenced Jahangir to dishonour,
Barkhudar, the son-in-law of Mohabat Khan and confiscated his property. Mohabat Khan requested
Jahangir for justice. Nur Jahan attempted to attack Mohabat Khan much against the wishes of Jahangir.
Nur Jahan surrndered herself and returned to Jahangir. Thus, the Emperor Jahangir, Nur Jahan and Asaf
Khan came under the tutelage of Mohabat Khan. Mohabat Khan left Jahangir and Nur Jahan and joined
the camp of Shahjahan. However, he continued to respect the emperor.

Dr.Ishwari Prasad says that-it was under the influence ofNur Jahan that Jahangir became a thoroughbred pleasure-seeker and completely forgot the duties of his office. The view of Dr.R.P.Tripathi is that
the influence which Nur Jahan exercised over her husband was mostly moral, emotional, spiritual and
possibly intellectuaL

271

By 1625, Jahimgir and Shahjahan reconciled. Jahangir died near Bhimbar in 1627. He was buried near
Shahdara in Lahore where ur Jahan erected a beau'tiful Mausoleum on his grave. Jahangir was
succeeded by Shahjahan as the ruler of the Mughal empire.
ESTIMATE OF JAHANGIR
Captain Hawkins visited India during the reign of Jahangir. He brought a letter from James I, king of
England in 1608. He lived at the Mughal court for nearly three years (1608-1611). He has left behind an
account of the habits of Jahangir, the court etiquette, condition of the people and administrative
system. He says that Jahangir was a heavy drunhrd. When he was angry, Jahangir punished them by
torturing the victims in many ways. The mission of Captain Hawkins was a failure due to the Portuguese
influence in the Mughal court.

He secured a Firman from Jahangir permitting the English to de in Surat. He has given a brief description
of the pomp and ,lendour of the Mughal court. He also mentions that there was no written law in India
and the king's orders were the laws prevailing the empire.

Jahangir wrote the 'Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri' in which he gives a description of India during his time. It has been
an important source material which throws light on the reign of Jhangir. Although gir was intelligent, he
wasted his energy in excessive drinking. Due to this loathsome habit, Jahangir was unable to control his
,per. According to A.L.Srivastava, Jahangir canngt be called a t king nor can he be described as a
statesman and administrator outstanding calibre. He was by no means a first rate general or . ,lomat.
However" he was a benevolent ruler who aspired for the re of his subjects. Like most rulers he had his
virtues and faults. Although at times, Jahangir proved to be cruel, he was humanistic his attitude. He
possessed unusual aesthetic sense He loved lure and appreciated it deeply. He also possessed a fine
critical in matters of dress and pleasure of the table. He possessed . refined characteristics in behaviour.

According to Dr.Ishwri Prasad, "Jahangir is one of the most 'esting figures in Mughal history. The
ordinary view that he

272

was a sensual pleasure-seeker and a callous tyrant does less ,than justic0. All accounts agree that he was
intelligent, shrewd, and capable of understanding the most complex problems of the state without
difficulty. There is much in his c;haracter that deserves to be condemned, but there is a great deal that
entitles him to be placed among the most fascinoting personalities of Indiat; history."
According to Beni Prasad,"Jahangir's reign, on the whole, was fruitful of peace and prosperity to the
empire. Under its auspices, industry and commerce progressed; architecture achieved notable triumphs;
painting reached its high water mark; literature flourished as it had never done before. Tulsidas
composed the Ramayana. A host of remarkable Persian and Vernacular poets all Over the country
combined to make the period the Augustan age of medieval Indian literature. The political side
ofJahangir's history is interesting enough but its virtue liesin cultural development."

3.6 SHAHJAHAN (1627-1658)

Nearly thirty years of the rule of Shahjahan marked the zenith of power and prosperity of the Mughal
empire.
It won the credit of being they Golden age in the history of the Mughal rule.
He extended the empire and maintained it in an efficient manner without providing an opportunity for
the outbreak of any revolts. The empire enjoyed peace and prosperity during his regime; However, the
wasteful expenditure on the campaigns of Central Asia and Khandar, expenditure on the splendour of
the court and the construction of maginificent buildings and the infighting among his sons adversely
affected the fortunes of the Mughal empire.
The son and successor of Jahangir was Prince Khurram.
He was awarded with the title of 'Shahjahan.
He was born in 1592 A.D. at Lahore.
His mother, Jagat Gusain (Jodha Bai or Bhanmati) was the daughter of Udai Singh, ruler of Marwar.
Akbar loved Khurram immensely; He was married to Arjumand Banu Beg (who later on came to be
famous as Mumtaz Mahal), daughter of the powerful noble, Asaf Khan, brother of Nur Jahan.
After Khusrav revolted, Jahangir treated Shahjahan as his successor. Shahjahan participated successfully
in the military campaigns against Mewar, Kangra and the Deccan. He received the best honours and
Jagirs from the Emperor. But he lost the favour oJ the Queen, Nur Jahan who started supported the

cause of her son-in-law, Shahryar which resulted in difficulties for Shahjahan. He revolted in 1623 A.D.
but was unsuccessful and he accepfed all the conditions imposed on him by J ahangir. When J ahangir
died, Shahjahan was in the Deccan region. Asaf Khan,' father-in-law of Shahjahan and Khwaja Abul
Hasan, the Diwan of the empire were largely responsible for placing Shahjahan on the throne.
They freed Prince Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja and Aurangazeb from the captivity of Nul' J ahan. Shahjahan
declared himself as the emperor in 1628 A.D. at Agra. Asaf Khan was appointed as the Wazir of the
empire. Begum Nul' Jahan was granted
a pension of Rs.2 Lakh per annum. Nur Jahan died at Lahore in 1645 .
REVOLT OF BUNDELKHAND (1628-35. A.D.)
During the rule of Jahangir, Bir Singh Bundela was the ruler of Bundelkhand. He had killed 'Abul Fazl at
instigation of Jahangir when Akbar was the Mughal emperor. After his death, his Son Jajhar Singh
servedJahangir. Jajharis son, Bikramjit oppressed the people of Bundelkhand by imposing heavy
taxation. Shahjahan attacked Bundelkhand ann Jujhar Singh surrendered. He offered 1000 Gold.
Mohurs, Rs. 15,00,000,40 elephants and a part of his Jagir. Shahjahan pardoned him. Jujhar Singh
serVed Shahjahan with loyalty for five years.
In 1635, Jujhar singh occupied Gondwana. Shahjahan objected to it as wars within the vassals.
Shahjilhan asked Jujhar to pay Rs. 10,000 and give up Gondwana or Jagir equivalent to it. Jujhar refused
to do so. Shahjahan despatched Aurangazeb to attack Bundelkhand. Jujhar and Bikramjit were killed in
the jungles of Gond. Bundelkhand was handed over to Devi Singh, relative of Jujhar Singh. Thus, the
revolt of Bundelkhand was suppressed.
REVQLT OF KHAN JAHAN LODI (1628-1631 A.D.)
Khan J ahan Lodi was an Afghan noble of the Mughals. He had been the Governor of the Deccan. When
Shahjahan revolted against Jahangir, he refused to help Shahjahan. He wanted to carve an independent
kingdom for himself. He had sold Balaghat to Ahmednagar.for Rs. 3 lakhs. Shahjahan tried to recover it
back. Khan Jahan Lodi was defeated near River Chambal. He took refuge in the court of the ruler of
Ahlnednagar, Murtaza Nizam Shah. Shahjahan persoflally attacked him. Khan Jahan Lodi fled towards
the North. He/fought his last battle at UP and was killed.
SIKHS
Guru Har Govind staited constructing the city of Sri Govindpur near the banks of River Beas. Abdulla
Khan, Mughal Governor of Jallunder attacked the Guru to stop the construction of the new city but was
defeated. Vidhi Singh, one of the disciples of the Guru and a famous dacoit, stole two imperial horses
and presented them to

275

the Guru. Th Mughals attacked the Guru in 1613. But the Mughals were once again defeated near
Kartarpur. The Guru realised the futility of conflict with the Mughals. He left Punjab and settled down in
the hills of Kashmir where he died in 1645 A.D. Thus, the relations between the Mughals and the Sikhs
were strained during the reign of Shahjahan.
SOUTH INDIAN EXPEDITIONS
AHMEDNAGAR

Nizam Shah, ruler of Ahmednagar appointed Fateh Khan, son of Malik Amber as Vazir. He was disloyal
and selfish. He killed izam Shah and raised Husain a child of ten years to the throne. When Shahjahan
attacked him, Fateh Kha accepted his sovereignty. Shahjahan left Deccan in 1632 AD. as he had no heart
to wage wars as his queen Mumtaz Mahal had died. In 1633, Mohabat Khan reached Deccan as the
Mughal Governor. He was displeased with . the conduct of Fateh Khan. He attacked Daulatabad. He sent
Hussain Shah, the last ruler of Ahmednagar and Fateh Khan as captives to Shahjahan. Thus Ahmednagar
was occupied.
GOLKONDA

Mohammad Qutb Shah died. He was succeeded by Abdullah Qutb Shah who was only eleven years old.
The nobles started fighting among themselves. Shahjahan took advantage of it and demanded annual
tribute from Golkonda. The Sultan of Golkonda agreed to pay Rs. 6,00,000 per Annum and arrears of Rs.
36;00,000. Shahjahan appointed Aura.1.gazebas Governor of Deccan from 1636-1644, and made
Aurangabad his capital.
In 1657, Aurangazeb tried to occupy Golkonda. Mir Muhammad Sayyid had pleased Abdullah Qutb Shah,
the ruler of Golkonda and had occupied Karnotaka. He refused to hand over Karnotaka to the Sultan.
Qutb Shah decided to imprison him. Mir Mohammad Sayyid or Mir Jumla took refuge under
Aurangazeb. However his wealth was confiscated by Shahjahan. The Mughals captured Hyderabad and
besieged Golkonda. Qutb Shah was forced to sign a treaty with Aurangazeb. Mir Jumla accepted the
sovereignty of the Mughals.

276

BIJAPUR

Bijapur had always supported Golkonda against the Mughals.

The Mughals attackedBijapur under the command of Asaf Khan but failed to capture it. Shahjahan
appointed Mohabat Khan as the Governor of Deccan region. I?ut he was also defeated. By 1636,
Shahjahan attacked Bijapur. Due to the rebellions of the nobles it had become weak and thus
Muhammad Adil Shah signed a peace treaty.
Muhammad Adil Shah proved himself to ba a capable ruler. His queen, Bari Sahib a placed a boy of 18
years on the throne for the sake of convenience. Shahjahan attacked Bidar and occupied Kalyana.
Bijapur agreed to pay Rs. 1 Vz crores. Shahjahan reduced it to Rs one crare only. However the forts of
Bidar and Kalyana remained with the Mughals. The Deccan policy of the Mughals proved fairly
successful during the rule of Shahjahan.
CENTRAL ASIA
The Uzbegs controlled Central Asia but there was no unity among them. Shahjahan sent Prince Murad to
occupy Central Asia. Prince Murad was only partially successful. Later Prince Aurangazeb was
despatched. He was also not fully successful. Thus the attempt of Shahjahan to conquer Central Asia
ended in failure.
KANDHAR
HothPersians and Mughals wanted to occupy Kandhar. When the Mughals failed to occupy Central Asia,
the Persian Emperor attacked Kandhar.He captured it in 1648 A.D. The attempts of Aurangazeb and
Dara Shikoh to recover the fort failed miserably. Thus Kandhar Was completely lost during the rule of
Shahjahan.
BALKH AND BADAKSHAN
Shahjahan tried to occupy Balkh and Badakshan and interfered in the internal politics of that region. He
despatched Prince Murad and Ali Mardan Khan in 1646 with 50,000 cavalry and 10,000 Infantry in order
to conquer Balkh. The Mughal armies entered Balkh easily in 1646. Murad did not stay for long there.
Shahjahan sent Aurangazeb and Shah Shuja. The Mughal army faced numerous
. problems due to the tactics of the Uzbegs. Fighting continued for a long time and the Mughals were
forced to retreat towards Kabul.

277

They suffered heavy losses. The Central Asian policy of Shahjahan was a total failure beyond any doubt.
WAR WITH PORTUGUESE (1631-32)

The Portuguese factories were established in the town of Hughli. Th Portuguese who had settled down
in the coastal regions usually captured the orphan Hindu and Muslim children and converted them
forcibly to Christianity. Shahjahan appointed Kasim Khan as the Governor of Bengal in 1631 and directed
him to reduce the power of the Portuguese. The siege of Hugli lasted for more than three months and
the Portuguese were forced to surrender. More than 10,000 Portuguese were killed and more than
4,000 were made prisoners.
WAR OF SUCCESSION (1657-58)
Shahjahan fell ill in 1657 A.D. The probability of the death of Shahjahan created rival groups in the court
and the empire. Shahjahan had four sons and they all decided to fight for the throne. In 1657, Dara
Shikoh was 43, Shahshuja was 41, Aurangazeb 39 and Murad 33. Dara Shikoh was the Governor of
Punjab, Shah Shuja was the Governor of Bengal, Aurangabad was the Governor of the Deccan and
Murad Bux was the Governor of Gujarat.
Dara Shikoh possessed literary and artistic talents. He associated himself with the Muslim Sufis and the
Hindu Vedantists. He also translated the Upanishad into Persian language. He was not fanotical about
his religion. He was not fanotical about his religion. He was the favourite of the king but he was not
endowed with military prowess and ability. He was more sui ted to become a poet or philosopher but
not the ruler of India. Even the women of the royal family participated in the war of succession. Jahan
Ara supported Dara Shikoh, Roshan Ara supported Aurangazeb and Gauhan Ara supported Murad Bux.
Shah Shuja was easy going and a pleasure loving prince. Murad Bux was courageous but was an
impratical and imhalanced person who lacked Shrewdness. Among all the sons of Shahjahan,
Aurangazeb was the ablest. He was an efficient eneral. He was extremely intelligent and it was difficult
even for his friends to understand what was passing in his mind. He was a devout Muslim. He won the
love and admiration of the orthodox Muslims for his religious zeal and fanoticism.

278

Shah Shuja, Aurangazeb, Murad Bux and Dara Shikoh prepared for a war. Aurangazeb entered into a
treaty with Murad. Both of them aimed at defeating Dara Shikoh. They agreed that after the victory over
Dara was accomplished, Afghanistan, Punjab, Kashmir and Sind would be given to Murad to rule as an
independent ruler and the rest of the empire would be under the control of Aurangazeb. Similarly 1 /3rd
of the booty was assigned to Murad Bux and 2/3rd to Aurangazeb.
Shahjahan sent the Imperial army against the combined armies of Aurangazeb, Murad Bux and Shah
Shuja under Raja Jai Singh. Shahshuja was defeated at Bahadurpur ancl he fled towards Bengal. J aswant
singh and Kasim Khan were sent to fight against Aurangazeb and Murad Bux. The battle of Dharmat was
fought. The Rajputs fought remarkably well but were unable to defeat Aurangazeb and Murad.
Aurangazeb managed to surround the Rajputs and they were all put to death. He secured a large

number of guns, elephants and other materials. Murad and Aurangazeb proceeded towards Agra.
Shahjahan sent a Firman to Aurangazeb not to advance further. Da.ra Shikoh fought against Aurangazeb
at Samugarh, eight miles East of Agra in 1658. He was badly defeated. He WaS unable to face Shahjahan
'and therefore went to Delhi with his family members.
LAST DAYS OF SHAHJAHAN
Aurangazeb besieged the fort of Agra and cut off the watersupply from the river Yamuna to the fort. He
forced Shahjahan to, open the gates of the fort. After that Shahjahan remained as the prisoner of
Aurangazeb till his death in 1666 A.D. Shahjahan passed the last eight years of his life as a prisoner in the
Shah Surj of the Agra fort. Aurangazeb'deprived Sha:hjahan of his royal jewellery and did not provide
him with the daily comforts of life. His daughter, Jahan Ara served him loyally till his death He died in
1666 A.D. and was buried near the grave of his dear wife, Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal, Agra.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE UNDER SHAHJAHAN
Shahjahan has been rightly called as "The prince of builders." [t is said that he found the earlier buildings
in Sandstone and left them in marble. By the use of Marble, he added new meaning to architecture. His
buildings are characterised by massive beauty and

279

aesthetic sense. Elegance and extraordinary expensive decoration were the special features of
architecture during the time of Shahjahan: ? The monumental structure which is world renowned has
been the \ building of the Taj on the banks of the river Jamuna which was built
in memory of the beloved Queen of Shahjahan, Mumtaz Mahal. Travenier says that the Taj was
completed in 22 years and cost more thanRs. 3 crores. Shahjahan built the Mati Masjid and Musamman
Burj in Agra fort.

The Taj Mahal has been described as "a dream in marble designed by fairies and completed by
jewellers". It was built of pure white marble. As a monument of love "it is unsurpassed in the world."
The dome in the centre appears like an inverted lotus. There
are four domes at the four corners of the building. The outer and inner walls are richly decorated with
exquisite inlay work and calligraphy. The Mausoleum is surrounded by beautiful gardeos
and fountains. The Red fort in Delhi was constructed by Shahjahan during the period 1639-1648 A.D. It
was built of red sandstone and marble. It has massive waIls around it, in which there are two gateways.
The western gateway is known as the Lahori gate and the other gateway for public use. Within the effort

there are magnificent buildings including a public Durbar Hall (Diwan-i-Am) and Diwani-as. The
prominent palaces within the fort include Mati Mahal, She ish Mahal and Rang Mahal. The Diwan-i-Khas
is the most ornamental hall where the peacock throne was placed. The Hall was used by the emperor to
give audience to the princes of the royal family, nobles and other important dignitaries.

The Jami Masjid is one of the largest mosques in India. It took six years to complete it and it cost asum of
Rs. 10 lakhs. The

280

tomb of Nizam-ud-din Auliya was also built of pure white marble. The peacock throne was of solid gold
studded with costly jewels. Its worth was about Rs. 19 crores. The intense architectural activity during
the rule of Shahjahan indicates his rich contribution to the field of Indian culture.
ESTIMATE OF SHAHJAHAN
Shahjahan has been considered as one of the greatest rulers of the Mughals. As an eminent general, he
displayed his prowess and ability in many wars. He was a good administrator. His greatest contribution
was to the field of architecture. The Taj immortalized the love of Shahjahan for his beloved wife,
Mumtaz Mahal. Shahjahan was a liberal ruler who granted enough power to his sons by appointing
them as the Governors of different provinces.
Thomas Edwards and Garrett are of the view that the reign of Shahjahan was outwardly a period of
great prosperity. There were very few wars and peace and prosperity prevailed in the empire. However
the reign o.f Shahjahan sounded the death knell of the empire and the destruction of its economic
system. Shahjahan
. burdened the agricultural and the industrial classes in order to raise revenue for the expenditure of his
extravagant bureaucracy and for the splendid architectural monuments.
Dr.R.P.Tripathi writes "The reign ofShahjahan was prosperous.
The peacock. throne and the glitter of jewels dazzled the foreign travelers. The Taj Mahal, the Pearl
Mosque, the Ali Masjid of Shahjahanabad, the fort of Shahjahanabad stand to this to testify to the
greatness of Mughalempire and tlJ.e glory of his reign."
ESTIMATE OF THE REIGN OF SHAHJAHAN
There are diverse opinions among scholars and historians who

have evaluated the reign of Shahjahan. Some of the historians like Khafi Khan, Bernier, Travenier,
Moreland, Richq,rd Barns, W.Hunter and Elphinstone have showered lavish praises on the rule of
Shahjahan. Some others such as Dr.V.A.Smith, Edwards and Garret and Sir William Forster have b,een
highly cri tical of Shahjahan' s mode of administration.
Khafi Khan writes, "Akbar was pre-eminent as a conqueror and law-giver, yet for the order and
arrangement of his territory

281

and finances and good administration of the state, no prince ever reigned in India that could be
compared to Shah Jahan." According
to Bernier, during the rule of Shahjahan "The economic condition of Bengal was very good". Travenier
wrote,"Though Akbar was a greater conqueror and an expert in formation of laws and regulations but
there was no emperor equal to Shah Jahan so far as best arrangement for the administration of each
part of the empire was concerned."
Lane Poole, observed, "Shahjahan was renowned for his kindness and benevolence which endeared him
to the people." Moreland opined that "The reign of Shahjahan was a period of agrarian tranquility."
Travenier also wrote,"Shahjahan reigned not som much as king over his subjects, but rather as a father
over his family and children.':
Elphinstone regarded the rule of Shah Jahan as "The most prosperous period of Indian history."
W.H.Hunter opined that "The Mughal empire attained its highest union of strength and magnificence
undet.ShahJahan." Sir Richard Barns also remarked, "Shah Jahan had reigned for thirteen years during
which time the empire reached the height of its glory and wealth". Dr. Ishwari Prasad compared Shah J
ahan to Akbar and wrote thus, "The income from the Paraganas had increased from Rs.3 Lakhs during
Akbar's time to 13lakhs."
Therule of Shahjahan has been regarded as the 'Golden age of Mughal period". It has also turned out to
be a debatable issue. The famous art critic, Percy Brown praised Shah Jahan's architecture as 'Shahjahan
founded the Mughal cities of Sandstone and left them of marble."In praise of the cultural development
during the rule of Shah Jahan, K.T.Shah writes, "the Imperial patronage was no longer themonoply of
the poet and the painter but ever kind of artist was recognized and encouraged." In fact the Taj Mahal
has been regarded as a lyric in marble. Taking into consideration the progress in architecture, music and
painting, Shah Jahan's reign has been considered as lmique. Shahjahan's reign is considered as the
Golden age due to the political stability, peace and order. At the same time it was a time when trade
and commerce flourished immensely. The peasants were well-protected and the architectural activity
was at

282
its height. A number of scholars gained state patronage. It was' also an age of intense literary activity.
These are the arguments put in favour of considering Shah Jahan's,reign as the Golden in Mughal
history.
Still the reign of Shah Jahan has not escaped criticism. William Hawkins who spent some time in India
and also visited the court of Shah Jahan calls Shah.Jahan, "a talented drunkard." Bernier states, "The
Jesuits were severely punished by the Emperor." Peter Mundy who was in the Deccan when
faminebroke out during the rule of Shah Jahan,describes the disaster of famine as follows- "The
Highways were strewn with corpses whiCh emitted intolerable stench. In the towns especially they drag
them (dead bodies) out by the heels, stark naked of all ages and sexes, till they are out of the gates and
then tliey are left, so that the way is half barred up."
Manucci has criticized the harsh judicial suystem during the rule of Shah Jahan. He wrote, "One official
kept a basket full of venomous serpents in Shah Jahan's court and Shah Jahan used to leave the
criminals to die painfully 'after getting them bit by the serpents in his presence."
Dr.V.A.Smith has criticized Shah Jahan- "Shah Jahan failed both as a man and as a ruler and that the
dazzling splendour of his court and the remarkable beauty of his buildings, specially of the Taj Mahal
misled the world into thinking that his reign was a golden period in Mughal history." He further adds,
"Shah Jahan was cruel, treacherous and unscrupulous in state matters. He had no skill as a military
leader and the organization and command of his army was inefficient. Thus his administration was far
from satisfactory. Besides, Shah Jahan squandered a large sum of public money which could have been
used for the social and economic welfare of the people. This in due course of time led to the financial
bankruptcy which proved a potent cause of the down fall of the Mughal empire".
Shah Jahan has been ,criticized for behaving in a cruel and barbaric manner. He killed his own brothers
to acquire the throne. He also wasted enormous amount of money to 'fulfil his personal pleasures and
ambitions. He displayed religious intolerance towards other religions. He encouraged forcible
conversion of people into Islam. He was also cruel towards the Christians.

283

During the rule of Shah J ahan land revene was enhanced and it added to the misery of the peasants. His
foreign policy was also an utter failure. He was unable to conquer Kandhar and Central Asia. It also
added to the drain of the wealth of the state. His reign was also noted for rampant corruption and
extortion of money from the people on all sorts of pretexts. His reign also witnessed a series ofrevolts,
indicating the growing discontentment among the people.

In analyzing the reign of Shah J ahan S9me historians have tried to project a balanced view by trying to
be more objective in looking at the evidences. According to Dr.A:L.Srivastava, "Shah Jahan's reign has
been described as a golden period in the medieval history of India. This is true in one respect only and
that is in the domain of art, particularly architecture." He also adds, "His religious bigotry and
intolerance anticipated the reactionary reign of Aurangazeb .... His love of presents accorded sanction to
a pernicious custom of gilded bribery. The offering of Nazars and presents became common not only at
the royal court anq camp, but also in the households of imperial nobles and offices and became
responsible for a great deal of corruption in administration. His display of pomp and magnificence
extorted money from the unwilling masses and classes, and his sensual tastes set a bad standard of
public and private morality." .
Dr.Jadunoth Sarkar writes in his work, 'Studies in Mughal India', as follows- "Shah J ahan was extremely
laborious, yet the seed of disintegration of the Mughal empire wa sown during his reign." It is also
important to take note of the observation of S.R.Sharma, "lnspite of theeariy rebellions, which were
soon crushed; in spite of the foreign wars of aggression beyond the frontiers, which cost enormously
with no return whatsoev.er; in spite of the famine in the Deccan and Gujarat, which devastated a vast
portion of the
country; and in spite oEthe constant fighting in the Deccan, which, while it reulted in the subjugation of
Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bijapur, also involved a great drain in the resources of the empire, the age
of Shah Jahan showed much that was glorious, and many an unmistakable sign of lmique prosperity to
justify this period being described as the Golden age of the empire."

3.7 AURANGAZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707)

Aurangazeb was born at Dahodnear Ujjain in 1618.

He assumed the title, "Abul Muzaffar Mohin-ud-din Mohammad Aurangazeb Bahadur Alamgir
BadshahGhazi."
He was well versed in Arabic and Persian languages.
He studied the Quran and the Hadees, the holy books of the Muslims.
Aurangazeb was the ablest of the sons of Shahjahan.He was an efficient general. He was endowed wit
sharp intellect and it was difficult even for his friends to understand what was passing in his mind.
He was extremely ambitious and had the ability and prowess needed to govern a heterogenous country
like India.He was a devout Muslim and he won love and admiration of the orthodox Muslims for his
religious zeal and fanoticism.

Aurangazeb fought against Dara Shikoh at Samugarh, 8 miles East of Agra in 1658.
Dara Shikoh was defeated. Aurangazeb ascended the throne as the Badshah of a highly prosperous and
extensive empire.
He spent his first five years in ridding himself of his relatives.
really Aurangazeb (Ornament of the throne) the middle age of Indian history ends. During his period
there was considerable decline in culture.
At the' time of his death, there were clear symptoms of decadence of the empire.
Akbar's dreams were vanished into thin air from the moment he set his foot on the throne.
WAR OF SUCCESSION (1657-58)
Shahjahan fell ill in 1657 A.D. The probability of the death of Shahjahan created rival groups in the court
and the empire. Shahjahan had four sons and they all decided to fight for the throne. In 1657, Dara
Shikohwas 43, Shahshuja was 41, Aurangazeb 39 and Murad 33. Dara Shikoh was the Governor of
Punjab, Shah Shuja was the Governor of Bengal, Aurangabad was the Governor of the Deccan and
Murad Bux was the Governor of Gujarat.
Dara Shikoh possessed literary and artistic talents. He associated himself with the Muslim Sufis and the
Hindu Vedantists. He also translated the Upa'nishad into Persian language. He was not fanotical about
his religion. He was not fanotical about his religion, He was the favour'ite of the king but he was not
endowed with military prowess and ability. He was more suited to become a poet or philosopher but
not the ruler of India. Even the women of the royal family participated in the war of succession. Jahan
Ara supported Dara Shikoh, Roshan Ara supported Aurangazeb and Gauhan Ara supported Murad Bux.
Shah Shuja was easy going and a pleasure loving prince. Murad Bux was courageous but was an
impratical and imbalanced person who lacked Shrewdness, Among all the sons of Shahjahan,
Aurangazeb was the ablest. He was an efficient General. He was extremely intelligent and it was difficult
even for his friends to understand what was passing in his mind. He was a devout Muslim. He won the
love and admiration of the orthodox Muslims for his religious zeal and fanoticism.
Shah Shuja, Aurangazeb, Murad Bux and Dara Shikoh prepared for a war. Aurangazeb entered
into a treaty with Murad. Both of them aimed at defeating Dara Shikoh, They agreed that after the
victory over Dara was accomplished, Afghanistan, Punjab, Kashmir and Sind would be given to Murad to
rule as an independent ruler and the rest of the empire would be under the control of Aurangazeb.
Similarly 1 /3rd of the booty was assigned to Murad Bux and 2/3rd to Aurangazeb.
Shahjahan sent the Imperial army against the combined armies of Aurangazeb, Murad Buxand Shah
Shuja under Raja Iai Singh. Shahshuja was defeated at Bahadurpur and he fled towards Bengal. Jaswant
Singh and Kasim Khan were sent to fight against

Aurangazeb and Murad Bux. The battle of Dharmat was fought. The Rajputs fought remarkably well but
were unable to defeat Aurangazeb and Murad. Aurangazeb managed to surround the Rajputs and they
were all put to death. He secured a large number of guns, elephants and other materials.
Murad and Aurangazeb proceeded towards Agra. Shahjahan sent a Firman to Aurangazeb not to
advance further. Dara Shikoh fought against Aurangazeb at Samugarh, eight miles East of Agra in 1658.
He was badly defeated. He was unable to face Shahjahan and therefore went to Delhi with his family
members.
Aurangazeb besieged the fort of Agra and cut off the watersupply from the river Yamuna to the fort. He
forced Shahjahan to open the gates of the fort. After that Shahjahan remained as the prisoner of
Aurangazeb till his death in 1666 A.D. Shahjahan passed the last eight years of his life as a prisoner in the
Shah Burj of the Agra fort. Aurangazeb deprived Shahjahan of his royal jewellery and did not provide
him with the daily comforts of life. His daughter, Jahan Ara served him loyally till his death. He died in
1666 A.D. and was J:mried near the grave of his d;ar wife, Mtimtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal at Agra.
WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT
Aurangazeb's first conquest was that of Assam which was ruled over by a Mongoloid dynasty.
Aurangazeb appointed Mir Jumla as Governor of Bengal and directed him to recover the Mughal
territory, Kamrup which was under the control of the rulers of Cooch-Behar. Mir Jumla captured the
capital of Cooch-Behar and annexed it to the Mughal empire. He invaded Assam which was under the
control of the Ahoms. He defeated the Ahoms and occupied their capital Garhgoan where he acquired
immense bboty. The Ahoms captured some of the Mughal frontier outposts and cut off the
communications between the Mughal army and navy. Mir Jumla died due to exertion and unhealthy
climate of Assam.
Sh.ayista Khan was appointed as the Governor of Assam. He captured Chatgoan and drove away the
Portuguese from the delta of the Brahmaputra. He even defeated the Raja of Arakan. The Mughals held
Assam for four years longer but the Ahom king, Chakradhwaj recovered all his lost territories. He even
captured
Guwahati. Thus Kamrup ceased to be a part of the Mughal empire. Shayista Khan subdued the
Portuguese pirates who constantly plundered Bengal, earned off the people and sold them as slaves at
the Indian ports.
Shayista Khan built a fleet of 390 vessels called the Flotilla and conquered the island of Sandwaip. He
also captured Chatgoan which was made the headquarters of a Mughal commandment.
Several minor conquests were made during the first half of Aurangazeb's reign. The Mughal sovereignty
was established over the ruler of Little Tibet or Ladakh, where for the first time a mosque was
constructed. There were fierce uprisings of the Jats in Mathura and Agta districts and of the Sikhs in
Punjab which continued for a long time.
WITH THE NORTH-WESTERN FRONTIER TRIBES

Although Aurangazeb was a champion of Muslim orthodoxy, he had to wage wars with equally fanotical
Muslim tribes of the North-western frontier region. In 1667, Bhagu, the leader ofYusufai clan ,?f the
Swat and Bajaur districts, North of Peshawar established a pretender entitled Muhammad Shah as the
king of the clan. He crossed the Indus near Attock and invaded the Mughal district, Hazara. Other bands
of Yusufais plundered Attock and Peshawar districts. They were defeated by Kamil Khan and Sham Sher
Khan who were the Mughal commanders.
In 1672, the Afridi chief, Akmal Khan crowned himself as the king and declared war against the Mughals.
The rebels attacked Muhammad Amin Khan, Governor of Afghanistan. The Mughal army was defeated
but Muhammad Amin Khan managed to escape. This success fired the ambition of the rebels.
Aurangazeb despatched Mohabbat Khan to put down the rebellion. However, Mohabbat Khan as the
new governor of Afghanistan allied himself with the rebels: The Emperor was displeased. He sent Sujaat
Khan to punish the rebels but he was defeated in 1674.
Aurangazeb now proceeded to Hasan Abdul near Peshawar. Mohabbat Khan was removed from the
Gove11Jlorship. Aurangazeb bribed the tribal chiefs. Some of the clans like Ghorai, Ghilzai, Shirani and
Yusufai accepted his sovereignty. UIghur Khan played
an important role in suppressing the rebellions; Aurangazeb established peace in the region and
appointed Amir Khan as the Governor of Kabul and returned to Delhi.
AURANGAZEB AND THE RAJPUTS (1679-81)
Aurangazeb was a fanotical Muslim and he showed intolerance
towards the Hindus. The Rajputs were the sworn enemies of Aurangazeb. In 1678, Maharaja Jaswant
Singh of Jodhpur passed away. As he had been under the Mughal service, Aurangazeb sent his. officers
to take possession of his kingdom an'd to place an incompetent relative on the throne who was willing
to pay Rs. 35 lakhs. At that time, the two widows of Maharaja Jaswant Singh reached Lahore and they
gave birth to two sons. One 9f them died soon after birth, but the other child Ajit Singh survived. The
followers of J as want Singh took the child to the Mughal court and requested Aurangazeb to recognize
the child as the ruler of Jodhpur. Aurangazeb declared that the child would be brought up in his harem
and after the child reached the right age, he would be allowed to ascend the throne 9f Jodhpur only if
he embraced Islam. The Rajputs hated it. Durgadas, the eminent Rathor leader was a true Rajput with
reckless courage and selfless devotion towards his kingdom. Under the able leadership of Durgadas, a
plan was hatched to save the queen mothers and the child from the Mughals. A group of Rajputs
attacked the Mughal force which had been sent to seize the Ranis and Ajit Singh. Durgadas managed to
takeaway the Ranis and Ajit Singh by advising them to disguise themselves in male attire. He reached
Jodhpur in 1679 safely. Aurangazeb dispatched a large force. He himself captured Jodhpur. The Sisodias
of Mewar and the Rathors of Mewar united against the Mughals. However Mewar was plun:dered and
the Rana was forced to flee. By 1681, Prince Akbar revolted against Aurangazeb with the help of the
Rajputs. Aurangazeb concluded peace with the Rajputs in 1681. But it did not last long. Only in 1709, Ajit
Singh was recognized as the ruler of Mewar by Bahadur Shah.

JAT REBELLION (1668-69)

Aurangazeb's deliberate policy of converting India into a Muslim country was opposed in Rajasthan,
Malwa, BUIldelkhand . and other regions. In these places, the people demolished many
mosques which had been constructed by destroying th Hindu emples. In some places Jizya collectors
were beaten and driven away. The first organized Hindu reaction against the policy of IAurangazeb was
in the district of Mathura. The sturdy Jat peasantry under its leader, Gokul killed Abdul Nabi, a Gazi. He
had 'Iconstructed a mosque on the rllins of the Hindu temples at Mathura. After a prolonged war
between the Mughals and the Jats, the Jats were defeated in a terrible battle fought near Tilpat. Gokul
was tortured and put to death. The Jats continued to rebel under the leadership of Rajaram of Sins ani
and Ram Chera of Soghar. Raja Ram killed UIghur Khim. They even looted Akbar's tomb at Sikandar.
Aurangazeb sent his grandson, Bidar Bhakt to put down the Jats. Raja Ram and Ram Chera: were
defeated and killed but the Jat rebellions continued under the leadership of Churaman and could
not be suppressed completely.
REVOLT OF SATNAMIS
A sect of Hindu devotees called Satnamis rose in rebellion.
Their main centers were Mewar and Narnol. They dressed themselves like Fakirs but were mainly
traders and agriculturists. They were originally a militant sect. The religious-minded Satnamis revolted
against the Mughal authority as they were unable to tolerate the harassment. A Satnami cultivator was
murdered by a Mughal Paida or foot soldier. The Satnamis retaliated and killed him. Soon a conflict
began between the Satnamis and the Mughals. The Satnamiswere credited with powers of magic and
witchcraft. The Mughals were terrors truck. In order to dispel their fears, Aurangazeb prepared some
prayers and Amulets and attached the charms to the banners of the Imperial forces. A most obstinote
war was fought in which the Satnamis lost.
WAR AGAINST THE BUNDELAS
The Bundela Rajputs enjoyed a sense of security as their kingdom was situated in the midst of dense
forests, rapid streams and steep hills of central India. During the rule of Akbar, Bir Singh Bundela had
revolted against the Mughals but Akbar did not handle the Bundelas in a harsh manner. Champat Rai
revolted against Aurangazeb, but due to several hardships he committed suicide. However Chhatrasal,
one of the four sons of Champat Rai defied
the authority of the Mughals. Chatrasaal was considered as the champion of Hindu faith and Kshatriya
honoured by the people of Bundelkhand and Malwa. He won a series of successful wars against the
Mughals and established an independent state in eastern Malwa.
THE SIKHS

Aurangazeb transformed the Sikhs from a religious body into a military brotherhood. The Sikh sect
found by Guru Nanak was purely a religious brotherhood. His first three successors, Guru Angad Dev,
Guru Amardas and Guru Ramdas provided spiritual leadership to the people following the precepts of
Guru Nanak. During the time of Guru Arjun the Golden temple at Amritsar was constructed. When
Khusrav rebelled against Jahangir, Guru Arjun rendered help to him. The Emperor was offended and
imposed a heavy fine of two lakhs on rum. When the Guru refused to pay he was tortured to death. The
Guru came to be looked upon as a martyr and the Sikh community rose up against the Mughals. Guru
Har Gobind clashed against Shahjahan. He refused to pay the fine imposed on rum by J ahangir and also
refused to give up his military activities. Shahjahan waged a number of wars against the Sikhs. The
house' and property of Guru Har Gobind were seized. He was succeeded by Guru Har Rai and Har
Kishen. Guru Tegh Bahadur, the runth Sikh Guru had to face the hostility of the Mughai emperor,
Aurimgazeb. Aurangazeb ordered the destruction of Sikh temples. Guru Tegh Bahadur offered stiff
resistance. He was arrsted and taken to Delhi v,rhere he was asked to embrace Islam. When he refused
to renounce his faith, he was tortured for five days. He was beheaded at a place called Chandni Chowk
in Delhi. The pface of Tegh Bahadur's martyrdom became a pilgrimage center where the Sikhs
constructed the Gurudwara Sirganj. The death of Tegh Bahadur brought about an irreconcilable breach
between the Sikhs and the Mughals. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru, the son and successor of Tegh
Bahadur transformed the Sikhs into a military communitythe Khalsa. Aurangazeb took steps to curb the
rising power of the Sikhs. The Mughals attacked the fort of Anandapur in 1704 A.D. and the Guru fought
heroically. Two of the Guru's sons, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh were captured and blocked up alive
when they refused to embrace Islam. Another important battle was fought
at Cham Kaur. Inspite of the Guru's valiant military leadership he was over powered. The Guru managed
to escape. Among those who fell at Cham Kaur were the Guru's sons, Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh. The
Guru's last encounter with the Mughalforces was at the
battle of Mukhtsar. The Sikhs suffered heavy losses. They led an unrelenting struggle against the
Mughals.
THE DECCAN POLICY OF AURANGAZEB
During the first half of his reign, Aurangazeb's interests were mainly centered around the affairs in
Northern India.
He spent the last 25 years of his life (1682-1707) in the Deccan region.
The Deccan campaign was aimed at the conquest of Bijapur and Golkonda.
The Mughals also decided to crush the power of the Marathas. Golkonda and Bijapur states were Shia
states.
Aurangazeb was a staunch Sunni.
He led a personal campaign on the Deccan region.

BIJAPUR (1686)
Sikandar Adil Shah was an incompetent ruler.
Aurangazeb despatched Prince Azim against Bijapur in 1682 but it ended in failure.
For a short while Aurangazeb was engaged in wars against the Marathas and dealing with his son, Prince
Akbar.
Bijapur consolidated its position with the help of the minister, Sharza Khan.
Aurangazeb demanded the dismissal of Sharza Khan. When the ruler defied his orders, Aurangazeb
besieged him as captured him and imprisoned him and Bijapur annexed.
GOLKONDA (1687)
Abul Hasan, the ruler of Golkonda incurred the displeasure of Aurangazeb as he professed Shia faith and
also employed Hindus in the state service.
He had also helped the ruler of Bijapur against the Mughals.
He had helped Shivaji to recover his forts from the Mughals after the great escape of Shivaji from Agra.
He had appointed two Brahmins, Madanna and Akkanna as his cheif ministers.
Aurangazeb attacked Golkonda and the war dragged on for some time.
Aurangazeb bribed some of the officers who agreed to open the main gate. Abul Hasan was
captured,and imprisoned.
His kingdom was annexed in 1687.
AURANGAZEB AND THE MARATHAS
Aurangazeb sent Shayista Khan against Shivaji.
The Marathas harassed the Mughal army.
Shayista Khan defeated the Marathas in some battles and occupied certain forts but he was unable to
tolerate the threat of the Marathas.
Shivaji made a surprise attack on his camp and Shivaji severed off three fingers of Shayista Khan.
The son of Shayista Khan was surrounded and killed. He was forced to return back and he was recalled
by Aurangazeb.
Jai Singh was despatched by Aurangazeb against Shivaji. Jai Singh threatened to occupy Raigarh.

He forced Shivaji to sue for peace. By the treaty of Purandar, Shivaji surrendered 23 forts to the Mughals
and retained only 12 forts.
He also agreed to pay a heavy war indemnity. Jai Singh coaxed Shivaji to visit the court of Aurangzeb
ensuring safety of his life.
Aurangazeb imprisoned Shivaji and his son, Sambhaji. However, Shivaji and his son manage to escape
from Agra. After the death of Shivaji in 1680, Aurangazeb led an expedition against Sambhaji.
He defeated Sambhaji and captured him.
Raja Ram continued the struggle against Aurangazeb till 1700.
Aurangazeb was unable to crush the Marathas completely.
REBELLION OF PRINCE AKBAR

Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangazeb by about 1682 A.D.

Aurangaze was dissatisfied by the way Akbar occupied Chitoor.

So he transferred him to Marwar.
Chitoor was placed under the control of Prince Azam.
Prince Akbar felt his removal from Chittor to be an indignity. Maharana Jai Singh and Durgadas promised
to give loyal support to Prince Akbar.
Prince Akbar began his march to Ajmer against Aurangazeb. But Aurangazeb acted with tact and
diplomacy.
He sent a false letter to the Rajput supporters which roused their suspicion against Prince Akbar. So they
deserted him but later on came to know that it was a trick played by Aurangazeb and they rescued
Akbar and escorted him to the Deccan.
The rebellion of Prince Akbar ended in failure. Aurangazeo and Maharana J ai Singh entered into a treaty
according to which Jai Singh gave a few Paraganas on 'which Jizya could be levied.
Aurangzeb's policy towards the Rajputs was ill conceived. It alienoted the most loyal supporters among
the Rajputs. It was largely responsible for promoting defiance and lawlessness throughout Northern
India, which ultimately led to the disruption 6f the Mughal empire.
AURANGAZEB AS CHAMPION OF ISLAM
Aurangazeb had ascended the throne as the champion of Islam.
Aurangazeb introduced several reforms to provide relief to the people as they were burdened by a
number of taxes and tolls.

He abolished the Rahdari which was collected on the highway frontier or ferry, which fetched lot of
revenue to the state. He also abolished the Pandari qr ground tax or house tax. Nearly 80 cesses
collected from the Non-Muslims and Muslims were abolished. Aurangazeb abolished the stamping of
Kalima (the Muslim Credo) on the coins so that it would not be touched by Hindus.
The Nauroz festival was banned as it was considered as Persian in charater.
Being fanotical about Islam, he enforced strict aherence to the practices and prayers according to the
Quran by appointing Muhtasibs or censors of public morals.
He undertook the renovation of old and dilapated mosques and Khanqahs.
Aurangazeb reverted completely to the Muslim lunar calender doing away with the Ilahi year.
He did not mind the practical inconvenience caused by this change .. He strongly forbade the cultivation
of Drugs and alchohal as they were forbidden by the Holy Koran.
He stopped the practice of Jarokha Darshan as he felt that it encouraged human worship.
He also stopped the practice of weighing himself against Gold, Silver and other commodities.
He felt that it was borrowed from the Hindu practice, Tulabharam. He also gave up the use of Tilak as it
was a Hindu sectarian mark.
He dismissed Hindu astronomers.
Prostitutes and dancing girls and were given the option of leaving the Mughal empire or getting married.
He discouraged Music.
He denounced merry making on religious festivals and public feasts.
The state musicians and singers were all pensioned off. Only the royal band was retained.
The use of dresses of Gold cloth was not permitted.
The representations of the figures of birds, animals, men and women on the occasion of HilQlu or
Muslim festival was not permitted.
Aurangazeb banned the celebration of Muharram in 1669.
RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE OF AURANGAZEB
Aurangazeb was a dogmatic Sunni muslim.
He directed all his attention to promote the Sunni faith.
His ambition was to be a typical Muslim monarch.

He attempted to enforce the strict letter of the Kuranic law according to which the pious me,n had to
indulge in the
conversion of non-Muslims into Islam.
Aurangazeb deprived the Hindus of high administrative posts.
The practice of appointing Hindus as Mansabdar's was abandoned. During the time of Aurangazeb some
Hindus occupied high posts but during, the later half of his rule, they did not occupy any high
administrative posts.
Aurangazeb issued an order prohibiting the employment of Hindus in the revenue department: The
Hindus had monopolized the clerical establishments as the Muslims served in the army.
Aurangazeb replaced Hindus by Muslims in various Government departments.
Aurangazeb ordered the destruction of Hindu temples.
The temple of Somnoth was razed to the ground.
In his Banaras Firman, he declared that his religion forbade the construction of temples but it did not
include the demolition of old temples.
This distinction was not much respected.
Later on he became more and more harsh on Hindus.
He forbade renovation of old temples.
He ordered the officials of Gujarat to destroy the temples which had been rebuilt by Hindus.
In 1669 the Governor of Orissa also destroyed a number of temples; In 1659 Aurangazeb learnt that the
temples at Multan, Sind and Benaras were used for educational purposes and banned the same.
The temples ofKeshav Rai at Mathura and the Vishwanotha temple at Benaras were also destroyed.
66 temples were demolished at Amber alone.
Nearly 239 temples were ruined in Chittor and Udaipur.
The temples of Golkonda and Bijapur Were also not spared and mosques were constructed on the ruins
of the temples.
Aurangazeb reimposed the pilgrim tax on Hindus which had been abolished by Akbar.
He banned the celebration of Hindu festivals like Diwali and Holi. Hindus were restricted from burning
the dead on the banks of the river Sabarmati in Ahmedabad and the Jamuna river at Delhi.
The Hindus were not permitted to ride on horses or elephants or travel in palanquins.

The Jizya was reimposed on the Hindus in 1679.

All nonMusims had to pay the religious tax, Jizya and the BraI:lmanas were also not exempted from
payment of Jizya.
Elaborate arrangements were made for the assessment and collection of Jizya. A Hindu had to pay 6% of
his property as Jizya. However, women, beggars, slaves, blind persons, crippled persons and mentally
retarded persons were exempted from payment of Jizya.
Aurangazeb made the provision that those Hindus who were converted to Islam would be exempted
from payment of Jizya.
It was an incentive to tempt the Hindus to convert themselves to Islam and save themselves from
harassment.
Converts to Islam were provided high administrative posts. Sir wolseley Haig is of the opinion that the
religious policy of Aurangazeb was disastrous.
The condition of Hindus during the reign of Aurangazeb was deplorable.
LAST DAYS OF AURANGAZEB
Towards the end of his reign in one of the wars against the Marathas, Aurangazeb was crossing the
Mimn river at midnight. There occurred a sudden flood. Aurangazeb stumbled and had his knee
dislocated in trying to escape. 'He suffered a series of reverses and he was attacked by severe illness in
1706. Hewas persuaded to return to Ahmednagar. He reached the place in 1706. It was his last i9urney.
He had held the reins of the Government by brute force without anybody's help. He, had no trust or
affection towards any' person. He was a lonely person without any friends. His lukewarm affection was
only towards his sister, Roshanara. He had grossly neglected the edu2atlonbf his sonsahd was
frustrated, weighed down by old age and problems. Roshanara sat by the side of his sick bed'gurading
the royal seal. He died in 1707. His remains were carried to Daulatabad.
ESTIMATE OF AURANGAZEB
Aurangazeb led a pious life. He was absolutely free from vices. Although the Mtlslim law permitted four
wives, he had less than four and was devoted to his wedded love. He did not indulge in drinking and
cared much about dress as it was prohibited in the Islamic religion. He had sharp intellect. He had
immense ability and courage. He ws suspicious and never trusted ,his officers or sons. He ruled with an
iron hand and did not securre anybody's support. Aurangazeb was a calligraphist. He wrote Shikasta and
Nastaliq which depict his skill. The greatest digest of the Muslim law produced in India, the Fatwa-IAlamgiri was compiled due to his initiative and patronage. He was a fanotical Sunni Muslim.
Aurangazeb turned out to be opposite to Akbar in his religious policy. He displayed intense religious
intolerance. According to Lane Poole, "For the first time in their history, the Mughals beheld a rigid

Muslim in their Emperor a Muslim as sternly repressible of himself as of his people around him, a king
who was prepared to stake his

296
throne for the sake of his faith. He must have been fully conscious of the dangerous path he was
pursuing, and well aware against every Hindu sentimenL Yet he chose this course, and adhered to this
with unbending resolve through close on fifty years of unchallenged sovereignty."
S.R.Sharma writes about the acts of religious intolerance of Auragazeb as follows- "These were not acts
of a righteous ruler or constructive stateman, but the outbursts of 'blind fanoticism, unworthy of the
great genius that Aurangazeb undoubtedly possessed in all other aspects."
According to Eliiot, the object of reimposing the Jizya or poll tax "was to curb the infidels and to
distinguish tne land of the faithful from an infidel land." Manuccis is of the view that the object of the
tax was two-fold; first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his
various military campaigns;
secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam."

Commenting on the Anti-Hindu policy of Aurangazeb Wolseley Haig says, "Aurangazeb was a bigot of
whom the religion of the great majority of his subjects was anothema, mischief, idolatry, which it was
his duty before heaven to persecute and if possible to stamp out. His methods were iconoclasm,
sacrilege, economic repression, bribery, forced conversion and restriction of worship."
As a ruler, Aurangazeb was a failure: V.A.Smith says that when Aurangazeb is judged as a sovereign "he
must be pronounced a failure." His highly suspicious noture deprived him of friends and it was
impossible to run the Government over an extensive empire single-handed. On account of his cold,
calculative temperament and cruel attitude, none could love him, rather they feared him more. His
contribution to literature and' art was nil. He was more destructive rather than constructive. His lack of
aesthetic taste and cold blooded cruelty led to the decadence of culture. He hastened the destruction of
the Mughal empire. Jadunoth Sarkar writes Though it is not true that he alone caused the fall of the
Mughal empire, yet he did nothing to avert it but deliberately quickened the destructive forces alredy in
operation in the land; but he never realized that there cannot be a great empire without a great people.

3.8 THE MUGHALS AFTER AURANGAZEB

After the death of Aurangazeb, a war of succession took place among his three sons, Prince Muazzam or
ShahAlam, Prince Azam and Prince Kam Baksh. Aurangazeb had neglected the education of his children,
He had not named his successor also. He simply partitioned the empire among his sons. But this
arrangement was

not accepted. The eldest son of Aurangazeb, Shah Alam crowned himself near Lahore and assumed
thetitle, Bahadur Shah. His son, Azim-ul-Shah, the Governor of Bengal supported him. Bahadur Shah
took control of the Imperial city with all its accumulated treasure.
By that time, Prince Azam marched towards Agra, but he was defeated and killed in a decisive battle
fought at Jajau. However the struggle did not end completely. In the Deccan, Kam Baksh, the youngest
son of Aurangazeb made preparations to contest or the throne. Bahadur Shah proceeded against him
and defeated Kam Baksh and killed him in a battle fought near Hyderabad. With this
the war of succession ended and Bahadur Shah emerged as the undisputed ruler of the.Mughal empire.
BAHADUR SHAH (1707,-1712 A.D)
Initially Bahadur Shah had to face several problems. The divisive forces were highly strong in the empire.
So he encashed on the politics in Maharashtra. Prince Azam before undertaking an expedition to. the
North, had realeased Sahu, son of Sambhaji who had been in Mughal captivity. So it led to the outbreak
of a civil war in Maharashtra between Sahu and Tara Bai. In this manner the menace of the Marathas
was checked. By this Bahadur Shah was able to concentrate on the Rajputs and the Sikhs. Meanwhile
the Rajput rulers of Mewar, Marwar and Kachchewaha formed a confederacy to resist the Mughal
aggression. adur succeeded in defeating the confederacy in 1710 .. However he pardoned the
recalcitrant Rajput rulers. Once again the Ranas were taken in the

298
service of the Mughal Government. Inspired by the Rajputs, the Sikts of Punjab rebelled against the
Mughal authority. After the assassinotion of Guru Govind Singh, the Sikhs were led by Banca. He had
established his sway over the entire region extendbg between Delhi and Lahore. Bahadur Shah
succeeded in defeating the Sikhs and Banda fled to the hills. His territories were annexed to the Mughal
empire.
Bahadur Shah passed away in 1712. He was a man with pleasant character. He was dignified and
magnanimous. He earned the nick-name, 'Shah-i-Bekabar' or the headless king. It indicates that he was
regarded as a vulnerable king. He strove to maintain the integrity of the Mughal empire which was
already on the verge of decadence. He also made compromises in administrative matters. He was not
strong,..willed and he lacked discretion. He was indecisive to the extent that he was unable to choose
between Munim Khan, his most loyal officer and Asad Khan, his father's Prime Minister for the post of
Prime Minister. He divided authority between them and created mutual jealousy and rivalry. It added to
the confused politics of the age.
JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-1713)
After the death of Bahadur Shah, his four sons contested for political power. His second son, Azim-usShah was the ablest. However his eldest son was Jahandar Shah. He was unworthy and incompetent.

However Jahandar had the support of Zulfikat Khan, son of the Prime Minister, Asad Khan. Zulfikar used
his diplomacy and formed an alliance of Jahandar Shah, Rufi-us-Shah and Jahan Shah against Azim-uShah. In the war that ensued Azim was defeated and killed. Later on the other three brothers began to
quarrel amongst themselves. Jahanqar killed his two brothers and ascended the throne of Delhi in 1712.
Jahandar ruled for only ten months. His reign was characterized by confusion and bankruptcy. He was
unworthy and he entrusted the administration in the hands of inefficient people and spent much of his
time with his concubine,Lal Kumari. Zulfikar Khan became the Prime Minister and he could not prevent
the disintegration of the Mughal empire.

299

The son of Azim-us-Shah, Farrukhsiyar won the friendship of the powerfnl Sayyid brothers, Hasan Ali
and Hussain Ali. With their help he defeated and killed Jahandar Shah and Zulfikar Khan and ascended
the throne of Delhi.
FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-1719)
Farrukhsiyar who ascended the throne of Delhi was young and inexperienced in administrative matters.
So the power passed into the hands of the Sayyid bothers who had raised him to the throne. The Sayyid
brothers belonged to the Bahra tribe and had served Aurangaeb. Infact Aurangazeb had given a word of
caution to be careful about the Sayyids of Bahra. He had also said that they should not be given any high
administirative post as they would prove to be dangerous and also it would be a disgrace to the Mughal
Government. The prophetic words of Aurangazeb came true during the rule of Farrukhsiyar. The Sayyid
prothers, Hasan Ali and Hussain Ali assumed control of important administirative posts. Ha$an emerged
as the Wazirof the empire and Hussain Ali became the Commander-in-Chief of the imperial forces.
Within a short period they grew so powerful that they emerged as Kingmakers during the period
between 1713 and 1720.
The power of the Sayyid brothers created jealousy among the othernobles and those nobles were led by
Mir Jumla of Multan. Even Farrukhsiyar could not bear the dominotion of the Sayyid brothers and was
aspiring to free himself from their clutches. So he appointed Mir Jumla as his &ief adviser and on his
suggestion sent Hussain Ali to undertake an expedition against Ajit Singh of Mewar with the hope that
Hussain AU would be defeated in the war. But Hussain emerged successful in the war. Finally Mir Jumla
compromised with the Sayyids. He had to go to Bihar, while Hussian Ali was assume authority as the
viceroy of Decan.
Farrukhsiyar continued his efforts to curb the influence,of the Sayyid brothers. He tried to take the help
of Nizam-ul-Mulk of Deccan region to vanquish Hussain. However his plans ended in failure. The Nizam
left the court in disgust and the even Mir Jumla and Sam-ud-Daula wnet over to the side of the Sayyids.

Meanwhile alarmed by the political machinotions of Farrukhsiyar, Hasan Ali recalled his brother Hussain
Ali to the capitaL Hussain Ali reached

300
Delhi in 1719 with an army of 11,000 Marathas under the command of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanoth. In
the same month"Raf-ud-darajat was proclaimed emperor and Farrukhsiyar was imprisoned, blinded and
later strangled to death. Farrukhsiyar proved to be an incompetent ruler of the Mughal dynasty. Finally
he was hated for his petty politics and deserted by his own nobles. He lost the sympathy of the Hindus
by reimposing Jizya. He launched a vigorous campaign of persecution against the Sikhs in Punjab and
their leader Banda was captured and put to death on a cruel manner. So the Sikhs also began to detest
the rule of Farrukhsiyar.
With the assassinotion of Farrukhsiyar, the Sayyid brothers became the virtual rulers of the Mughal
empire. They tried to rule the Mughal empire through the imperial puppets. Rafi-ul-darajat who
succeeded Farrukhsiyar was deposed in 1719 and is elder brother, Rafi-ud-Daula ascended the throne
and assumed..the title, Shah Alam II. He ruled only for three months. Then the Sayyid brothers placed on
the-throne Prince Raushan Akhtar, son bf Jahan Shah. Raushan Akhtar assumed the title Muhammad
Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi.
MOHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748)
During the reign of Muhammad Shah the first interesting political development was the overthrow of
the Sayyid brothers. They had alienoted most of the nobles. They had lost the support of 'the Turani
party led by Muhammad Amin and the Nizam-ul-Mulk. Even the Mughal emperor was disgusted with
the Sayyid brothers and he decided to seek the help of the Nizam-ul-Mulk to crush their' ,influence. They
entered into a secret agreement and according to it the Nizam proceeded to the Deccan. When he
captured Burhanpur and Asirgarh, the Sayyid brothers were alarmed and decided to confront him.
Hussain Ali proceeded to the Deccan but he was assassinoted on the way. Later on Mohammad Shah
appointed Muhammad Amin as the Wazir and he returned to Delhi.
Learning about the assassinotion of his brother, Hasan Ali placed Ibrahim on the throne and proceeded
to meet Muhammtd Shah. A battle ensued at Bilochpur in which HasanAli was defeated and taken as
captive. Shortly afterwards in 1722 he passed away. So the Sultan was finally successful in getting rid of
the influence of the

301
Sayyid brothers. However the condition of the empire did not improve in any way. Mohammad Shah
drowned himself in pleasure and neglected the administration. The Nizam who became the Wazir could
not manage the affairs in a satisfactory manner and he returned to the Deccan and declared his

indepen.dence. So also the provinces of Oudh and Bengal became independent. The Sikhs and the J ats
revolted. Meanwhile the Rohillas also declared their independence. The Marathas under Peshwa Baji
Rao I constantly made raids on the Mughal territories. Mohammad Shah and the Nizam made efforts to
check the advance of the Marathas but their combined forces were defeated near Bhopal. The Marathas
succeeded in establishing their control over Malwa and the region between the rivers chambal and
Narmada. Meanwhile at this crucial juncture the Mughal empire had to face external danger. Nadir
Shah, the Persian emperor invaded India in 1738 .. Muhammad Shah was defeated and Nadir Shah
returned with an enormouS booty worth 80 million. So the reign of Muhammad Shah saw clearly the
signs of decadence. The glory and prestige of the Mughals reached it slowest ebb.
AHMED SHAH (1748-54)
The son and successor of Muhammad Shah was Ahmed Shah.
He ascended .the throne in 1748. During his reign the Rohillas revolted and the Emperor sought the help
of the Marathas to suppress it. Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Afghan ruler started his raids on India. The third
raid of Abdali in 1752 was followed by a civil war in the Mughal empire in which the emperor was
blinded by the Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk in 1754.
ALAMGIR II (1754-59)
The Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk raised Aziz-ud-din, son of Jahandar Shah to the throne. Aziz-ud-din assumed
the title Alamgir II. He tried to recover Punjab from the Afghans and it led to the fourth invasion
o(Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1757. During that invasion the cities of Delhi and Mathura were plundered.
Alamgir II was tired by the domineering attitude of the Wazir and tried to crush him with the help of the
Afghans. But after Abdali left Iu,dia, Imad-ul-mulk secured the help of Raghunoth Ran and put an end to
the rule of the Emperor. The rivalry between the Wazir and the Emperor gave an opportunity to the
Marathas to establish themsehres in Punjab.

302

SHAHJAHAN III
Imad-ul-mulk proclaimed Muhi-ul-Milla, the grandson ofKam Baksh as emperor of Delhi. He began his
rule by assuming the title. Shah J ahan-III in 1759. However his rule was opposed by Ali GohoUJ, the
eldest son of Alamgir II. He declared himself as the ruler and assumed the title Shah Aiamll in the
eastern provinces. So it appeared that a conflict betweep. Shah Jahan III and Shah Alam 11 was
inevitable, but it as averted by the invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdai in 1759. Meanwhile the Marathas had
strengthened their position in Punjab and Mall}a Rao Holkar made preparations to harass the Afghans.
So Abdali invaded India with the intention of expelling the Marathas form Punjab. Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao
sent a strong army under Sadashiv Rao Bhau to drive away the Aft,:lans, Sadashiv Bhau entered Delhi,

deposed Shah Jahan III in 1760 and proclaimed Shah Alam II as the ruler of Delhi. Then the Marathas
confronted the Afghans. In the famous third battle of Panipatwhich took place in 1761, the Marathas
were miserably defeated.

SHAH ALAMII (1758-11806)

Shah Alam appeared to have been nominted as the ruler over a tottering empire. He sought the
protection of the Marathas and entered Delhi only in 1779. During his absence, Najib-ud-Daula was in
charge of the administration. The Sikhs and the Jats carried on a relentless struggle against the Mughals.
Shah Alam led expeditions ,against Bengal and by seeking the support of Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh. By
doing so he tried to check the growth of the English power in the Gimgetic valley. He failed miserable
and he granted the Diwni rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English in 1765. In 1788, Shah Alam
was blinded by the Rohillas who plundered the imperial city and palace. Shah Alam died in 1806as a
prisoner of the British,
THE LAST MUGHAL EMPERORS
Shah Alam was succeeded by his son, Akbar II. He assumed the title for namesake alone. He live'd as a
pensioner of the British, His son, Bahadur Shah also was permitted to retain the imperial dignity. He also
'participated in the 1857 revolt. The Indian ruler who rebelled against the English declared him as the
Emperor of Delhi. After the British suppressed the revolt, Bahadur Shah II was
303

tried and was deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. It marked the end of the Mughal rule in
India.
THE PERSIAN INVASIONS
THE INVASION OF NADIR SHAH
The Mughal rulers after Aurangazeb proved to be incompetent and it led to the decay of efficient
Government. The nobility had lost respect and the feeling of loyalty towards the Mughal emperor. They
tried to ignore his authority in their territories. It led to the growth of a period of anarchy. So the
circumstances prevailing in India provoked Nadir Shah of Persia to invade India.
Nadir Quli was the son of Imap1 Quli. He was a Turkoman of humble origin. He was trained in a rigorous
manner and he acquired immense prowess' and ability. His enthusiasm and energy were amazing. He
emerged as a powerful person in Persia and freed it from the Afghans who occupied it in 1722. He
restored the old Safavid dynasty and soon deposed the Emperor Tahmasp and proclaimed himself as the
Emperor of Persia in 1736.

In 1737, Nadir Shah attacked the fort of Kandahar. From Kandahar many Afghans fled to the Mughal
province of Kabul. Nadir Shah sent an ambassy to the Mughal court but Muhammad Shah detained the
ambassador and did not send any reply. So Nadir Shah decided to punish the Mughal emperor. He
invaded India in 1738 by leading a large army. Since the time of Aurangazeb, the defence of the North
western part of the empire was neglected. So the invader could easily enter India. Nadir Shah conquered
Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore. Even when Nasir Khan and Zakaria Khan, the Governors of Kabul and Punjab
appealed for help, the Emperor did not respond. He was immersed in his own pleasure. He was
surrounded by sycophants. Nadir Shah marched unopposed till he reached Karnal, 20 miles North of
Panipat.
Emperor Muhammad Shah proceeded with an army of 75000 meri. against Nadir Shah. However in the
battle that ensued for three hours, the Mughals suffered immense losses. Out to the intervention of
Nizam-ul-mulk, Nagir Shah agreed to conclude peace. However he could not be driven away from
Punjab due to the rivalry between the Nizam and Sadat Khan, the Nawab of Oudh Sadat Khan of

304

Oudh instigated Nadir Shah to visit Delhi and the Shah returned only after collecting a heavy war
indemnity. He entered Delhi along with the Emperor Mohammad Shah and occupied the famous
Diwan-I-Khas of Shah Jahan. But on the second day the rumours began to spread that Nadir Shah had
been murdered. So the Indians began to attack the Persians. Enraged by it, Nadir Shah ordered a
wholesale massacre. Nearly 1,20,000 persons were massacred and .the city was plundered. After staying
in Delhi for 58 days, Nadir Shah returned with a hugh booty of 80 million pounds, including the crown
jewels, the famous Kohinoor diamond ang the Peacock throne of Shah Jahan. Muhammad Shah also
gave'up the TransHimalayan territory to Nadir Shah. So the Mughals lost Afghanistan to the Persians .

The invasion of Nadir Shah was of far reaching consequence. The Mughal army was completely routed.
The financial position became pathetic. The central Government was paralised due to utter confusion.
The anarchy in India resulted in the growth of robbery and dacoity. The City of Delhi was rendered
desolate and ruined completely.
AFGHAN INVASION
After the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, one of his offices named Ahmed Shah freed Afghanistan from the
Persian rule and declared himself as the rule of Afghanistan. He belonged to the Abdi clan of
Afghanistan. He assumed the title, Durr-I-Duran, 'The pearl of the age". So his dynasty came to be
known as Durrani dynasty. Ahmed Shah Abdali had accompanied Nadir Shah on his expedition to India.
He was attracted by the wealth of India and he also observed the weakriess of the Mughal empire. He
consolidated his position in Afghanistan and embarked upon a series of raids on India between 1748 and

1767. His main intention was to revive the Afghan authority in at least one part of India and he wanted
to loot the wealth of India and also enhance his reputation by his foreign invasions in his homeland.
Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded India for the first time in 1748 and seized Lahore. But he was defeated by
the Mughal army under the crown prince, Ahmed Shah at Manpur. He invaded India for the second time
in 1750 and conquered Punjab from its Governor, Mir

305

Mannu. Apdali invaded India for the third time in 1752. He defeated Mir Mannu and conquered
Kashmir. The Mughal emperorJ Ahmed Shah had to cede the entire territory as far as Sirhind. Abdali left
Mir Mannu as his Governor at Lahore. To that extent the size of the , Mughal empire was reduced.
Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded India for the fourth time between 1755 and 1757. By that time Mir Mannu
had passed away. Abdali sought the support of the Rohilla chief, Najib-ud-Daula and marched upon
Delhi and plundered it. The cities of Mathura and Brindavan were also looted. The Mughal Emperor,
Alamgir II was forced to cede Punjab, Kashmir and Sind to Ahmed Shah Abdali who left those territories
under his son, Timur Shah by appointing him as the viceroyat Lahore.
Timur Shah ruler for one year between 1757 and 1758 A.D. His reign also witnessed anarchy and
confusion. So the Mughal Governor of Jullunder sought the help of the Marathas. A large army was sent
under Raghunoth Rao and it invaded Punjab and expelled Timur Shah. So once again Ahmed Shah Abdali
invaded India in 1759. Finaly it culminoted in the decisive battle of Panipat fought iD 1761. The war
ended with the defeat of theMarathas and Ahmed Shah Abdali emerged victorious. He evacuated from
India in March, 1761.
Abdali had conquered Punjab, Sirhirld, Kashmir and Sind in India. However with the rise of the power of
the Sikhs in Punjab, he was unable to establish his supremacy over Indian territories. He came to India in
1764, 1765, 1766 and 1767 to crush the Sikhs, but it proved to be futile. Abdali could only retain
Peshawar and the country west of Attock. The Afghan invasions also left a deep impression in the
history of India It hastened the decline of the Mughal emp"rie. The Afghan invasion. also prevented the
expansion of Maratha imperialism. Moreover Abdali was indirectly responsible for the success of the
Sikhs iri. Punjab. It also ignited the spirit of liberty in the Sikhs.
DISINTEGRATION OF THE MUG HAL EMPIRE
The decline of the Mughal empire WqS hastened by the Mughal invasions. During the 18th century
there was a political revival among the Hindu rulers. They made isolated attempts to declare their
306

political supremacy at a time when the Mughal power in India was. on the decline. The period also
witnessed the emergence of the Maiathas and the Sikhs as potent forces in the politics of India. The
disloyal Mughal viceroys also contributed to the disintegration of the Mughal empire. They tried to rule
in an independent manner in their respective provinces. Mention may be made of the Subedars of
Hyderabad, Oudh and Bengal. They tried to ignore the authority of the Delhi Government in the
administration of their provinces.
HYDERABAD
Hyderabad was originally a part of the Mughal empire. The administration of this province was
entrusted to a Subedar. Under the rule of Mir Kamr-l..p-din or Nizam-ul-mulk; Hyderabad became
virtually an independent region. His grandfatherXhwaja Abid was from Samarkhand. He had served
Aurangazeb and had become the Governor of Bihar. Khwaja died in 1687during the. siege of Golkonda.
His eldest son, Ghazi-ud-din also served Aurangazeb and participated in the wars against the Rajputs and
the Marathas. The Son of Ghazi-ud-din was Kamr-ud-din who was born in 1671. He acquired several
titles, of which the most well known is Bahadur Faten Jung. He became famous as Nizam-ul-mulk.
When Autangazeb passed away in 1707, Nizam-ud-din was at Bijapur and was neutral in the war of
succession. He was transferred to Oudh by Bahadur Shah. Later on he supported Farrukhsiyar to ascend
the throne of Delhi and secured several titles and he also became the viceroy of Hyderabad. By due to
the intrigues at the court in Delhi, he was transferred to Muradabad. During that period Sayyid Hussain
Ali was sent to the Deccan regin. Later on Nizamul-mulkalso served at Malwa.
At Malwa Nizam-ul-mulk consolidated his position. He became the leaderof the Turani party which
opposed the dominance of the Sayyid brothers. The Sayyid brothers tried to transfer him, but he
secured the support of the Mughal emperor, Muhammad Shah and rose in revolt. He killed Dilawar Ali
khan and Alim Khan. Hussain Ali proceeded towards the Deccan to punish the Nizam but he himself was
assassinoted on the way. So Nizam-ul-multablished himself as the undisputed master of the Deccan
region.

307

After the death of Wazir Amin Khan, Nizam-ul-mulk was declared as the Wazir in 1722. He tried to bring
about certain reforms in administration. But his attempts met with stiff opposition. So Nizam left Delhi
without the permission of the Emperor and proceeded towards the Deccan in 1723. His enemies
poisoned the ears of the Emperor against him. So Mubariz Khan was dispatched to humble the Nizam.
However Nizam succeeded in defeating Mubariz in the battle of Sakhar Kheda in 1724. With no other
alternotive, the Mughal Emperor recognized the Nizam as the 5ubedar of Hyderabad and also conferred
on him the title, AsafJha. So Nizam-ul-mulk became the independent ruler of the state of Hyderabad.

Nizam-ul-mulk had to confront the Marathas. He took advantage of the civil war in Maharashtra and
strengthened his position in the Deccan. He supported the ruler of Sa tara against the ruler of Sholapur
and created internal dissensions among the Marathas. Ir 1727, he was defeated in the battle of Palkhed
by Peshwa Baji Rao and he had to recognize the Maratha authority of collecting Chatith in his
dominions. In 1739, he extended support to the Mughal emperor against the Marathas. However, in the
battle of Bhopal he Was defeated by the Marathas. Although the Nizam was independent he remained
loyal to the Mughal emperor. When Nadir Shah attacked India in 1738, he rendered valuable military
assistance to the Mughal emperor.
The Hyderabad Subah extended from the Tapti in the North to Tiruchinopoly in the South, excluding
western Deccan region which was under the control of the Marathas. The Zamindars on the East
(Northern Circars) coast, the Raja of Tiruchinopoly and the Nawab of Carnotic accepted his supremacy.
The Niza,m proved to be an efficient administrator. He has been praised by Khafi Khan and Ghulam
Hussain. He maintained friendly relations with the English . East India Company and also received an
English envoy in 1714. The Nizam died at the rip'e age of 91 in 1748. His death led to a war of succession
and the English began to interfere in the internal politics of Hyderabad.

308

OUDH
The Nawabs of Oudh played an important role in the history of India during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Oudh emerged as an independent state under the leadership of Sadat Khan. He was a person from
Khurasan. He was appointed as the Governor of Oudh in 1724. Gradually he strengthened his position in
Oudh. He became the most formidable rival of Nizam-ul-mulk. He alEio participated in the war against
Nadir Shah and he also invited Nadir Shah to visit Dehi. Soon after the invasion of adir Shah, Sadat Khan
committed suicide. His nephew and successor, Safdar Jany became the Wazir of the Mughal empire. His
war against Imad-ul-mulk reduced the prestige of the Mughal empire. In 1754, he was succeeded by his
son, Shuja-ud-Daula. He also served as the Wazir and played an important role in Indian politics till his
death in 1775.
BENGAL

Aurangazeb appointed Mushid Quli Khan as the Governor of Bengal in 1705. He proved to be an efficient
administrator. He shifted his capital from Dacca to Murshidab-ad. During his reign, Bengal witnessed
conomic prosperity and growth of trade and commerce. In 1719 he conquered Orissa; He was
succeeded in 1727 by his soninlaw, Shuja-ud-daula. During the time of Shuja-ud-Daula, Bihar was added
to the Subah of Bengal and Orissa. In 1739, Shuja was succeeded by Sarfaraz Khan who proved to be an
unpopular ruler. So hfs deputy Alivardi Khan killed him at Patna and usurped power in 1740. Alivardi

Khan had to face the attacks of the Marathas. In 1751 he concluded a treaty with them by which he
agreed to pay them an annual tribute of Rs. 121akhs as Chauth. He also ceded the revenue of Orissa to
the Marathas.Alivardi Khan died in 1756 and was succeeded by his grandson, Siraj-ud-Daula. His reign
was highly significant as he came into conflict with the English.

309

3.9 THE DECLINE OF THE MUG HAL EMPIRE IN 1707 A.D.

The reign of Aurangazeb came to an end in 1707 A.D. and with it began the decline of the glory of the
Mughal empire. Aurangazeb himself has been held mainly responsible for the decline of the Mughal
empire. According to J.N.sarkar, "Obsessed by narrow ideal of duly and supremely ignorant of the real
limitations 'of this character and not out of political cunning, as Manucci suggests, Auraganzeb practiced
saintly austerities and self-abasement and went regularly and even ostentatiously through all the
observances of his religion. Politically, therefore Aurangazeb with all these virtues was a complete
failure. But the cause of the failure of his reign lay deeper than his personal character. Though it is not
true that he alone caused the fall of the Mughal empire, yet he did nothing to avert it but deliberately
quickened the destructive forces always present in Irigid theocratic forms. of Government because he
was a reactionary y instinct and no reforming statesman".
Several factors contributed to the decline of the Mughal empire and can be summed up as follows1. Aurangazeb's religious fanoticism- The Religious fanoticism of Aurangazeb was responsible for the
disintegration of the 'Mughal empire. According to S.R.Sharma, "These were not , the acts of a righteous
ruler or a constructive statesman, but
the outbursts of blind fanoticism, unworthy of the great genius that Aurangazeb undoubtedly possessed'
in all other respects", He followed a policy totally opposite to the religious tolerance of Akbar. He got
alienoted from the non-Muslims by his antiHindu policy. He imposed Jizya on the Hindus. He dismissed
tl:le Hindu officials from administrative posts. He attacked the Hindus temples and razed them to the
ground hurting the sentiments of the people. The same material was used for

310
struction of mosques. He indulged in forcible conversion of Hindus to Islam. It only led to the revolt of
the Satriamis. When Guru Tegh Bahadur was tortured for five days in an inhuman manner, the Sikhs
developed into a martial clan and the Sikhs emerged as the sworn enemies of the Mughals. Under the
leadership of Guru Govind Singh the Sikhs began to oppose the Mughal rule in India. Similarly Shivaji
also became a serious rival who questioned the authority of the Mughals. All these indicate that the rule

of the Mughals came to be regarded as alien rule and there was no popular support. A State formed by
the use of force could not continue for a long time and it contributed to disintegration of the vast
Mughal empire.
2.The ill-concieved Deccan policy- The Deccan policy of Aurangazeb was also a miscalculation.
Auragnazeb tried to suppress the Maratha power in the South. He felt that the rulers of Golkonda and
Bijapur were the allies of the Marathas and decided to annex them. In reality he could not tolerate the
existence of those places which were ShiaStates. So being a devout Sunni, Aurangazeb annexed them.
This was. a great blunder. He had followed his heart to rule him rather than his reason. He should have
helped those Muslim states which would have helped him against the Marathas. It only strengthened
the position of the Maratha rulers who launched a relentless struggle against the Mughals. It resulted in
costly campaigns and it ended in a financial burden on the Mughal treasury. It impoverished the Mughal
treasury to such and extent that a once prosperous empire had to face financial bankruptcy.
3. Peculiar noture of Aurangazeb- Aurangazeb was a suspicious anq selfish person. He was- highly
learned. However he neglected the education of his children. He did not bother to create strong
leadership in any of his sons as his successor. This only reveals his conceited noture. He never allowed
his sons to blossom into complete personalities. He always tried to pitch them against each other. He
entrusted a single job to both ofthem and never brought out the best in them. Moreover the successors
of Aurangazeb were weak and incompetent and they spent their elme in luxury and lacked the ambition
and the zeal

311

to rule in a remarkable manner so as to set a trend unparalleled in the history of India.

4. The lack of popularity of Aurangazeb- During the rule of Aurangazeb although none of the provincial
Governors dared to defy his authority, they resented his rule. They were trying to build their resources
to make the most of the situation when Aurangazeb was old and was unable to enforce his authority.
Even the sons of Aurangazeb were suspected of conspiring against him. With the death of Aurangazeb
the signs of decadence were clear with the emergence of several independent staes like. Bengal, Oudh
and Rohilkhand. Above all the Deccan region freed itself from the shackles of Mughal dominotion.
5. Misuse of power by the Mughals- The Mughal nobles lacked strong character as their ancestors. They
were corrupted due to too much wealth and opulence. They revelled in the royal court and travelled in
palanquins. The Mughal nobility consisted of Turks, Afghans and the Persians and the climate of India
proved to be unfavourable for them and they began to degenerate during their stay in India. All the
surplus produce of a fertile land under a most bounteous Providence was swept into the coffers of the
Mughal nobility and pampered them in a degree of luxury not dreamt even by kings in Persia or Central
Asia. The Mughal nobles enjoyed excessive powers and they misused their political power and position

to harass the shopkeepers and dishonour women. It ultimately contributed to the decline of the power
and prestige of the Mughal empire in India.
6. The deterioration of values in the army- There was a deterioration of social values in the Mughal
army. The Mughal soldiers and military offiials were overwhelmed by the wealth of India and the new
found comforts which they acquired. They indulged in drinking wine and merry making. They hardly
bothered about winning the battles. They had over confidence about winning a battle due to the
backing of large resources at the disposal of the Mughal empire. It resulted in indiscipline and lack of
enthusiasm in the military sector. The Mughal State

312

was a police stafe and when it failed to maintain internal order and external peace, the people lost all
their respect for such a Government. Bernier says, "The Mughal generals conduct every operation with
labour and avail themselves of any pretext for '" the prolongation of war which is alike the source of
their emolument and dignity. It has become a proverbial saying that "The Deccan is the bread and
support of the soldiers of Hindustan". A certain over confidence developed among the Mughal soldiers
due to the vast resources at the disposal of the Mughal empire. It led to the growth of indiscipline in the
army. Moreover the acts of treason 'or cowardice were overlooked by Aurangazeb himself. Noturally it
led to the disintegration of the Mughal empire in due course of time.
7.
Neglect of proper education system- The Mughals failed to evolve a strong education system
which would survive the test of time. It led to decline in intellectual life so essential for the survival of an
empire. Sir Jadunoth Sarkar observes that there was no good education and no practical training of the
Mughal nobility. They were p'ampered from their childhood and they did not undergo any vigorous
training even in the basic military and civil administrative matters. Noturally such people hardly
contributed for the efficiency of the administrative system and over a period of time decadence simply
set in destroying the glory of the Mughal empire. Gradually the Mughals failed to produce any
intellectual who could provide effective leadership in governing such a vast empire. It needed a political
genius to teach a new philosbphy of life and to kindle a new aspiration. about creating a benevolent rule
which would integrate all the regions of the empire by earning the goodwill of the community at large.
8. Neglect of financial matters- The Mughals rulers contributed to financial crisis in the empire.
Shapjahan had indulged in extravagant expenditure and had increased the demand of the state to one
half of the produce. He spent the entire treasury on the construction of buildings at a time when several
parts of India were suffering from famines. In fact the series of yvars waged to maintain the vast empire
also contributed to financial burden which the common people had to bear. Above all the

313

vast" empire proved to be unwieldy and it was difficult to n establish contol over a heterogenos empire
by merely the use
of force.
9.
The alien rule of the Mughals- The Mughal rule was considered as alien rule in India. The roots
of the Mughal rulers were not in India. So there was very little room for the growth of a feeling
of admiration among the majority of the people. Above all the " Mughal empire did not -draw strength
from the ancient traditions of India. They continued to follow Arabic and Persian language, education
system and culture. They never tried to follow Hindu traditions and cultural practices. On the other hand
they looked towards Persian and Arabic culture. Noturally
the Marathas began to regard the Muslim culture as alien in India.
10.
Mutual jealousy and distrust-Among the Mughals there was no law of succession. Might is right
was the order of the day. The eldest son was entitled to ascend the throne but he had to
, prove his ability when his candidature waS challenged. So ,q; usu.ally whenever a Mughal ruler died it
led to a war of succession. It shook the very foundations of the empire by contributing to political
instablility due to mutual jealousy and suspicion.
11.
Foreign invasions- The foreign invasions amounted to economic drain for the Mughal empire.
Nadir Shah of Persia invaded India in 1738 and J:le carried away enormous booty. So the Mughal empire
was left impoverished. Moreover Afghanistan was conquered by Nadir Shah. To that extent the \ size
and resources of the Mughal empire was diminished. Moreover Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Afghan ruelr
invaded Indi nearly seven times. Every time he invaded, the Mughal empire experienced devastation. So
the power and prestige of the Mughals began to decline and the economy of the Mughal empire was
shattered.
According to J.N.Sarkar, "The extension of the empire was the beginning of his end". He elaborated his
state in these words, "In Hindustan the administration rapidly deteriorated; peace, prosperity and the
arts decreased and the entir,e Indian civilization fell

314

backwards. The defence of the North-western frontier was neglected, and the matei':'al resources of the
empire dwindled till they ceased to suffice for its needs. The vast annexations effected by Aurangazeb in
the Deccan- Bijapur, Golkonda, Eastern Carnotic and Maharashlia were all illusive. Instead of adding to
the strength and wealth of the empire, they brought down economic ruin upon it and destroyed its
army as an instrument of power. In fact, the Mughal empire now became too large to be administered

by one man or from one centre, and its disruption began which was to make the history of India in the
eighteenth century one "Great anarchy".

UNIT IV
THE POLITICAL POLICY OF TH'E MUGHALS
4.1 THE DECCAN POLICY OF THE MUGHALS
Prior to the entry of the Mughals the Deecan had a unique political condition. In the beginning of the
16th century, there were seven principal states in the Deccan region viz., (1) Khandesh (2) Berar (3)
Ahmednagar (4) Bijapur (5) Golkonda (6) Bidar and (7) Vijayanagara. Of the seven states five of them
were the offshoots of the Bahmani kingdom which declined in 1538 .D. It led to the emergence or
independent Muslim states namely, (1) The Adil Shahis of Bijapur (2) The Barid Shahis of Bidar (3) The
Qutub Shahis of Golkonda (4) The Imad Shahis of Berar (5) the Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar. The
political scene in the Deccan reigon was characterized by conflict and strife. It was in 1565 that the five
Muslim states united together and formed confederacy. In the famous battle of Talikota the
Vijayanagara kingdom was completely destroyed. Thereafter Ahmednagar conquered Berar in 1574 and
Bijapur annexed Bidar in 1618-1619.
Despite the geographical diversity in India there was a underlying unity in India and many of the
powerful monarchs of North India have tried to establishing political unity between the North and the
South by extending their sway in different direction. Similarly Akbar consolidated his position and they
carried on an aggression and expansion. He turned his attention towards the South. He tried to establish
effective control over South India. He aspired to expel the Portuguese who were interfering in Indian
politics and also causes economic drain on his economy.

316

Initially Akbar adopted peaceful means to extend his sovereignty in SouTh India. He sent ambassadors to
Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur , Golkonda and Vijayanagara also demanding recognition of his
sovereignty and payment of tribute. Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh immediately accepted the sovereignty of
Akbar. However several othe rulers of southern region refused to accept hi sovereignty. So Akbar
decided to undertake expeditions to subjugate them.
AHMEDNAGAR
Akbar sent Prince Murad and Abdur Rahim t6 conquer Ahmednagar. Chand Bibi, the dowager queen
was ruling over Ahmednagar on behalf of her young nephew, Sultan Bahadur Shah.

She was a gallant queen who resisted the attack of the Mughal army. Both Prince Murad and Abdur
Rahim wanted to claim the credit of having defeated Chand Bibi and they attacked independently and
were easily defeated by the Ahmednagar forces.
Nearlyafter,four months on siege on the fort of Ahmednagar, a peace treaty was signed. According to it,
Berar was handed over to the Mughals and the sovereignty of Akbar was recognized.
By this Akbar secured a position from"which he could control the Deccan region. As soon as the Mughl
forces returned, Chand Bibi was deposed by the nobles and they broke the treaty. So Akbar had to
renew the war against Ahmednagar which had by then secured the support of Bijapur and Golkonda.
After the indecisive battle of Supa, in 1598 AD.on the banks of the river Godavari, Akbar himself led
an.expedition and attacked Ahmednagar. The young prince was imprisoned and sent to Gwalior. But the
kingdom of Ahmednagar resisted the attack till the rule of Shah Jahan when it was conquered in 1637
A.D.
KHANDESH
Akbar turned l1is attention towards Khandesh .. When Akbar was fighting against Ahmednagar,
MiranBahadur, son arid successor of Raja Ali Khan repudiated the mughal alliance and he shut himself in
the impregnable fort of Asirgarh fort in Khandesh. So in 1591 Akbar marched towards the Deccan region
and conquered Burhanpur and Asirgarh in 1601. According to the accounts ofJebuit missionaries, Akbar
opened the gates of .Asirgarh with golden keys and Miran Bahadur was imprisoned. Akbar continued his

317

campaigns. He occupied Khandesh and he appointed Prince Daniyal as the viceroy over the provinces of
Ahmednagar, Berar and Khandesh.
Jahangir also continued the policy of Akbar towards South India. He tried to subjugate Ahmednagar,
Bijapur and Golkonda. During his reign, Malik Amber emerged as a prominent political figure. He was
the famous minister of Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar. Malik Amber was endowed with military prowess
and skill. He consolidated the mutilated kingdom of Ahmednagar. He strengthened his army by including
Maratha cavalry soldiers and trained them in guerilla war:are also. He also tried to regain the. territories
surrendered to the Mughals. He also sought the help of the ruler of Golkonda and Bijapur to combat
against the Mughals. His aggressive activities drew the attention of the Mughals and conflict became
inevitable.
In 1608, Jahangir despatched Khan-I-Khanan to conquer Deccan region but he could not achieve much
due to internal dissensions among the Mughal officers. Later on Jahangir dispatched Prince Parwez and
Asaf Khan to conquer the IJeccan, but this expedition also ended in failure. The expeditions of Abdullah,
Khan Jahan and Man Singh also proved to be futile. In 1612, Khan-I-Khanan defeated the Deccanis but

no decisive results followed. In 1616, Jahangir placed Khurram in Deccan region. When Khurram reached
Burhanpur in 1617, Malik Amber sued for peace. According to the peace treaty, Malik Amber
surrendered Balaghat and the fort of the Ahmednagar to the Mughals. However within a shott time,
Malik Amber threw the treaty to the winds and launched a fresh attack on the Mughals. He formed a
confederacy by entering into a treaty with the rulers of Golkonda and Bijapur. He forced the Mughals to
retreat to Buhanpur. He continued his expeditions as far as Mandu. Jahangir once again sent Shah
Jahan. He won a series of victories. When the Mughals reached Patan, Malik Amber sued for peace. He
surrendered all the territories which he had conquered and also agreed to pay tribute. The rulers of
Bijapur and Golkonda. agreed to pay Rs. 18 lalkhs and 20 Lakhs respectively. In 1623, The Mughals were
able to win over the ruler of Bijapur.

318

By 1623 when the politics in Delhi was chaotic, Malik Amber once again used the opportunity to rebel
against the Mughal Government. At that time, Shah Jahan rebelled against his father and joined Malik
Amber and both attacked 13urhanpur. Noar Jahan sent Mohabbat Khan to defeat the combined forces
of Shah Jahan and Malik Amber. But before he could quell them, the queen grew suspicious about him
and recalled him. So it only further encouraged the Deccanis to rebel against the Mughal Government.
After the death of Malik Amber, his son, Fateh Khan continued the struggle against the Mughal
Government. By that time the rule of Jahangir ended in 1605.
Shah Jahan ascended the throne of Delhi. He started a new ear in the Deccan policy of the Mughals. He
had remained for a long time in the Deccan during his father's rule. Shah Jahan was therefore well
acquainted with the politics of the Deccan region and was well aware of the weakness of the Deccan
rulers. Further, he felt that it was his duty as a devout Sunni to destroy the Shia kingdoms in the SQuth.
He inaugurated an era of Sunni Imperialism in the South. It was further carried on by his son,
Aurangazeb.
After the death of Malik Amber, the political situation in Ahmednagar was chaotic. So Shah Jahan
utilized the oportunity. Meanwhile a terrible famine broke out in 1629 and the condition in the Deccan
region became deplorable. At that time Nizam Shah offended Shah Jahan by supporting a rebel named
Khan Jahan Lod. So Shah Jahan despatched an army under the command of Azam Khan against
Ahmednagar. The Sultan decided to resist the Mughals with the help of Bijapur. But his infamous
minister Fateh Khan accepted a bribe for the Mughals and acted as a king-maker. He deposed the king
and declared a young boy as the ruler and he himself emerged as the defacto ruler. Wi thin a short
period he developed suspicion about the Mughals and refused to surrender theMughals the Fort of
Daulatabad. Meanwhile the Maratha general, Shahji Bhonsle of Bijapur tried to attack Ahmednagar. So
Fateh Singh ultimately yielded to the Mughal army under Mohabbat khan. Ahmednagar was annexed to
the Mughal empire. Still some of the territories of Ahmednagar kingdom remained under the contolof

Nizam Shahi officers like Shahji Bhonsle who continued to defy the authority of the Mughals. The Sultans
of Bijapur and Golkonda came

319

forward to help the ruler of Ahmednagar and the ruler of Golkonda helped Murtaza Nizam Shah. In
1631, the Mughals attacked Bijapur but were forced to retreat. After the surrender of Ahmednagar, the
Mughals directed all their might towards Bijapur.
Shahji Bhonsle, the Maratha generalwho was under the service of the Bijapur Government played an
important role in the Deccan , politics. He supported a young lad named Ahmed Nizam Shah to ascend
the throne of Ahmednagar and started revolting against the Mughals. Shah Jahan himself led the
expedition and appeared in the Deccan region towards the end of 1635. On reaChing Daulatabad, he
sent a force against Shahji and demanded the Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda to recognize him as his
sovereign and pay annual tributes. Abduallah Qutub Shah of Golkonda voluntarily surrendered to the
Mughals as he realized that his struggle would prove to be futile. However Mohammad Adil Shah of
Bijapur made elaborate preparations to combat the Mughals. But in the end a settlement was made by
which Adil Shah paid war indemnity and acknowledged the sovereignty of Shah Jahan. Luckily he was
exempted from payment of tribute. In return, the Sultan received the districts of Parenda and Konkan
which yielded a revenue of Rs.
80 Lakhs. The districts originally belonged to Ahmednagar. Shahji Bhonsle could not withstand the attack
of the Mughal forces for a long time. He gave up his claims and he joined the service of Bijapur. The
Mughal campaign was completely successful and the Mughal Deccan included Khandesh, Berar,
Telinganaand Daulat,abad. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangazeb as the Governor of the Deccan region and
returned to Agra in 1636.
Auranagazeb also turned his attention _towards the Deccan region. In his South Indian expeditions, he
was assisted by Khan-IDauran and Khan-I-Zaman. He finally defeated the Maratha leader in 1636. Then
he suppressed the Gonds and annexed the Baglana region to the Mughal empire. Aurangazeb left
Deccan in 1644 A.D. to pay a visit to his sister who was severely burnt in an accident. In Agra he incurred
the displeasure of his father, Shah Jahanby his suspicious attitude towads his elder brother, Dara Shikoh;
So he was deprived of his viceroyalty. Later through the intervention of his sister, Jahanara, he was
appointed as the Governor of Gujarat and in 1902 he was again sent to the Deccan as viceroy.

320
Aurangazeb turned his attention to the reconstruction of the finances of the Deccan region. He was
supported by an eminent revenue officer named Murshid Quli Khan. The latter introductd Todar Mal's

revenue system with some modifications to suit the local conditions. Land survey was conducted and
large areas were brought under cultivation. On the basis of produce, assessment was made in a lenient
manner. Some officers were appointed to collect revenue from the peasants. These reforms resulted in
increasing the agricultural production. It also put an end to the exploitation of the peasants by the
revenue officers and it led to great economic prosperity.
After attaining financial stability, Aurangzebproceeded to pursue his ambitions. He had heard about the
enormous wealth of the Deccan Sultanotes and shared his father's pious indignotion against their Shia
faith. Aurangazeb was an imperialist in outlook. It did not take long for him to find a reason to attack the
Deccan region. At that time, the Sultan of Golkonda had failed to pay the annual tribute as agreed upon
in the treaty of 1639. Moreover he made certain invasions on Karnotaka without the permission of the
Emperor-: Therefore Aurangazeb demanded a huge amount of money from the Sultan by way of
punishment.
But the Mir Jumla affair offered the immediate cause for war. Mir Jumla entered 'Golkonda as the
servant of a jewel merchant. A few yerslater, he inherited the fortune of his master and became a
powerful political personality.
He was appointed as the Prime Minister. Mir Jumla was an eminent and ambitious person and he built
an army with which 1e conquered large portions of Karnotaka which he retained for himself.
The Sultan was alarmed about the growing power ofMir Jumla and tried to arrest him. Mweanwhile Mir
Jumla opened negotiations with the sultan of Bijapur, the Shah of Pesia and Aurngazeb. Meanwhile his
son, Mohammad Amir by his dominting attitude offended theSultan who imprisoned him and
confiscated the property of the family. Aurangzeb as anxious to take Mir Juml into his service, so he
obtained permission of his father to attack Golkonda on his behalf.
He sent his son, Prince Mohammad who defeated the Golkonda forces and plundered the city of
Hyderabad. The Sultan sued for peace and was willing to accept the terms of the
Mughals. But Aurangazeb WaS determined to destry Golkonda. Then the Sultan appealed to Shah Jahan
who sent orders to Aurangazeb o raise the siege of Golkonda. In 1656 a treaty was conluded according
to which the Sultan agreed to restore Mir Jumla's property, o clear the arrears of tribute, to pay an
indemnity 6f Rs. 15 lakhs nd to. give his daughter in marriage to Prince Mohammad. The utub Shah of
Golkonda became a vassal of the Mughal emperor.

Aurangazeb turned his attention towards Bijapur. In 1656, uhammad Adil Shah passed away and was
succeeded by his son, i Adil Shah II.
Aurangazeb declared that the new Sultan was not he legitimate heir of the deceased Sultan and got his
permission to interfere in that state.
The Mughal army attacked the kingdom of bijapur and captured Bidar and Kalyan.

The Sultan concluded a peace treaty by surrendering Bidar and Kalyan to the Mughals and he agreed to
pay an indemnity to the Mughals.
The events on the
IDeccan dearly reflected Aurangazeb's ruthless expansionist policy.

During the rule of Aurangazeb, the orthodox Sunni imperialism Ireached its zenith in the Deccan.
But just before his accession and during the early years of his reign, Aurangazeb could not follow a
vigorous policy in the South. Initi?lly Aurangazeb was totally engaged in quelling the revolts in the North.
Meanwhile the southern I . powers were emboldened,and began to oppose the Mughal rulers. Bijapur
repudiated the treaty in 1657 A.D. while Shivaji started his lexpedition to the Mughal territory. The
Sultan of Golkonda entered into adefnsive alliance with Shivaji. The Mughal Governors induding Shayista
Khan failed to check these developments.

In 1665, Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to put down a Shivaji and chastise Bijapur.
Jai Singh humbled Shivaji and compelled him to conclude the treaty of Purandhar (1665). When he
invaded he could not interfere in guerilla tactics of Bijapur. "He was recalled by the emperor and on the
way at Burhanpur (1665) and he . died of poisoning. Two more Mughal attempts in 1672 and 1678 to
subdue Bijapur but failed due to the incompetence of the Mughal generals and the intervention of the
Marathas. Meanwhile, the tribal war in the North-west compelled the emperor to withdraw his best
forces from the Deccan. In such a situation, Raja Jaswant Singh and Prince Muazzum, having accepted
bribes from the Marathas,
persuaded the emperor to make peace with Shivaji. Aurangazeb recognized Shivaji as 'Raja' and even
allowed him to collect Chauth from Khandesh. The success of Shivaji freed the Deccan Sui tars from the
fear of immediate destruction and enabled them to recover.
Aurangazeb regarded the growth of the Maratha power as a l serious menace to the Mughal imperialism
and decided to destroy it after the death of Shivaji in 1680. Meanwile Sambhaji, the son and successor
entered into an alliance with the rebel son Prince Akbar. He patched up a peace treaty with the Rajputs
and hurried to the Deccan in 1682. He entered the Deccan" full of ambition hopes,little knowing that he
had come to bury his empire and himself." Aurangazeb spent four years in unsuccessful attempts to
capture Prince Akbar and against Sambhaji. Then he turned his attention on Bijapur.
The Sultan of Bijapur had refused to assist the M:ughal Emperor but was directly or indirectly supporting
the Marathas. So Aurangazeb was offended and he himself led an expedition against Bijapur. The Adil
Shahis resisted1 the Mughalattacks in a gallant manner. The ruler of Bijapur received help from Abul

Hasan of Golkonda and Chatrapati Sambhaji. But Bijapur was annexed in 1686 by the Mughals. Sultan
Sikandar was taken into the Mughal service and was granted an annual pension of one lakh.
Aurangazeb turned his attention against Golkonda. He decided to punish Abul Hasan, the Sultan of
Golkonda for having helped Bijapur. He also accused the Sultan of encouraging infidels and of leading an
immoral life. In 1685, Aurangzeb sent prince Shah Alam to conquer Hyderabad.
Abul Hasanfled from Hyderabad and sought refuge in the fort of Golkonda. The Mughals laid siege to the
fort of Golkonda for nearly eight months. Finally Aurangazeb bribed the military officer Abdulla Pani and
he opened the gates of the fort for Aurangazeb and his soldiers. An enormous amoung of booty
amounting to Rs Seven Crores besides large quantities of gold, silver and precious stones fell into the
hands of the Mugha:ls. Abul Hasan was imprisoned at Daulatabad.
The capture of Golkand was followed by the occupation of the forts of Sagar, Adoni, Kurnool.
Raichur, Banglore and Belgaum.
So Aurangazeb's sway extended over the whole of South India.
Aurangazeb next turned his attention towards the Maratha state which had remained independent. He
captured Sambhaji with his family and put him to a cruel death. But it only strengthened the
determinotion of the Marathas who as a notion took up arms against .
the Mughals. Raja Ram and after his death, Tarabai led the Maratha forces and harassed the Mughals in
the Deccan until Aurangazeb passed away in 1707 A.D.By 1687 the Mughals had succeeded in bringing
India under their rule. There was no other power in India that could challenge the Mughal authority. But
it is aptly remarked that "all seemed to have been gained by Aurangazeb now, but in reality all was lost."
The Mughalempire spread over an extensive area faced a new problem. Its size had become too
unwieldy and the communication system was defective. Many of the historians have also criticized
Aurangazeb's short-sightedness in destroying the independent Deccan Sultanotes. According to
V.A.Smith, Aurangazeb annihilated the only Mohammadean Government in the South and he freed the
Maraha chiefs from any local rivalry. This only enhanced the power of the Marathas and they emerged
as a formidable threat to theauthority of Aurangazeb. It would have been wise on the part of
Aurangazeb if he had used his diplomacy and preserved Bijapur ad Golkonda as' they would have acted
as a check against the menace of the Marathas.
Prof.J.N.Sarkar suggests that "Joining of the arts between Bijapur, Golkonda and the Mughal empire
against the Marathas was psychologically impossible." Aurangazeb destroyed the might of the Deccan
Sultanote as it was already in a decadant state. More than checking the menace of the Marathas the
Muslims states in the Deccan were engaged in mutual jealousy and rivalry. It only' added to the
confused politics of the age. The Deccan Sultans also exhausted their finances and military resources as
the engaged themselves in a series of wars .

Aurangazeb stay in the Deccan also had a demoralising effect on the Mughal court. The nobility
developed a sense of independence. They were more defiant and it led to the growth of corruption and
indiscipline. The Jats, the Sikhs and the Bundelas grew stronger and the Zamindars in the provinces
began to defy the
authority of the Mughal Government. The administration collapsed in different parts of the empire and
led to anarchy. It appears that the Geographical factor once again influenced the course of History in
India. An attempt to conquer the Deccan also meant the risk of losing Hindustan and the stronghold of
Delhi.

4.2 NORTH-WESTERN POLICY OF THE MUGHALS

The Sultans of Delhi and the Mughals had to pay special attention regarding the North Western region in
order to defend their empire. The Sultans of Delhi had to face the constant attacks of the invasions of
the Mongols. During the rule of Balban a large amount of expenditure was incurred to deend the Northwestern region. He appointed loyal and distinguished generals to guard the reigon. During the age of the
Mughals the North-western region gained increased significance as Kabul formed a part of their empire.
Moreover geographically speaking the North Western region was in a strategic position and also had
immense economic significance. Invariably the rulers of India had to maintain a control over it. The
Hindukush range which separates Central Asia from Southern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and India is very
low in the Norht of Heart and permits a passage to an invader from Persia or Central Asia to the Kabul
valley and India. The Khyber, Comal and Tochi" passes are in the Hinduskush ranges. Moreover India was
inhabited by turbulent tribes such as Yusufais, Baluchis, Khattaks, Uzbegs and Mohammadans and they
remained largely independent and did not acknowledge the sovereignty of any ruler. Thes tribes had to
be subjugated to maintain peace in the Mughal frontier region. The Mughal had to occupy the
impregnable fortress of Kandhar because it occupied strategic position and also had immense
commercial significance. Kandhar guarded the road to India from the west as Kabul did from the south
and hence it formed the first line of defence to the Mug?al empire. It was a sort of gateway to
merchants who came from various parts of Asia to exchange their commodities. It is said that evey year
nearly 14,000 camels laden with all sorts of merchandise passed through Kandhar to Persia from India.
So the since ancient times Kabul and Kandahar were considered as the twin gates of Hindustan, the one
leading to Turkistan and the other to Persia:

326

Babur was the first Mughal nder to occupy the fortress of Kandahar before he entered the Indian
political scene and he made proper arrangements for its defence. Thus he ensured the safety of the
route between Afghansitan and Hindustan. During the rule of Humayun, this region was under the

control of his brother, Kamran. Humayun obtained thehelp of the Persian emperor by promising to hand
over Kandahar to him. The Persians occupied it in 1558. When Akbar ascended the throne, he also
realized the significance of the North western region and he followed a rigorous policy regarding the
North western frontier region. He aspired to consolidate his rule over a vast empire by strengthening his
hold over the frontier regions. In 1585 Kabul was annexed to the Mughal empire and the Uzbeg ruler,
Abdulla Khan who had occupied Badakshan began to threaten the Mughal empire in India. Akbar tried
to suppresstheUzbegs by taking stern steps and the leader of the Uzbegs did not dare to enter this side
of the Hindukush.
Akbar turned his attention to the kingdom of Kashmir and the Yusufais and the Baluchis. Raja Man Singh
was placed in charge of Kabul and he was instructed to deal with the tribes who had defied the authority
of Akbar. So under soine competent Mughal Generals three campaigns were unertaken. The Kashmir
expedition was led by Khasim Khan and Raja Bhagwan Das. After some resistance, the Sultan of Kashmir
named Yusuf Khan and his son, Yakub Khan surrendered to the Mughals. From the onwards Kashmir
became a part of the Mughal empire and the summer residence of the emperor.
Another expedition was undertaken by Raja Birbal, Zain Khan and Hakim Abul Fateh against the Yusufais
and Mundar tribes. The Mughals suffered heavy losses and were defeated in the Swat valley and Raja
Birbal was killed in the battle. Raja Todar Mal and Man Singh restored the prestige of the Mughals by
undertaking a successful campaign against the tribes of North-western region in which those tribes were
defeated in the Khyber pass. The influence of the unruly tribes was wiped out from the Swat, Bajaur and
Buner regions. The third campaign was directed against Sind under the leadership of Ahdur Rahim. The
Turkoman ruler of Thatta named Mirza J a-ni Beg was defeated in two severe battles and was compelled
to surrender his entire territory in 1591. In 1595, the Afghans were defeated and Baluchistan upto the
frontier of Kandahar including
Makran was occupied. Mujaffar Mirza, the Persian Governor of Kandahar was threatened by his own
people and the Uzbegs. So he sought the help of Akbar. Akbar sent an expedition under Shah Beg who
occupied Kandahar. Accoridng to Sarkar, "Akbar's policy in the North-west brought territorial gains to
the empire, secured its position in that important frontier and added to its prestige."
Even during the rule of Jahangir, Kandahar continued to be the bone of contention between the
Persians and the Mughals. Although it had passed on to the hands of the Persians still the conflict
continued to persist. Esecially Shah Abbas II nurtured a strong ambition to recover it from the Mughals.
At the time of Khusro's . revolt, Abbas attacked Kandahar only to be repulsed by the Mughals. Jahangir
also took measures to reinforce the defences of the fort. Shah Abbas realised only military strength will
not help him against the Mughals. He used his diplomacy and began to flatter Jahangir to divert his
attention from Kandahar. Sha Abbas sent his ambassadors four times to the Mughal court in
1611,1615,1616 and 1623. In 1613 Jahangir also reciprocated by sending an ambssador to the Persian
court. Jahangir neglected the defence at Kandahar. By 1621, Shah Abbasobserved the lack of
understanding between Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan and he made a sudden attack on Kandahar and
captured it. Jahangir directed Shah Jahan to lead an expedition to save the fort. Meanwhile Shah Jahan
revolted againSt his father, Jahangir. So an expedition was sent under Sharyar, the youngest son of

Jahangir and it ended in failure. Kandahar was lost by the Mughals. Shah Jahan was able to understand
that without Kandahar the postion of the Mughals in the North-west would be rendered weak and he
tried to recover it. He made a promise to give a high position to its Governor, Ali Mardan who
surrendered it to the Mughals in 1638 .. Ali Mardan was rewarded with rich presents and he was
appointed as the Govemor of Kashmir. The Persian ruler Shah Abbas felt humiliated and he made
preparations to regain Kandahar. After. a siege of 57 days, the Persians captured it in 1658. The
attempts of Shah Jahan to recover it ended in failure. In 1649 Prince Aurangazeb was dispatched to
recover Kandahar. ill the second expedition was sent in 1652 under Aurangazeb and Sadullah Khan and
Shah Jahan'

328

himself went to Kabul to enhance the pressure. Still the expeditiol ended in failure due to the superior
artiliery of the Persians. Aurangazeb had to retreat after asiege of more than three months. In 1653,
Dara Shikoh proceeded to Kandahar with a large artillery force but even after five months of siege he
was unsuccessful in 'capturing Kandahar. It was completely lost by the Mughals.
The Kandahar expeditions also had a serious effect on the Mughal economy. The three expeditions cost
Shah Jahan over 12 crores of rupees besides countless lives. The pride and prestige of the Mughal
empire was also shattered and the military weakness of the Mughal army was exposed. The failure of
the Mughals enhanced the confidence and boosted the morale of the Persians and Uzbegs. There was
also fear that they might attack India.
Aurangazeb tried to recover Kandahar after he assumed power. However he had to follow a positive
policy towards the Northwestern account of ,the hostile activites of the Afghan tribes who appeared to
have derived encouragement due to the failures of the Mughals in Central Asia and at Kandahar. At the
outset, Aurangazeb tried to win over the recalcitrant tribes by payment of subsidies and tried to keep tle
North-western passes open to peaceful traffic and trade. But the hardy tribesmen were not appeased
merely by the grant of political pensions and in 1667, Yuzufais of Swat and Bajaur districts-rose in
rebellion under the leadership of Bhagu. The Yusufais crossed Indus at Attock and entered Hazara
district in Punjab and cut off the communications between Kabul and Delhi. Thedistricts of Attock and
Peshawar were plundered. But he Mughal generals, Kamil Khan and Mohammad Amin Khan suppressed
the revolts.
In 1672, a major revolt of the Afridis broke out. They were led by Akmal Khan who declared himself as
the king and made an appeal to all the Pathans to join him in a holy war against the Mughals. They
defeated the Governor of Afghanisfan who escaped to Peshawar. The Mughals sustained heavy losses at
Ali Masjid also. The success of the Afridis inspired the Khattaks to join the Afridis. Kushal Khan, the
leader of Khattaks led the revolt and it assumed the character of "a Pathan notional uprising against the
Mughals".

Aurangazeb appointed Mohabbat Khan as the Governor of Afghanistan and he was directed to suppress
the Pathans. But all

329

his efforts to quell the Pathans ended in failure. Shujat Khan was sent by Aurangazeb but he was
defeated and killed inte battle. In 1674, the situation in the North-west seemed beyond control.
Auragazeb proceeded to Hasan Abdal near Peshawara and used all his might to crush the Pathans.
FidaiKhan was appointed as the new Governor of Afghanistan and he inflicted a crushing defeat on the
rebels. Gradually the Afghan confederater under Kamal Khan was destroyed. However, Kushal Khan
contmued the revolt of the Pathans, until his own son, betrayed him. He was imprisoned in the fort of
Gwalior where he died later on.
Under the diplomacy of Aurangazeb peace was established temporarily in the North-West and the
power and prestige of the Mughals was maintained. However the wars had a devastating effect on the
economy of the Mughal empire. Moreover the Afghan rebellions aso contributed indirectly to the
success of the Rajputs and Mughals .. The successors of Aurangazeb continued the 'policy of bribing the
tribal chiefs to keep the. passes open for trade and peaceful traffic as long as Afghanistan remained a
part of the Mughal empire. Nadir Shah of Persia occupied Afghanistan and from then onwards the
frontiers of Mughal India was confined only to the river Indus. The Afghan tribes took advantage of it
and freed themselves completely from the control of the Mughals.

330

4.3 CENTRAL ASIAN POLICY OF THE MUGHALS

The Mughals migrated to India from Tranx-Oxiana or Central Asia which comprised of the regions of
Balkh and Badakshan. The early Mughals aspired to conquer and to rule over their ancestral land. But
they also felt that it was a distant and inhospitable region which could not supply rich booty. Moreover
the land was not fertile and there were no decent houses to live in. Moreover it was difficult . to send
the troops across the Hindukush and it was not possible to keep in constant touch with that region.
Despite all the risks and difficulties the Mughals made efforts to conquer it and add it to their empire.
The Mughal emperor, Babur tried to conquer Samarkhan before he entered India. He wanted to recover
his ancestral capital after consolidating his postion as the emperor of India. But he passed away at a very
young age as he was constantly engaged in wars in India and had a hectic politic al career of conquests.

Babur's son, Humayun also aspired to conquer Central Asia but he lacked the strength of character and
determinotion to take any concrete steps in that direction. His Son, Akbar was engaged mainly in wars
within India till he consolidated his position in India and established a vast empire. So he did not find
time to conquer his ancestral land in Central Asia. Not much is known about the thoughts of Jahangir
regarding conquering Central Asia as he was immersed in wine and leisure.
According to Abdur Hamid Lahauri, Shah Jahan had set his heart "upon the conquest of Balkh and
Badakshan, which were hereditary territories of his house and the keys to the conquest of Samarkhan,
the home and caital of his great ancestor, Timur." Shah Jahan made preparations unmindIul of the
difficulties in organizing the campaign to Cental Asia. According to Jadunoth Sarkar, "the prosperity of
his reign and the flattery of his courtiers had turned his head and that he was dreaming the vainest of
vain dreams." It

331
was in 1645 when a civil war broke out in Transoxiana that Shah Jahan thought of launching his
campaign. At that time, Nazir Mohammad was succeeded by his brother, Imam Quli who lacked
popularity and the people of Khiva rose in revolt. Nazir sent his sent his son, Abdul Aziz to quell the
rebellion, but abdul declared himself as the independent Khan of Bokhara. Nazir was forced to flee and
take refuge in Balkh. Taking advantage of the situation, Shah Jahan dispatched Prince Murad and Ali
Mardan who occupied Balkh and Badakshan in 1646 but they could not maintain theirS control over the
conquered territories. Prince Murad and other Mughal officers fell ill due to the uncongenial climate of
the region and they returned to Hindustan against the will of the emperor.
Shah Jahan dispatched Sadullah Khan to conquer Balkh and Badakshan. Next Auragnazeb was sent with
a huge army on the same mission. However, the Uzbegs put up stiff resistance against the Mughal
invasion, Initially Aurangazeb was successful. But he had to retreat after restoring Balkh and Badakshan
to the grandsons of Nazir Muhammad. So the ambition of Shah Jahan to spread his authority in Central
Asia had to be abandoned and all the grandiose plans ended in failure.
The Central Asian expeditions also resulted in superfluous loss of men and material. It did not yield any
territorial gains also. It also resulted in the lowering of the pride and prestige of the Mughal empire. It
also revealed the weakness and inefficiency of the Mighty Mughal military administration. According to
Jadunoth Sarkar, the effects of the Central Asia project were as follows- "They ended Shah Jahan's
factous war in Balkh-a war in: which the Indian territory spent four crores' of rupees in two years and
released from the conquered country a revenue of 22 1h lakhs only. Not an inch of territory was
annexed, no dynasty changed and no enemy replaced by an ally on the throne of Balkh. The grain stored
in the Balkh fort, worth five lakhs, and the provisions in other forts as well, were all abandoned to the
Bukharians, besides Rs.SO,OOO in cash presented to Nazir Muhammad's grandson and Rs. 22,500 to the
envoys. Five hundred soldiers fell in battle and ten times that number including camp followers) were
slain by cold and snow on the mountains." From this it is evident that the Central Asian expedition of
Shah Jahan's rule was disastrous beyond compare.

4.4 SOCIETY AND ECONOMY UNDER THE MUGHALS

The history of the people in Mughal India, specially pertaining to the social life and the economic
condition has evoked the interest of many writers and historians.
In recent times, the study of a catalogue of historical events or military campaigns does not suffice to
make good reading to understand the culture of India in the true sense. Although the available sources
which provide information about the socioeconomic conditions prevailing in Mughal India are very
meager, glimpses are available from the accounts of the contemporary European travelers and records
of the European factories. References about the life style of the people are available in contemporary
histo'rical works found in Persian language and vernaculars.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
1. STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

During the Mughal period, society in India possessed a feudal character.

The king was the pivot of the administrative system.
Next only to him were the nobles in rank and status.
The king was the Fountain-head of all honours.
He was the supreme authority in the land.
The king lived in splendour and spectacle.
A number of men and women attended on the king. Large festivals, feasts, concerts and recreations
were held.
The nobility who held high administrative posts enjoyed special privileges and the favour of the king.
They rolled in wealth and luxury.
They maintained large establishments and gave costly presents to the king on special occasions.
Their extravagant life style resulted in the drain of the resources of the state. All Mughal emperors
except Aurangazeb drank a lot. The nobility also indulged in excessive drinking. A large number of
mistresses and dancing girls were maintained by the kings and nobles. The law of escheat applied to the
nobles. They could not

amass wealth for their future generation.

All their property was confiscated by the state after the death of the nobles. So they began to lead alife
of pomp and splendour. They threw large parties frequently and indulged in wasteful expenditure.
The nobles were
fond of sumptuous dinners and delicious dishes. Fresh fruits were brought from 5amarkhand and
Bukhara. The nobles held office only on the basis of the will of the king.
They could be removed from service by the king according to his whims and fancies. They were selected
only on the basis of merit. Persons belonging to different classes and speaking different languages were
accorded the status of nobles. The Mughals succeeded in imbibing among the nobles the sense of
common: purpose and loyalty towards the king and the royal family.
2. THE MIDDLE AND THE LOWER CLASSES
The middle class of people were wealthy merchants and petty Mansabdars. They did not indulge in
"ostentatious expenditure" but maintained a certain standard according to their profession.
They led a simple life and had a comfortable existence. The merchants tried to conceal their wealtl1 as
they ere afraid that the local Governors or Faujdars would forcibly take itaway from them. The
merchants of the western coastal region, especially in Gujarat led a lavish and high standard of life.
They lived in rich style without the fear of any Government officials.
The cultivators, artisans, traders, shopkeepers, house-hold servants and slaves belonged to' the lower
class of people in society.
They led a simple and hard life. Their clothing was scanty. They could not afford to buy woolen and silk
garments.
They could hardly manage to buy and use shoes. There was a wide disparity in income and luxury
petween the upper and lower classes of people. The lower class of people in society had subsistence
existence.
During famines and droughts, the people had to face serious shortage of foodgrains and they had to
virtually starve or the situation was rather very bad. The workmen, servants and shopkeepers were
treated in a, inhuman way by their masters.
The businessmen had to supply various articles to the king, his offices and the nobles at less than the
usual market rate.
The condition of peasants during the rule of Akbar improved to a large extent. The state demand was
fixed. Measures

were introduced to prevent the harassment of the peasants of corrupt officers, However, during the rule
of Shahjahan Bernier observes that the peasants and artisans in the upper provinces suffered from ,
cruel oppression.
Beyond doubt wrruption had crept in different administrative offices. It was clear that for the pomp and
splendour of the royal family and the nobility, the rest of the community had to work hard. They were
deprived of an luxuries. The least they could expect was to find enough for their livelihood. The disparity
in the income and status of the upper and lower classes was glaring.
3. FOOD AND DRESS

The food habits of the people in India differed form one place to another.
There was no uniformity in diet and mode of living. Sir Thomas Roe throws light on the sumptuous
dinners and delicious dishes of Mughal period.
Rich spicy food was prepared and Pulaos and Biryanis were cooked in plenty.
The use of Almond pudding, chicken fry, Lamb roast and other meat preparations were common.
The Hindus were usually vegetarians with a few exceptions. However, the Brahmanas were pure
vegetarians who consumed Milk, Ghee fruits, vegetables and Rice preparations made out of Ghee and
milk.
They also consumed certain roots and herbs. Gradually the upper classes among thehindus and Muslims
evolved Persian lifestyle by popularising the use of rare fruits and refinements of the culinary art. The
use 6f ice was considered as a thing of luxury. Meat became a common article of food. The consumption
of intoxicating liquors was an evil confined only to the upper classes.
Most of the kings and nobles indulged in.excessive drinking. The kings usually maintained large harems.
A lot of money was spent on wine and women. The use of intoxicating drugs and gambling were
restricted but the royal men violated the rules often. Humayun was addicted to consumption of opium
and JahangiF to excessive drinking.
The royal family and the nobility adorned costly regalia. They used long tunics, tight trousers, turbans or
caps and silk scarfs tied . to the waist with the ends hanging down.
The wealthy people and the nobility used brocades, printed silk and Muslin. The king arid the nobles
andorned different. types of expensive jewellery. Necklaces made of predous stones, jewelled
headdress, turbans with
costly emeralds and diainonds, armlets an bangles were used by the king and the nobility. The ordinary
people used simple clothes. They usually wore a Dhoti. The Muslims used Pyjamas and Kurtas. Muslim

women used the Pyjama or Gharara with the jacket Kurtas. Hindu women dressed themse[ves in Sarees.
All types of ornaments were used both by Hindu and Muslim women.
Embroidery,' manufacture of fine Muslin and Attar, the rose perfume were mastered by the Muslim
women.
5. AMUSEMENTS
There were different types of entertainments during the Mughal period. The Mughal Emperors enjoyed
sports and exercises. Hunting, Swimming, Polo, Gambling, Elephant fighting, chess and the game of dice
interested the people.
Babur was fond of hunting and was a fine horseman. Hawkins tells us that J ahangir maintained a large
number of birds. The killing of a lion by the king was considered to bean auspicious omen.
Animal-fighting was a pop war 'orm of entertainment.
Fights were arranged between, elephants, uffaloes, rams and other beasts. Akbar as fond of arranging
fights between men.
It continued during the rule of Jahangir and Shahjahan and was-very popular. During the reign of Akbar,
wrestlers and boxers came from Persia and Turan as well as Northern and western dia. Polo called a
Chugan or'Chaugan was introduced into India y the early Mohammedan rulers of Delhi. Chess was
popular during the Mughal period. Mujra and Mushaira were popular forms of ntertainment. Mujra
means performance of singers and dancers in private assembly. Mushaira means the gathering of the
poets. Pigeon-fighting was enjoyed specially by Akbar and it was common mong the ordinary folk also.
6. SOCIAL PRACTICES AND CUSTOMS
There were many differences between the customs and traditions of the Hindus and Muslims.
However, these two communities co-existed, sometimes peacefully and at times in grave ension.
Both the Hindus and Muslims had formulated certain maxims and predictions of the science and
astrology.
The people belonging to both the communities were seeping in superstitions. ey worshipped their saints
in shrines and tombs. The Hindus, uslims and Sikhs had reverence towards many saints, prophets
and Mahants and believed that they had been endowed with spiritual and magical powers. The Hindus
were divided on the basis of the profession into many castes. There were certain classes of people who
considered themselves as superior and enjoyed special ""1 privileges.
The caste and class divisions left the Hindu community disorganized and disunited. Similarly among the
Muslims, the religious differences between Shias and Sunnis resulted in hatred for each other.
The epics and the sacred scriptures of the Hindus were different from the sacred works of the Muslims.

Sati, Child marriage, female infanticide and dowry system prevailed in Hi;'du society. The Hindus
venerated the cow. The Pig was hated by the Muslims. Akbar was attracted towards Hindu philosophy
and customs. On the occasion of Id, cow was not sacrificed. The Hindus celebrated Holi, Rakshabandhan,
Dussehra and Diwali festivals. The main festivals of the Muslims were Id, Bakrid and Muharram. Festivals
were celebrated by Hindus and Muslims on grand scale and they used costly ornaments and arranged
grand feasts. Travenier who visited India during the rule of Shahjahan tells us about the Hindus: "Hindus
are morally well, when married they are rarely unfaithful to ttheir wives. Adultery is rare among them
and one never hears of unnotural crimes."
.
The Hindus considered the water of the Ganges as sacred. They believed that a dip in the Gangts would
purify them of all their sins. They undertook pilgrimages and moved thousands of miles to visit sacred
places of like Hardwar, Kashi, Rameshwaram etc. Until Akbar assumed power, pilgrim tax was levied on
Hindus, Akbar abolished in J563. He considered levying taxes on people who congregated to worship the
Almighty as contrary to Divine will. Jizya, a religious tax was imposed on the Hindus as they were
residing in a land ruled by the Muslims and three of securing protection of their life and property. The
Muslims undertook a pilgrimage once in their lifetime. During the Mughal period, pilgrimage to Mecca
became an annual event of great importance; The Muslims proceeded to Surat and undertook their
journey to Mecca. A large ship carried as many as 1700 pilgrims to Mecca every year. During Akbar's
reign, he took keen interest in making elaborate arrangements and proper facilities to the pilgrims In
1575, Akbar declared that any person who wished
to go on Haj pilgrimage would be paid from the royal treasury. A number of Muslims availed this
opportunity Whenever Akbar wanted to get rid of any of his nobles or ministers, he directed them to
undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca. The pilgrims had to confront the Portuguese and other Europeans
who had settled in 'the coastal region. It led to certain conflicts occasionally. The Hindu caste system
had become very rigid. The caste was determined on the basis of birth and not profession. Each and
every caste had developed its own rites and rituals. Inter-dining and inter-caste marriages were
restricted. Th Hindus were left totally divided due to the caste and clan loyalty. The evil of untouchability
had raised its ugly head. A large section of the society were degraded and humiliated and were
perpetually placed in a servile position.
7. SOCIAL DEGRADATION
During the rule of Akbar, he tried to uphold the virtues preached inall the religions. By the time
Shahjahan came to power, peace and prosperity had been established throughout the empire.
Gradually.the condition of the peasants began to deteriorate due to the extravagant expeditions and
large amount of money spent in the construction of monuments.
Beggary and slavery were common. Especially during the rule of Aurangazeb, the signs of decline in
culture were quite obvious.
The Mughal nobles reveled in the company of wine and women. The standard of public morality also
declined as men in lower sections of adlJlinistration did not hesitate to accept bribes.

Along with the luxury and splendour which was enjoyed by the nobles, jealousy and internal intrigues
also bred contempt and hatred, among the nobility. The scholarship, magnanimity and nobility of the
courtiers and feudal lords had disappeared. Even the mosques were not free from vices. Belief in black
magic, witchcraft and sorcery begap to increase.
Humanistic approach was abandoned and a decadent culture with all its vices and anomalies began to
flourish.
8. RELIGIOUS HARMONY
The inevitable factor that the Hindus and Muslims had to coexist led to the growth of a new synthesized
culture which was a fusion of the best elements of both the religions. The reign of Akbar ushered in an
era of religious harmony. Akbar's Din+llahi can be
considered as a religion based on universal concept. He tried to provide a religion which was free form
caste restrictions, dominance of the priestly class and elaborate rites and rituals.
He followed a policy of religious tolerance which resulted in cultivating the feeling of brotherhood
among the Hindus and Muslims. The Sufi saints of the Mughal period were the pioneers who tried to
inculcate the feeling of love between the Hindus and Muslims. During the rule of Aurangazeb, the
Satnami and the Narain sects endeavoured to bring into their fold both the Hindu as well as Muslim
followers. The evolution of illdo-Islamic architecture was a direct outcome of the fusion of Hindu and
Muslim styles of architecture. The . magnificent buildings of Akbar and Shahjahan depict the blending of
Hindu and Muslim styles and techniques of architecture. The birth of a male child was celebrated by
both communities. The ornaments used by Hindu and Muslims women were identical. Hindi, Bengali,
Marati, and Gujarathi languages were enriched with Persian and Arabic words. Holi festival and
Rakshabandhan were clebrated by both Hindus and Muslims. The educational institutions of both
Hindus and Muslims flourished simultaneously.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Babur has given a vivid description of the economic conditions of the people of India in his memoirs.
Although it is not wholly accurate, it does throw light n the observations he made about the economic
life of the people. He speaks of the inferior variety of handicrafts and the lack of basic amenities. He says
that there were no good horses, fresh fruits, good bread, cooked food in the bazaars, hot baths, candles,
torches, etc. Although there were rivers, there were no ponds with crystal clear water or the streams
running in the gardens or houses. Although the land was rich with availability of gold in abundance, the
people were poor and scantily dressed.
Gulbadan Begum in her work Humayun Namah mentions about the cheap prices of different articles in
India. Four goats were available for one rupee at Amarkot in Rajasthan. The Ain-I-Akbari of Abul Fazl
mentions that wheat was sold at the rate of 12 Dams per pers0n, barley at 8 Dams, Gram at 16th dams
Jowar at 10 Dams, Millet at 8 Dams, Ghee at 105 Dams, Oil at 80 Da,s, Milk at 25 Dams and white sugar
at 128 Dams. Vegetables were very cheap. The

wages of the labourers was also very low. An unskilled labourer usually earned two Darns or 1 /20th part
of a rupee per day. A highly skilled labourer earned about 7 Darns per day.
According the V.A.Srnith, the ordinary labourer in the time of Akbar had more to R, get than he has now.
That was due to the fact that the prices of grains were very low. The economic reforms of Sher Shah and
Akbar must have improved the economic conditions of the peasants.
Granting loans to farmers was indeed appreciable. Remission of land taxes during famines and droughts
provided relief to the farmers.
However, there was no equal distribution of wealth. The disparity between the rich and the poor was
glaring.
The social structur was based on the exploitation of the lower classes.
There were many prosperous cities during the Mughal period.
According to European writers Lahore and Agra were among the greatest towns of the world at that
time. In Eastern India, the most opulent cities were Varanasi, Patna, Rajmahal, Burdwan, Hugli and
Dacca. RiFe and Corn were cultivated in abundance. Abul Fazl refers to Ahmedabad as a noble city in a
high state of prosperity. Burhanpur in Khandesh and Ahmedabad in Gujarat were also important cities:
l.CURRENCY
The coins in circulation were called as Darns.
The rupee contained 175 grains of Silver.
It was worth about 40 Darns upto 1616 A.D.
The value of the rupee was about 30 Darns from 1627 onwards. The Chalani was accepted as the
standard coin. The Indian rupee was made of Silver. Akbar issued Gold, Silver and Copper coins.
The Gold coin was issued in twenty six varieties of different weights and values.
Akbar issued a square silver rupee called the Jalali.
The copper coin of Sher Shah's time and Akbar's time as called the Darn or paisa.
It was in circulation among all classes of people.
The Darn was divided into twenty five parts, each called Jital for the sake of convenience of counting.
Mohurs, Rupees and Darns were used in business transactions.

2. AGRICULTURE

Land revenue was the main source of income of the state.

Sugarcane, Indigo, cotton and silk were cultivated. in abundance. Agriculture was the main occupation
of the people.
Rice, was grown
mostly in"Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Eastern coast and Western coast. Allahabad, Avadh and Gujarat
'also produced some rice, Wheat and barley were cultivated in Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Agra etc.
Millets were grown mainly in Ajmer, Gujarat and Khandesh, . Cotton and Sugarcane were the important
cash crops.
Bengal was famous for production of best quality sugar. Agricultural implements used were very much
the same as those of the present day.
There was no adequate irrigation facility. People depended mostly on uncertain rains. Famines became
cornman in India.
3. FAMINES -

Frequent famines added to the misery and deplorable condition of the peasants.
The Government authorities did not provide constant relief measures and remission of taxes was not
effective.
The Poor farmers had to struggle for subsistence living. Many people perished due to starvation.
The outbreak of epidemics like Cholera and Influenza caused the wiping out of several villages.
Akbar was the first ruler who provided relief measures to the victims of famines. During the rule of
Shahjahan, a terrible famine broke out in the Deccan region.. Gujarat and Khandesh. The highways were
strewn with corpses and no assistance could be rendered for their removal. Between 1635 and 1643,
there was general scarcity in the market. In 1646, due to failure of rains there was great misery on the
Madras coast. Constant wars added to the problems faced by the people. The population at large was
totally neglected. Agricultural and
industrial production fell sharply.
4. INDUSTRIES AND CRAFTS

A variety of handicrafts and industries flourished during the Mughal period. The manufacture of Cotton
cloth was a major industry.
The main centers of cotton manufacture were Patan in Gujarat, Burhanpur in Khandesh, Jaunpur,
Varanasi, Dacca and some places of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal.
India was famous for the production of fine quality Muslin cloth and silk fabrics. The main center for
manufacture of fine Muslin cloth was Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh. Varanasi was famous for its rich
brocades. Lahore was known for manufacture of Shawls. Carpets were manufactured in abundance at
Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore and Agra.
Silk industry also flourished immensely due to the impetus it received during the Mughal period. Bengal
was the principal centre of Silk producation. Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Gujarat were also silk
producing areas. Woollen products were also used. Different types of crafts were also developed during
the Mughal period. Ornamental desks, writing cases, boxes, trunks etc were manufactured. Some items
were richly decorated with ivory inlay. Many artisans worked in the Imperial Karkhanas or workshops at
Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Ahmedabad. According to Bernier, weavers and craftsmen were ill
treated and exploited by the nobles. Gold and Silver ornaments were manufactured. Precious stones
were mined and exported.
5. FOREIGN TRADE
The Mughal period was characterized by brisk trade and immense economic prosperity. The main land
routes on the NorthWest through which trade was carried on were the one from Lahore to Kabul and
the one form Multan to Kandhar. The goods were carried on the pack-animals and the traders had to
face danger from bandits and robbers.
During the rule of Akbar, the important outlets for sea-borne foreign trade were the ports of Cambay,
Surat, Bengal (particularly Satgoan), the Coromandel coast, the Malabar coast and the Indus river.
During the rule of Akbar the main exports were textiles, pepper, 'Indigo, and opium. The main imports
were horses, ivory, perfumes, china. goods, corals, velvet and brocades. China goods had a fine market
in India. There was no market for European goods as Indian traders demanded payment only in Gold or
Silver for the goods ;Which they exported. After the death of Akbar, the situation improved a little.
During the'time of Jahangir, Shahjahan and IAurangazeb , the English and the Dutch settled down in the
coastal lareas and established their trading factories.
The Indian merchants were prudent and shrewd in their usiness transactions. Indian merchants feared
the harassment from rthe Mughal Governors who could demand anything which had to e handed over
without questioning, otherwise the merchants had 'to face the consequences of incurring their wrath.
Some Governors also established monopoly over the trade pf certain commodities.
In 1647, the Governor of Allahabad constifuted a monopoly in Indigo. Similarly when Surat was
suffereing from famine, the Governor of Surat formed a 'comer' in the trade of foodgrains. In 1635-36,
the trade of Hugli port was monopolized'.

There was a wide gulf between the' rich and the poor. Very
few people were wealthy and enjoyed a luxurious life. The agriculturists and industrial workers were the
producers in the economy. The consumers were constituted by Government servants, . people who
belonged to professional and religious classes and slaves. A lot of revenue of the state was wasted on
wars and luxurious living of the nobility during the Mughal peliod. Only those who belonged to the
upper classes in society enjoyed the basic and the best of the amenities. The rest of the populace lived
in sheer poverty with lack of basic facilities.
ECONOMIC DETERIORATION
The corruption in Government level, constant revolts and conspiraciesnd a series of expedition
constituted the rule of Aurangazeb. Agriculture and handicrafts had a serious setback. The inadequate
production and lack of proper distribution created scarcity in the market. The producers of wealth and
the direct contributors to the economy were at the mercy of the bureaucracy and the nobility. The
entire populace laboured for the maintenance of the luxury and splendour of the nobility. The fighting
class was useful during times of war. In peace times, they constituted a burden on society. They did not
indulge in cultivation of land. Food and clothing had to be provided to a large standing army for which
the peasants had to toil and they were forced to endure a subsistence living as they were not permitted
to retain the surplus. There was no incentive for the farmers to increase the production or to bring more
land under cultivation. The administrative system itself prevented the peasants form increasing the
production by harasasing them.

4.5 THE MUGHAL POLITY

NOTURE OF MUG HAL GOVERNMENT
The Mughal administrative system was centralized despotism. The Emperor was regarded as the head of
the state as well as the church. The king was the pivot of the entire administrative machinery. The
Mughal Government was called as the Kaghzi Raj or Paper Government. Records were maintained
regarding official correspondence, descriptive rolls of soldiers and various Imperial orders. The Mughal
Government was military in origin. All the civil servants were Mansabdars or members of the army.
Military training was a prerequisite qualification to enter the service of the state. During the Mughal
period, the state undertook large scale production of essential produCts. In order to satisfy the needs of
the state, the Government had to undertake the initiative of establishing large Karkhanas or workshops.
The judiciary was extremely weak during the mughal period. The maintenance of law and order in the
villages and rural areas was not the concern of the Government. The local villagers' were entrusted with
the job of maintaining peace and security. The organization of the Government, the ceremonies and
procedure in the Mughal court and recruitment of public servants were derived from Indian tradition
than Islamic tradition. As majority of the people were Hindus, the Mughal nile could not be based
completely on Islamic principles. A pleasant blending of the two systems was essential to establish a
harmonious Government.

THE MUG HAL EMPEROR

The pivot of the Mughal administrative machi.nery was the Mughal emperor known as Badshah; He
enjoyed absolute power. Nominally he was responsible to the Muslim public. The Ulemas exercised
immense irtfluence and they had the power to depose a king. fIowever, most of the Mughal rules had a
large and efficient army under their control and,they flouted the orders of the Ulema.

344

The Mughal Emperor in India did not recognize the authority of any Khalifa. The Emperor enjoyed many
privileges. Jharokha-IDarshan was the exclusive privilege of the Emperor. By this practice, the Emperor
appeared in the balcony in the eastern walls of Agra and Delhi forts so t):lat the people could have a full
view of him. This custom was started by Akbar but it was stopped by Aurangazeb. The Emperor was
considered as the representative of God on Earth. By the customs of Chauki and Taslim-I-Chauki, the
principal nobles had to mount guard and go round the. palace by turns. Another prerogative was fhe
Naqqara by which a powerful kettle-drum was beaten when the king held court or went out.
The Emperor enjoyed the exclusive power of conferring titles on the nobles. The appointment anq
dismissal of the Mansabdars was based on the will of the Emperor. Firmans were issued with the imprint
of the Sultan's palm. Akbar adopted the Hindu practice of Tulabharam or weighing against articles for
charity. The Emperor issued Firmans regarding the grant of J agir or cash. There were five types of seals
.. The conferring of titles, Jagirs, endowments and high appointments were attested by a partic;ular seal.
Letters to foreign kings were issued along with a separate seal. Another seal was used in judicial
transactions.
According to Sir Jadunoth Sarkar, the Mughal Emperor had not maintained a regular council of ministers.
The Wazir or the Diwan occupied the highest official post. The Emperor enjoyed absolute authority. The
Wazir and the Ministers were in no way a check on the authority of the king. The Mughal polity was
based more on the autocratic form and the king was the fountain-head of authority. Several
departments were established for administrative
purposes.
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

1. THE WAZIR OR DIWAN: The Wazir occupied the highest administrative post next only to the emperor.
He was in charge of the revenue Department also. He exercised general authority over all other
departments. The Wazir exercisd direct control over the army when the emperor was incompetent or a
pleasure seeker. The Wazir acted as the representative of the emperor on several ceremonial occasions.
Payments .to officials both civil

345
and military were made through the office of the Wazir. l-ie consulted the emperor in all important
matters.
2.MIR BAKSHI: The Mil Bakshi was the treasurer who paid salaries to the officials. The Mansabdars
serving in civil and -military departments received their salaries through this department and all bills had
to pass through it. Mil' Bakshi recruited the soldiers and also maintained a record of the - number of
horses to be maintained by each Mansabdar.
3.KHAN-I-SAMAN: The Khan-I-Saman was in charge of the department of manufactures, stores and
supplies needed for military and household purposes. He maintained a record of the daily expenditure
of food articles and essentials necessary for the entire army. Only trustworthy and influential men were
appointed in this department.
4.SAR-US-SUDUR: The Sadr-us-Sudur waS also known as Sadri-Kul and Sadri-Jahan. He acted as a link
between the Emperor and the people. He was the guardian of ,Islamic law and the main spokesman of
the Ulema. His power extended over matters relating to the award of stipends and Jagirs to the Ulema
and the poor. Grants and endowments were decided by the Sadr-us-Sudur. He also allocated funds for
charitable purposes. The chief Sadr maintained a record of the rent free land held by the Ulemas in each
province.
5.MUHT ASIB: The main function of the Muhtasib was to enforce Islamic practices and maintain public
morals. Persons who com:mitted blasphemy by neglecting the Prophet or neglecting daily prayers to be
observed five times and ignoring the observance of Ramzan were liable to be punished by the Muhtasib.
During the rule of Aurangazeb, the Muhtasibs were assigned the duty of demolishing newly constructed
t2mples. Sometimes fixation of prices of different commodities and regulqtion of weights and measures
were entrusted to the -Muhtasib.
6.QAZl-UL-QAZAT: The highest judicial officer in the Mughal state was the Qazi-ul-qazat: or the chief
Qazi. Dispensation of justice was the duty of the emperor but it was entrusted to the

346

chief Qazi. He tried only religious suits according to the Muslim law. The Qazis of cities, districts and
provinceswere appointed by the chief Qazi. Most of the Qazis were corrupt. .
7.
DIW AN-I-BUYUTAT:The Diwan+Buyutat was in charge of registering the wealth and property of
the deceased persons. The amount to be paid by the deceased to the state was calculated and realized
from the property of the deceased.

Apart from thIS, the Dlwan-l-Buyutat made provIsIOn for the royal Karkhanas and the preparation of an
estimate of the output and expenditure.
8. MlR A TISH:Mir Atish was required to make arrangements for the defence of the imperial palace fort.
He ex.ercised great. mfluence on the emperor and was the supenntendent of artillery.
9.
DAROGHA-I-DAK CHAUKI: The Darogha-I-Dak Chauki was the superintendent of intelligence and
posts. A .large network of agents was created. Horses were stationed at all important outposts and
messengers gathered news from different parts of the empire and kept the emperor well informed of all
the happenings.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
The empire was divided into various provinces. Theprovinces
were headed by thc Sahib-i-Subah or the Subedar.He was assisted by Diwan, Bakshi,Faujdar, Kotwal,
Qazi, Amil, Batikchi, Potdar, Waqai-Navis. Qanungo and Patwaris. The provinces were further divided
into Sarkars and Paragcmas.
The Subedar possessed both civil and military authority. He could not declare war or conclude peace
without the permission of the emperor. He presided over the judicial courts in the provinces. He
maintainf:'d a military force. He ensured smooth collection of
" revenue and maintained peace and security in the provinces. He punished rebellious Zamindars and
those persons who violated law. Every two or three years, the Subedars were transferred. They did not
interfere in religious matters.
The Diwan acted as a check on the authority of the Subedar. He was required to collect revenue and
improve cultivation. He

347

had to carry out the orders of the imperial Diwan. In case of dispute between the Subedar and the
Diwan, the matter was referred to the Emperor. The Faujdars were the commanders of imperial troops.
They helped the Amils in collection of revenue. The Sadr was entrusted the i.Ob of supervising rent-free
lands granted for religious ft. or charitable purposes. The Amil supervised the revenue collection 0 and
examined the registers of the Karkuns, Muqaddams and Patwaris. The Potdar received money fromJhe
cultivators and kept it in the treasury. The Kotwal "vas the police officer of the villag(. The Waqai-Navis
main:ained a record of the events in the provinces and prepared re:'orts regarding the officials .. The
provinces were divided into Sarkars or districts., The Sarkars were further divided into Paraganas. The
Shiqdar was in charge of administration of the provinces. He maintained law and order in the Paraganas.
Each Paragana was administered by the Shiqdar, Amil, Potdal and a few Batikchis.

REVENUE
The most important source of revenue to the state was the land revenue. The rent of the Khalsa lands
was realised by the salaried officers of the state. The other sources of income included Zaqat, Iizya,
Khums etc. Zaqat was the tax payable by the Muslims as an obligation towards God and his people. The
revenue derived from Zaqat was utilized for humanitarian and charitable purposes. Usually l/l0th of the
property of every Muslim was to be paid to the state as Zaqat.Jizya was the religious tax levied on nonMuslims. It. was abolished by Akbar but was reimposed by Aurangazeb in ] 679. The revenue from
mines, treasure troves and war booty was known as Khums. Mines were leased out to private
individuals. They had to pay a tax which was about 1 15th of the total income derived from mining. The
state also owned many Karkhanas or workshops in different parts of the empire, The essential
commoditis required by the royal household and the various Government Departments were
manufactured. The surplus products were sold in the market and it added to the revenue of 'the state.
The Muslims had to pay import and export duties which amounted to 2% whereas the Hindus had to pay
about 5%. In 1667, Aurangazeb exempted the Muslims from payment of import and export duties. The
state had established a monopoly of Indigo and derived a large sum of revenue from it.

348

During the rule of Akbar and later onJahangir, the law of escheat was applied on Masabdars. T11e
properties of the nobles were Ctmfiscated after their death. It contributed to a certain extent to the
income of the state but it was not enormous as the Mansabdars indulged in extravagant living. The
nobles also gave costly presents
to the king frequently on several occasions.
The Finance Department of the Mughals was under the Diwan-i-Ala. The Mustafi looked into the
accounts of all the departments in the state. The Diwan-i-Khalsa was in charge of crownlands. The
Diwan-Hagir administered control over the Jagirs. The Diwan-i-Buyutat looked after the factories called
Karkhanas and heirless properties. The Fauji11 maintained the accounts of the military department.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
The Mughal Emperor was the fountain-head of justice. He was the highest court of appeal. The Qazi-ulQuzut was the highest judicial officer of the' state. The Qazis dealt with both civil and criminal cases of
the Hindus and the Muslims. The customs and usages of Hindus were considered when the judges had
to arbiter disputes invoJving Hindus. The Qazis were expected to be men possessing character of
integrity. They were not to attend entertainments and accept presents from the people. They were
expected to lead a life of poverty. Penury and poverty were glorified. However, the Qazis were seldom
honest and were usually corrupt imd crafty in noture. The Qazis had to perform certain civil, religious
and clerical duties. They had to register sale deeds, mortgage deeds, gift deeds and that of the

magistrate in accepting bail bonds, attestation of Firmans and documents pertaining to his office. The
provincial jurisdiction of the Qazis was vast. Some of the disputes in the provinces were tried by him.
Most of the cases in rural areas and even the urban areas were decided by Panchayats.
Sir Thomas Roe says that there was no codified law as such during the Mughal period. There was no
highest court of justice which could finally lay down the law of the land. Even the Qazis were not
considered as authoritative nough to lay down a legal principle to supplement the Quranic law by
interpreting the lines when the meaning was not wholly explicit. During the Mughal

349

period punishment of imprisonment was not very popular, Confisca tion of property, imposition of fines
and mutilation of I im bs were the common forms of punishment. Torture' was used to elicit the truth.
Persons suspected guilty of crime were imprisoned and ,\)., detained to force confession. Those who
embraced Islan1 could secure their release very easily. The judicial administration lost its validity due to
the corruption of the Qazis. 1he popular saying was that "To trust a Qazi is to court misfortune." The
Mughal administrative system had evolved various rules and regulations regarding regulation of private
income and expenditure. It was not merely a police state. The main principle on which the Mughal
judicial system was based was to provide sufficient guidance to the people in all possible ways.
.
MILITARY ORGANISATION
The Mughal army consisted of the Infantry, Cavalry, Elephant corps, artillery and Navy. Abul Fazl refers
to six categories of cavalry troops. The feudatories of the .M;ughals also contributed certain troops to
the royal Imperial army. Branding of horses (Dagh) and Maintenance of descriptive rolls (Chehra) of the
Mansabdari troops were in vogue. The Barwardi were skilled soldiers who could not maintain good
horse due to poyerty. They were employed as armed police to assist the state officials in collecting
revenue and suppressing anti-social elements. The Infantry was divided into different classes. Some of
the soldiers excelled as archers, wrestlers and musketeers. The artillery was under the command of the
emperor. Seven categories of elephants were maintained.
The soldiers and commanders had to make their own arrangements for essential commodities. There
was .no central organization to co-ordinote the supply of food grains to the soldiers. The. private traders
entered into an understanding with different groups of soldiers to cater to their requirements. As a
result of this, enemies had a good opportunity of cutting the supplies of the Mughal soldiers. Moreover,
the soldiers were equipped with their own horses and arms. Whenever a horse was killed in the battle,
it had to be replaced by the soldier himself. There was no system to train the soldiers. Military training
could be acquired only by indulging in htmting, suppression of revolts an in actual warfare.

350

The Mughal empire was sprawled over an extensive area. The large Imperial army alone was insufficient
to maintain the integrity of the empire. The Mughal Emperor depended on the co-operation of the
Mansabdars and the vassals. There was no proper arrangement for the transportation of the Mughal
army. Each soldier or officer had to carry along with him all the baggage he required. So they were not
.swift in motion. Moreover, the Afghans, Persians and Uzbegs were considered as superior and were
awarded high military posts. The Indian soldiers were not well-trained in the art of warfare. There was
no sense of patriotism or loyalty towards the Imperial Government. The Mughal army was only a body
of mercenaries who served only for what they could receive in the form of payment. Military inefficiency
was also one of the contributing factors for the decline of the Mughal empire.
EDUCATION

The Mughal Emperors were patrons of learning. However, there was no separate department of
education. It was not the duty of the state to educate the people. The Emperors were not obligated to
maintain schools and colleges. They made liberal grants to mosques, saints and eminent scholars. A
unique feature under the Mughal administration was that the Mosques had primary schools attached to
them where boys and girls were provided with elementary education. The Mullah taught the children to
memorize the Quran. Those boys who wanted to continue their education and acquire scholarship
continued their studies in the Madrasahs. Religious literature was mainly studied. However,
subjects/such as Mathematics, Theology, Physics, Logic and history were also studied. The tomb of
Humayurt was used as a place of instruction and a college was attached to it.
Many educational institutions were established by Maham Anaga an Aurangazeb. There were some
families of hereditary scholars living in certain towns and students from different parts of the country
flocked to them on account of their reputation and received instructions. The Karkhanas which were
established in different parts of the empire provided technical training and vocational education to
those who were interested in handicrafts. Many observatories were established by Raja Jai Singh at
Jaipur,

351

Jjjain, Mathura, Varanasi and Delhi which indicates the tdvancement in the field of science.
Education in Mughal period waS imparted through Arabic anguage. The study of Arabic and Persian
Fterature also became popular. Tudnets migrated to Mecta to secure degrees which ere onsidered as

highly prestigious. Women were brought up in raditional manner and were not permitted to reveal their
faces and tad to use Purdah. In such an environment, they were not permitted o attend schools or
colleges. The nobles employed a school mistress or governess. The. Mughal emperors employed learned
Persian vomen to teach the girls belonging to the royal.family. Salima ;ultan.a, Nur Jahan, Mumtaz
Mahal, Jahanara and Zebunnisa were listinguished scholars. The girls belonging to middle class families
were left uneducated. Those who belonged to the poor class were lbsolutely illiterate.
The Mughal emperors also patronized education. Humayun tad the construction of a Madrasah at Delhi.
The pleasure house milt by Sher Shah in the Purana Qila was transformed into a library. Sher Shah also
established a famous Madrasah at Narnaul in Patiala listrict. Akbar encouraged the study of
Mathematics, Physics and heology. He never learnt to read and write. He built colleges at Fatehurikri,
Agra and other places. Jahangir himself waS an eminent scholar lnd he encouraged the construction and
renovation of Madrasahs and monasteries. Shahjahan instituted awards for encouraging educational
pursuits. He established the famous Imperial college to he South of the Jama Masjid in Delhi and
appointed the teachers of he colleges at Delhi and Agra. Aurangazeb's educational policy was painted
with religious bigotry. He destroyed Hindu schools and emples. However, he encouraged the growth of
Muslim educational institutions and made lavish grants to them.

4.6 CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE MUGHALS

LITERATURE
The Mughal period was characterized by intense literary activity. Persian and Hindi literature flourished
immensely. Babur was an eminent scholar who had considerable knowledge of Arabic, Persian and Turki
languages. He wrote his memoirs called as the Tuzuk-I-Bi1bari. Babur has been described as "The Prince
of Autobiographers". The work depicts to us the mastery of Babur over Turki language which was
flawless and elegant in style. The Memoirs of Babur has been considered as highly authentic.
Akbar, although illiterate himself exhibited extraordinary quality of acquiring knowledge by listening to
literary works read out to him. He encouraged the study of astronomy, Mathematics and Theology;
There was immense progress in Persian literature. The Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Namah of Abul Fazl, the
Tarikh-i-Aji of Mulla Daua, The Tabaqat-i-Akbari of Nizamu-du-din Ahmed, the Muntakhab-ul- Tawarikh
of Badauni and Akbar Namah of Faizi Sirhindi were some of the noteworthy works in Persian language.
Abul Fazl was the favourite cOlhpanionof Akbar. He was an erudite scholar in Persian language. His
elegance and unique style was inimitable and acclaimed as literature at its best.
Badauni was a severe critic of Akbar. He wrote the work, Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh. His work has depicted
both the virtues and the flaws of Akbar. It cannot be brushed aside as only written due to prejudice. The
work of Abul Fazl is more a panegyric composition. During the rule of -Akbar, impetus was given to the
translation of a number of Sanskrit works to Persian. A team of scholars worked or the translation which
promoted free exchange of social ides and philosophical thoughts. Badauni translated the Ramayana of
Valmiki into Persian. The Atharvaveda was translated by Ibrahim

Sirhindi. A work on Mathematics called Lila'Dati was translated by Faizi. The first historical work,
Rajatarangini which dealt with the history of Kashmir was translated by Maulana Shah Mohammad
Shahbadi. Many Arabic works ere also translated into Persian
,language.' Khan-i-Khanan Abdur Rahim translated the Tuzuk-iBabari. Akbar patronized many eminent
scholars. Ghazali, Faizi, Muhammad Hussain Naziri and Sayyid Jamalud-din Urfi were " noteworthy
scholars. They wrote many Ghazals and Qasidas. KhanI-Khanan Abdur Rahim and Faizi contributed in a
rich manner to literature"
Jahangir himself was an eminent scholar.
He wrote the work calle Tuzuk-I-jahagiri.
It is renowned for its historical importance and literary merit.
Talib of Amul, the noted poet-laureate adorned the court of Jahangir. The famous literary luminaries of
his age were Ghiyas beg, Naqib Khan, Niamatullah and Abdul Haq Dehlvi. Shahjahan's court was also the
abode of many .scholars and poets. He patronised Abdul Hamid Lahori, Amin Oazwani, Inayat Khan and
Mohammad Salih.
The Padshah Namah was written by Abdul Hamid Lahori.
Shahjahan Namah has been attributed to Anayat Khan.
Ami Oazwani wrote a work also called as 'Padshah Nama'. Prince Dara. Shikoh was endowed with
literary artistic talents. He was interested in religious and philosophical studies. He wrote a biography of
the Muslims Saints and he got the Hindu scriptures like the Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads and the Yoga
Vasishta translated into Persian.
Aurangazeb was an authority of Islamic theology and Jurisprudence. He wrote the Raqqat-i-Alamgiri
which is a collection of letters in Persian which is elegant in style.
Certain historical works compiled during the rule of Aurangazeb we;e Khafi Khan's Muntakhab-ul-Labab,
Mirza Muhammad Kazim's Alamgir Namah, Mohammad Saqi's Masir-i-Alamgiri, Sujan Rai Khatri's
Khulasat-ulTawarikh, Bhimsen's Nuskha-i-Oilkusha and Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri by Ishwar Das.
The Mughal emperors maintained large libraries. The royal library contained 24,000 manuscript volumes
which were specially compiled and illustrated for Akbar. Jahangir and Shahjahan also added to the
collection of books.
HINDI LITERATURE
During the Mughal period, many eminent scholars enriched Hindi literature. Abdur Rahim Khan-iKhanan, Bhagwan Das and Man Singh composed poetry in Hindi. The work called Rahim Satsai was
written by Abdur Rahim. Karan and Narahari Sahai were patronized by Akbar. Narahari Sahai was
awarded the title, Mahapatra. Tulsidas wrote the monumental work, the Ramacharit Manas or "Lake of

the deeds of Rama." It has been written in archaic Hindi and has been a veritable Bible to the Hindus.
Tulsidas provided spiritual leadership to the people. Some of the works of Tulsidas were Ram Gitawali,
Krishna Gitawali, Vinay Patrika, Parvati Mangal, Janaki Mangal, Dohawali and Vairagya Sandipani. The
Ramcharit Manas saved Hinduism from schisms and cults. It infused the sense of Bhakti among the
people and served the purpose of developing the idea of harmonious living.
The name of Surd as stands aloft among the numerous scholars and poets of the age. Many poets and
scholars of the Krishna cult flourished in the Braj Bhoomi or the Jamuna valley region. There. were eight
poets classified as Astha Chap (Eight seals) and Surdas was one of the famous poets who belonged to
this group. He wrote a work called Sur Sagar in Brij Bhasha. The work unfolds the early life of Lord
Krishna and contains many works regarding the eternal love of Radha and Krishan. Nanda Das, Krishna
Das, Paramanand, Kumbhadas and Chaturbhujdas belonged to the Astha Chap group. Ras Khan
composed many verses filled with intense devotion towards Krishna. His most noteworthy work was the
'Prem Vatika".
During the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangazeb, Keshav bas, Senapatiand the Tripathi brothers were
famous poets.
Keshav Das wrote Kavi Priya, Ram Chandrika, Rasik Priya and Alankrit Manjari.
Among the Tripathi brothers, Bhushan sang about the glory of Hindu tradition and was patronized by
Shivaji and Chhatrasal.
The famous works of Bl1ushan were Shiva Bhawani, C'hhatrasal Shatak and Shivaraj Bhushan. Another
famous poet was Sundar who composed the work, Sundar Sringar and the work called Simhasan
Bhattisi. Shahjahan conferred on him the titles called. 'Kavirai' and 'Mahakavirai'. Senapati vaote the
work called Kavit Ratnakar.
Shivaji andChhatrasal Bundela patronized Bhushan: He wrote Shivaraja Bhushana, Chhatrasal Dashaka
and Shivavati. Under the patronage of Raja Jai Singh, Bihari Lal Chaube wrote "Bihari Satsai." It is a
collection of 700 Dohas and Sorathas. Nand Das wrote Chaurasi Vaishnav ki Varta. Nabhaji wrote
Bhaktmal. The Krishna and Rama cults as well as the Bhakti movement had a great influence on the
literature produced during the Mughal period.
SANSKRIT LITERATURE
The Mughal period witnessed the efflo;escence of Sanskrit literature. Akbar had keen interest in Hindi
Philosophy and scriptures. He encouraged the growth of Sanskrit. He aspired that even the Muslims
should acquaint themselves with Hindi literature. So he promoted the translation of the ancient Hindu
sacred texts. The most renowned Sanskrit writer of that. period was Jagaruiath Pandita.
He was honoured by Shahjahan with the title, 'Kavirai'.
He Was the last of the great Sanskrit poets whose works have attained a classic beauty in diction and
sentiment.

The Ganga Lahari written by Jagannoth Pandita has been considered a great classic.
Rupa Goswami was the author of Vigadha Madhava, a drama.
Vyjayanthi along with her husband Krishnagatha composed the famous work, Anandalatika Champu.
Another renowned authoress was Vallabha Devi who wrote the Subhashatavali.
BENGALI
The Bengal school of Logic was famous during the Mughal period. The Vaishnava literature blossomed in
Bengal. The songs, Padas and biographies of Chaitanya are famous. He ahs reflected his love and
devQtion towards Lord Krishna. He sang the glory of Lord Krishna and reached ecstatic heights. Krishna
Das Kavi Raj, Brindavan Das and Narahari Chakravarti have written monumental biographies of the great
saint, Chaitanya. The most famous writer was Mukundaram Chakravarti. He wrote certain works in
praise of Goddess Durga. Danaram and Kashiram also enriched Bengali literature.
MARATHI
Eknoth, Dasopant, Mukteshwar, Tuk,aram, Ramdas and Vaman Pandit contributed greatly to Marathi
literature. The works of Sridhar Swami were based on the themes from the Ramayana and

356

the Mahabharatha. Some of his famous works are Hari Vijaya, R.am Vijaya, Pandava Pratap and
Shivalilamrita; Raghunoth Pandit wrote the work, Nal Damayanti Swayambarakhyan. Ramdas was a
famous saint and poet who had a profound impact on Shivaji. His most , famous work is Das Bodh.
Amongthe poets who were influenced by the Krishna cult in Maharashtra was Vaman Pundit. Ya1l1ak
Alankar has been attributed to him. Moropant was influenced by the Rama Cult and he wrote the
Kekawali in which the Bhakti spirit is predominant. Tukaram was a celebrated Vaishnava saint whose
Abhangas are extremely popular even to this day.
GUJARATI
Arwa, the famous saint and poet of Gujarat flourished during the reign of Akbar. His most famous works
were Chitta-VicharSamvad, Shatpad and Kewalya Gita. The works of Bhatt Premanand are those of the
highest literary excellence. Samal Bhattflourished after the death of Aurangazeb. He depicted Puranic
legends and stories in verses. Madan Mohan and Samal Ratnamal are popular legends of his works.
After the death of Aurangazeb, not many scholars and. poets exhibited creativity to enrich Gujarati
literature.
URDU

. Urdu did not receive much impetus during the Mughal period. Nuri Azam Puri,HazratKamaluddin
Makhdum, Shaikh Sadi and Mohammad Afzal were the noted Urdu poets of Akbar's time. Nasir Afzali
Allahabadi and Pandit Chandrabhan were the Urdu literary figures belonging to the period of Shahjahan.
Urdu literature blossomed in full proportion in the Deccan region under the patronage of the sultans of
Golkonda and Bijapur. Mohammad Nasrat Shah composed th works Ali Namah,Gulshan-i-Ishk and Shah
Hashim. Wali of Aurangabad wrote Ghazals (love songs) Mathnavis (narrative poems) and Rubaiyats
(Quatrains) in an elegant style. Delhi became the center of Urdu liteniture in the beginning of the
eighteenth century. After the death of Au ran gab ad, Urdu progressed to a certain extent and Ghalib
Shah, Nasir and other Poets enriched Urdu literature.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The Mughal age witnessed the efflorescence of art and architecture in different styles and dimensions.
Immense royal
patronage was extended to sculptors, architects and artists during the Mughal period.
According to Fergusson the Mughal architechll:e was of foreign origin. But Havell is of the view that the
inspiration of Indian master-builders was not foreign. The Mughal Emperors were more Indian than
foreign and consequently there was a fusion
of culture. The spirit of harmony between Hindus. and Muslims in religious matters continued to
pervade the realm of fine arts also. Moreover, the culture during the Mughal period was court culture.
The Mughal culture depended mostly on royal patronage. The artistic taste of the Mughal Emperors had
a great impact on the arts of the age.
During the Mughal period, there was a happy blending of Persian and Indian techniques in architecture,
painting and even Jewellery making. Till the time of Akbar the predominant style of architecture was
Persian. In the later period, the style of architecture manifested itself purely in Indian style. Prior to the
Mughal period, the architecture was known for its simpllcity and massive design. Later on, it was
characterized by elaborate decoration and delicacy. The Mughal empire was prosperous and abounded
in immense wealth. Artists secured prolonged and sustained patronage. The peace and prosperity under
the central authority contributed to creativity. The Mughal emperors had aesthetic sense and they had
refined taste as they themselves were from a rich cultural background. Graceful bulbous domes, the
Cupolas at the corners standing on slender pillars, magnificent palace Hall and the lofty vaulted gateway
were the ,chief characteristics of Mughal architecture.
Babur was constantly engaged in wars and his career was full of perils and privations. He had a low
opinion about he culture of the inhabitants of I1i.dia.
He invited architects from Constantinople and some other Islamic countries.
He constructed a few buildings and employed 680 masons per day in Agra alone. The noteworthy
buildings of Babur have been the two mosques, Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and the Jami Masjid at Sambhal
in Rohilkhandand another Mosque within the Old Lodhi fort at Agra.

Humayun ascended the throne after Babur only to find himself in the midst of a number of problems.
One of the mosque built by , .
him is a mosque at Fatehabad in the Hissar district of Haryana has been decorated with enamelled tiles
in.
Persian style. Another important monument of his period, although built without giving much thought
to quality has been Humayun's palace called Din Panah.
Humayun's reign was eclipsed by the rise of Sher Shah, the afghan. Although he ruled for a short period
and had no time to devote towards architecture. Certain monuments of his age remain as a testimony to
the style and elegance which developed during his time.
Sher Shah built the mausoleum at Sahasram. The Mausoleum has been built in the midst of an artificial
lake at Saharam in Bihar.
It is called as a marvei of Indo-Islamic architecture on account of its dignity and grandeur. Percy Brown
says that "it is a creation of sober and massive splendour of which any country could be proud." This
Mausoleum ahs been the best and the most beautiful buildings unparalleled for grandeur and dignity.
Sher Shah also built the Purana Qila at Delhi. The Mosque inside the Purana Qila is also called as the
Qila-I-Kunha Masjid. It depicts the advancement in the style of architecture.
Akbar ushered in a age in which the Mughal culture continued unhindered after a brief period of the
rule of Sher Shah and his successors. He evinced great interest in the field of architecture, Akbar
mastered every detail of art and borrowed a number of ideas from a variety of sources.
The craftsmen of his age gave practical shape to his ideas. The use of boldly carved inlaid patterns and
the painted interior walls are the unique features of the architectural style evolved during Akbar's
period .. A fusion of Persian and Hindu influences is clearly evident in the buildings constructed by
Akbar. The first monument which was erected after Akbar's accession was Humayun's tomb which was
completed in 1565. The influence of Hindu style is found in Akbar's palaces at the Agra fort and at
Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar built many other palaces at.Fatehpur Sikri.
He constructed a new city in 1569 in honour of Salim Chisti.
The two imposing gateways of the,Agra fort display originality and rich ornamentation.
The Agra fort indicates that the Rajput citadels must have had a great impact on fort architecture.
The
Jahangir Mahal in Agra fort was built for the heir apparent and his family. The palace in the fortress of
Lahore was decorated with tiles spread over its exterior walls, The building activity of Akbar was
concentrated mainly in Fatehpur Sikri.

Fergusson remarked that Fatehpur Sikri was the reflex of the mind of a great man (Akbar). The most
noteworthy buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai's palace, the palaces of Mariam and the Sultana,
the house of Birbal, the Sonhala Makan orthe palace of the pr:incess of Amber, the Diwani-Am or the
Emperor's public Audience Hall, the Diwan-i-Khas or the Hall of private audience, the Panch-Mahal or
the palace of five storeys, the Jami Masjid, the tomb of Sheikh Salim and the Buland Darwaza.
The Jodha Bai's palace has been constructed mainly based on Hindu temple architectural style especially
in design. The Diwan-iKhas has special ari'angements for the imperial seat. The Panch Mahal consists of
five storeys and each storey has been carved in a totally different design.
Probably the Buddhist Vihara plan must have influenced the architecture of the age. The Buland
Darwaza is the highest gateway in India.
It is one of the biggest in the world. It was built in 1602 to commemorate the conquest of Gujarat by
Akbar.
The Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri has been constructed with inlaid marble and has been described as
"the glory of Fatehpur." The tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti and the Buland Darwaza are near the mosque.
Akbar designed his own tomb at Sikandar. It was started in 1605 and completed by Jahangir.
Jahangir was interested in painting more than architecture. The buildings more than architecture. The
buildings built during his time were inferior than those built by Akbar. The three important htrudures of
Jahangir's period were the Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandar near Agra, the Mausoleum of Itimad-udDaulah, Nur Jahan's father built at Agra.
and Jahangir's tomb built on the opposite bank of the Ravi at Shahdara near Lahore, built by Nur Jahan.
It appears that the design of Akbar's Mausoluem was inspired by the Buddhist Vihara. It has five square
terraces which emerge from the ground rising above the other but diminishing as they ascend upwards.
The upper most storey of white marble has a vaulted roof. The Mausoleum of Itimad-ud-Daulah, the
fatherof Nur Jahan is constructed wholly of pure white marble and has been decorated by inlaying many
precious stones of different colours in a delicate manner.
During he rule of Shahjahan, the architectural style of the Mughal period reached its zenith.
Shahjahan constructed many buildings, palaces, mosques and forts at Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Ajmer,
Ahmedabad, Kashmir, Kabul and Kandhar.
According to Percy Brown Shahjahan found the Mughal cities of Sandstone and left them
of Marble. By the use of marble Shahjahan instilled new meaning to architecture. The buildings were
decorated by means of inlaid patterns in coloured stones. The massive grandeur was accompanied with
feminine grace.
The influence of Hindu style of architecture disappeared completely during the rule of Sahjahan.

Shahjahan planned the famolls city of Shajahanabad with the palace-fortress known as the Red fort in
Delhi on the right bank of the Jamuna.
The important building of Shajahan were the Diwan-im and the Diwan-i-Khas in theort of Delhi, the
Jama Masjid, Mati Masjid and the Taj Mahal. The Rang Mahal is profusely carved and has been regarded
as the crowning jewel of Shajahan's monuments.
The beauty of Moti Masjid lies in the purity and simplicity of the structure. The Diwan+Khas is richly
decora ted. It contains d marble pavilion on whic:h the Mllghal Emperor Shahjahan sat on his Peacock
throne and gave audience in private to princes of noblf' birth, foreign
embassies and distinguished visitors. The building has a costly Silver ceiling and polished marble
pavements and has been decorated by Gold, precious stones and marble. The Persian inscription
engravedp, on the wall of the Diwan-i-Khas says- ,
"If on Earth be an Eden of Bliss It is this, it is this, none but this."
The Diwan-i-Am or the Hall of public audience was a place where administrative and official businesses
were dealt with.
The Jami Masjid, near the Red fort is an impressive building.
The most remarkable building of Shahjahan's period is the Taj Mahal. It is a magnificent marble
Mausoleum built by the Emperor in memory of his beloved Queen, Mumtaz Mahal.
Initially a model of the Taj was prepared in wood and the artisans worked on the building according to it.
The Taj Mahal was constructed under the guidance of Ustad Isa.
The monument is more Persian in style and European influence on it is less.
It took nearly 22 years for the' completion of the construction of Taj Mahal. It is estimated to have cost'
about Rs.3 Crores. According to the inscriptions at the entrance of the 'taj, the date 1647 A.D. has been
engraved and the commencement of the construction was 1630 A.D. Probably it must have taken 17
years to build the Taj.
However, Travenier is of the view that it took 22 years for its completion. According to V.A.Smith 'Taj is
the product of a combinotion of European and Asiatic genius."
But this view has not been accepted. Fergusson says "Taj Mahal at Agra is almost the only tomb that
retains its grandeur in anything like its perfect beauty and there is not perhaps in the whole world a
scene where noture and art so successfully combine to produce a prefect work of art as within the
precincts of the far-famed Mausoleum."
The Taj has been described as a lyric in stone, a dream in marble and the immortal tear on the cheek of
eternity.

The Taj has been regarded as one of the wonders of the world due to its' dignity, grandeur, exquisite
appearance, lavish ornamentation, artistic synthesis of execution and the unique design.
Percy Brown observes that it marks the perfect monument in the evolution of architecfure during the
Mughal period. The Taj is made of pure white marble. As a monument of love it is unsurpassed in the
world. It stands on a platform 8.5 metres high. The Mausoleum rises to a
height of 32.4 meters and is surmounted by Cupolas at each comer. A bullbous dome in the centre of
the Cupola has the appearance of an inverted lotus.
There are four smaller domes at the four comers of the building. Four minarets stand at each corner of
the terrace. The outer and inner walls are richly decorated with exquisite inlay work and calligraphy.
The octagonal chambers in the interior are connected with each other by diagonal passages. The
Mausoleum is surrounded by beautiful gardens and fountains. The noteworthy features of the buildings
of Shajahan were the extensive use of marble and Sandstone, lavish Pietra Dura work, more slender and
graceful arches, columns and minarets. The Domes are well-shaped, elegant and proportionote.
After the death of Shahjahan, the Mughal architecture began to decline. The hands of the artists were
chilled by the religious bigotry of Aurangazeb, the son and successor of Shahjahan. He was more
destructive than constructive. He led an intense activity in
destroying Hindu temples. Some of the monuments of his period are the little marble Mosque in Delhi
for his privateuse, the mosque in Varanasi constructed on the ruins of the holy temple of Vishwanotha
and the Badshahi mosque in Lahore. The buildings constructed during the reign of Aurangazeb are
inferior in always than the monuments of Shahjahan's period. However, of all the monuments of his
period, Aurangzeb's own tomb at Aurangabad in the Deccan is the most splendid structure. It is a simple
structure without any ornamentation. The reign of Aurangazeb was characterized by' total lack of
aesthetic taste and painted by religious bigotry.
PAINTING
The Mughals were great lovers of painting as they were the descendants of the ancestors who had a rich
culture. Moreover, as the Mughals were closely associated with the Persian court the art of painting in
fine arts. Babur evinced great interest in paim.ting. He was a lover of beauty and art. He employed many
painters in his court. Humayun developed interest in painting when he was in exile in Persia. He visited
Kabul and invited Mil' Sayyid AU and Khwaja Abdus Samad. These two painters gave lessons to
Humayun. They illustrated a copy of the Dastan-i-Ami r Hanizah.

363
During the rule of Akbar, a separate department of painting was established, headed by Khwaja Abdus
Samad. Akbar showed personal interest. As he followed the policy of rt:ligious toleration, he associated

himself with Hindus. This policy in fact gave an. impetus to painting. On account of it, Hindu and Persian
techniques
in painting were blended. variety of colours, and ,designs came into vogue. The characterIstics
predommant m pamtmg dunng Akbar's time were portraiture and illustration. Many animated pictures
and dramatic scenes with large crowds of people were depicted in fine taste and perfect style. Akbar
encouraged both Hindus and Muslim painters. It has been said that Akbar had an album of portraits. The
walls of the new city of Fatehpur Sikri were embellished with fine master pieces in Painting. Foreign
painters
were few in number of whom the most outstanding were Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg and Jamshed.
Abdus Samad was a notive of Shiraz in Persia and was awarded the title, "Shirin Kalam" or 'Sweet Pen.'
Nearly thirteen painters were Hindus out of the seventeen renowned painters in Akbar's court. Abul Fazl
considered them as the most excellent painters artd none could-be compared as equal to thein. The
most famous painters were Jaswant, Baswan, Tarachand, Mukund, Lal-Kesu and Hari Bans. Akbar
appointed eminent artists to illustrate famous works such as Chingez-Namah, Zaar Namah, Ramayana
and Kaliyadaman. Akbar organized painting exhibitions in the palace and also rewarded the most
outstanding painters. He employed hundred artists in the ranks of Mansabdars, Ahadis and infantry
men. But painting remained only as an art and it was not popular among the masses. Only portraiture
could reach the lower strata of society.
Jahangir extended liberal patronage to the art of painting. He himself was an expert in painting and
maintained a large collection of paintings. He could look at a painting and recognize the artist. He was a
keen student of miniature painting. His art pieces enriched the state galleries. He had a through
knowledge regarding the classicf}l aspect of painting. Indian painting evolved during the time of Jahangir
was free from Persian influence. Painting reached its zenith under the personal initiative and impetus
given by Jahangir. Paintings depicting scenes of noture and hunting as well as

364

portraiture were predominant during his period. Realism and noturalism were filled in painting. The
great painters ofJahangir's time were Farruk Beg, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad. Aqa Riza
was awarded the title "Nadir-us-Zaman." Ustad Mansur enjoyed the title "Nadir-ul-Asar." Hindu painters
like Bishan Das, Manohar, Madhav, Tulsi and the Keshav brothers flourished during Jahangir's period ..
Miniature painting reached the climax during the reign of Jahimgir. The court .artists prepared unique
albums depicting birds, flowers imd noture at its best. Portraiture was perfected to such an extent that
immense importance was given to human features and different moods and expressions were captured
in colour invoking awe and admiration.

Shahjahan turned his attention towards architecture and was interested in jewellery. There was a
deterioration in the art of painting. The paintings o.f Shahjahan's period lack originality and appear life
less. During Jahangir's period, painting was a beautiful harmonious blending of colours. Under
Shahjahan, richness and luxury were more pronounced in painting. Mosaic colouring, with burnished
gold which enhanced the glow of the paintings was a special feattge in painting during his time.
Portraiture also secured immense significance. Shahjahan had withdrawn patronage to painting and the
artists sought refuge under wealthy princes and nobles. Dara Shikoh, son of Shahjahan himself excelled
in painting. His album of paintings has been found in India, Office, London. The most renowned painters
of Shahjahan' s time were Hashim, Anup Chitra and Chitramani.
Aurangazeb wreaked so much hatred and ill-will that he had no mind to appreciate and encourage fine
arts. The fate of painting also took a downward slide. Aurangazeb considered patr6nage to painting as
contrary to te principles laid down by Islamic law. It is said that he defaced the paintings in the Asqr
Mahal at Bijapur and got the figures of Akbar's Mausoleum whitewashed. However, painting flourished
and could not be totally destroyed. Many portraits of Aurangazeb himself wer painted. Scenes depicting
his battles were also painted.
After Aurangazeb conquered the Deccan region, Mughal painting flourished in the South. Rajput
painting flourished mainly

365
jin Rajasthan, Central India and the region of the Himalayan foothills from 16th century till the 19th
century A.D. Rajput painting is known for its specialization in/miniatures. Ragamala painting means
particular musical notes wre depicted in colours. The Ragamala paintings have been found mostly in
Mewar and Malwa. The Rajput painting can be dIvIded mto two major schools- the RaJastharu school
and the Pahari school.
The Rajasthani school of art flourished in Bikaner, Udaipur, Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The main
theme of painting was taken from the stories of Rama and Sita and Krishna and Radha which had
become popular on account of the Bhakti movement. The subject matter dealt with Ram Lila; Krishan
Lila, Nayikabheda and RituCharita comprising of portraits, pictures of the seasons, court scenes,
processions, hunting and other royal pursuits: The Rajas of the Himalayan states were patrons of the
Pahari school which specialized in miniature Fainting. This type of art flourished in the regions of Basohli,
Kulu, Manali, Jammu, Chambal and Garhwal. It is also known as the Kangra school of Painting. Sansar
Chand, the ruler of the Kangra State encouraged the Kangra painting. Scenes from the Ramayana and
the Mahabharatha were depicted. The best specimens of the Pahari school are the 'Siege of Lanka',
'NalDamayanti', 'Govardhana Dharan' and 'Go-Charan'. These paintings reveal the artistic skill of artist
during the Rajput and Mughal period.
THE MUG HAL GARDENS

The Mughals had cultivated immense love for noture. Even in the memoirs of Babur, we find his
observations about the beauty and splendour of noture. The Mughal buildings and specially tombs were
surrolmded by park-like enclosures. The Mughal gardens were laid down in a regular arrangement of
squares. Some of them were exquisite avenues, ornamental water channels and fountains. Babur laid
out a large garden called the Kabul Bagh in Panipat to commemorae his victory over Ibrahim Lodi in
1526. Jahangir' and his beloved queen, Nur Jahan also laid out a number of gardens in different places.
Jahangir laid out the gardens in the pattern of Persian carpets. The Shalimar, Nishat and other gardens
in Kashmir' are the best examples of the aesthetic taste of the Mughals.

366
MUSIC

The Mughals enjoyed music and extended liberal patronage to musicians. Babur was not only fond of
music but he also composed songs. Humayun spent hours in the company of musicians and singers. He
fixed two days of the week- Mondays and Wednesdays for listening to music. Akbar was a great lover of
music. He also played the Indian musical instrument, Naqqarah. He patronized Hindu Kashmiri and
Iranian musicians. The most renowned singer who adorned the court of Akbar was Miyan Tansen of
Gwalior.' Abul Fazl writes about Tansen as "a singer like him has not been in India for the last thousand
years." Baz Bahadur of Malwa was also noted for his music and Hindi songs. Be is described by AbulFazl
as the most accomplished man of his day in the science of music and in Hindi songs. The Amirs and
coui:tiers of Akbar like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Raja Bhagwan Das and Raja Man Strlgh patronized
musicians. Many celebrated singers and musicians composed new varieties of singing like Tarana,
Thumri, Ghazal and Qawali. Sanskrit works on music were translated into Persian language. The
synthesis of Indian and Iranian music led to a much more refined style of music. Jahangir and Shahjahan
continued to extend patronage to musicians. Jagannoth and Janardhan Bhatt of Bikaner were the
leading Hindu musicians of Shahjahan's court. Aurangazeb with his cold and cruel attitude, pensioned
off the musicians and banned music in the court. Only the royal band was retained. After his death,
music continued to flourish unabated and the Khyals of Adarang and Sadarang filled his court. Shori
Miyan, a noted musician was the exponent of many new Ragas. Sri Nivas composed a work on music
called Rag Tatwa Navabodh. In Muslim courts, music was greatly patronized but was considered as a
degraded profession because the main performers were Ustads and dancing girls of a low reputation.
Music was regarded as a hobby of the Amirs and wealthy people. Ordinary people disapproved of music

as a profession. In South India, music was popular among the upper classes and also among the ordinary
people. In South India music remained as an art enjoyed by both the Prince and the peasant.

-4.7 THE EMERGENCE OF THE SIKHS

During the 18th century, it appears that the decline of the Mughal empire facilitated the other Indian
rulers to assert their power.
Mention may be made of the Rajputs, the SHills, the Bundelas and
the Marathas who tried to assert their independence.
The Sikhs were
the first to retaliate against the Mughals, but the Marathas emerged
as the formidable enemies of the Mughals. Under the leadersl;1ip of Shivaji the Marathas were able to
develop a sense of unity and independence hitherto unknown. Shivaji emerged as the champion
of Hindus and declared that his aim was to establish Swaraj. So also
his successors continued to aspire for the establishment of the HindPad-Padshahi by putting an end to
the Mughal rule in India. The Sikhs were those who belonged to a semi-Hindu community and they rose
to prominence in Punjab just when the Mughal empire was on the decline.
GURU NANAK (1469-1538 A.D.)
The socio-religious reform movement that took place in Punjab in the 15th and 16th centuries led to the
emergence of the Sikh :ommunity. The founder of the Sikh community was Guru Nanak. He was a
religious teacher of the medieval age who preached a ;ecular outlook and chaste ways bf life. The
teachings of Guru Nanak were simple. He preached in Punjabi language which was easily mderstood by
the common people. He laid stress on monotheism. :-Ie tried to establish Hindu-Muslim unity. Guru
Nanak condemned dol worship and polytheism. He advocated the worship of a single :;od, the supreme
being. He considered elaborate rituals and costly :eremonies as wasteful, meaningless and useless.
Nanak,paid respect o all religions. He tried to spread the spirit of religious tolerance. :-Ie believed in the
theory of Karma and believed that the actions of I person determine his birth. According to the theory of
Karma,

368

each person will reap the fruits 'of his actions, either good orbad. Nanak felt that it is not necessary to
renounce life to attain salvation. The teachings of GuruNanak have been compiled in the Guru Granth
Sahib which was originally called the Adi Granth. It is placed in the Gurudwara and worshipped by the
'Punjabis. Guru Nanak had both Hindus and Muslims as his disciples. He eventually settled down at
Kartarpur near Jullandar and passed away in 1538 A.D. Guru Nanak advocated chanting "Satnam" or
'God's name' in order to
. attain salvation. His followers came to be known as Sikhs. Guru Nanak nominoted Angad (1538-52) as
his successor. The successors of Guru Nanak were men of high character and they tried to spread his
teachings in Punjab.
Amar Das (1551-74) was the third Guiu of the Sikhcommunity.
He tried to bring about a feeling of oneness among all the rival communities that developed among the
Sikhs. He divided the regions occupied by the Sikhs into districts in which he appointed men to
propagate their faith. This practice gave the Sikhs convenient local centres to develop stronger devotion
towards the Sikh religion. Amar Das also interacted with Akbar. He was succeeded by his son-in-law,
Ramdas (1574-81), who obtained from Akbar, a piece of land on which he constucted 'The pool of
immortality' atAamritsar. In 1577, the construction of the Golden temple was statted Qn an island in the
midst of the lake, which soon became the spiritual center of the Sikhs.
GURU ARJUN (1581-1606)

Guru Arjun was the fifth Sikh Guru. He was the son arid successor of Ramdas. Guru Arjun was endowed
with immense prowess and ability and was able to knit the Sikhs into a compact community. During his
time, the Golden temple was completed and he organized worship and the rites of purification bath in
the pool. He also compiled the Adi Grantha, the sacred book of the Sikhs. He improved the finances of
the Gurudwara. He also introduced the practice of contributing a regular 'Spiritual tribute'. He also
convened notional assemblies and also evolved n efficient system of administration. In reality he
emerged as a king and was surrounded by courtiers and ministers. He was the first Guru to

369

interfere in politics and he was put to death in 1601 by Jahangir for blessing the rebelprince,
Khusrav.This .created a feeling of hatred among the Sikhs against the Mughals. So the religious
comr1Unity of the Sikhs was converted gradually into a militant race.
HAR GOVIND (1606-1645)
. Har Govind was the son and successor f Guru Arjun. He was valiant and also saintly. From his time,
militarism became a regular feature of Sikh community. The opposition to Mughal authority became
more pronounced. Har Govind refused to pay the arrears of fine imposed on his father and was
imprisoned at Gwaliorfor twelve years. Later on he revolted against Shah Jahan and defeat.',; the
Mughal army at Sangrama near Amritsar in 1628. Hown L' within a short while Har Govind was defeated
and was compelled to take refuge in the Kashmir hills. He was succeeded by Hara Roy (1645-1661) and
Harakrishna (1661-1664) and their ages do not appear to be spectacular in any way.
GURU TEGH BAHADUR (1624-1675A.D.)
Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth Guru of the Sikhs. He was the second son of Hara Govind. He had
been in Mughal service during the reign of Aurangazeb and had also participated in the Assam
expeditions. But later he gave up Mughal service and took to'religious life; Tegh Bahadur was arrested
and t:;xecuted because he strongly protested against forcible conversion into Islam and he encouraged
the Hindus of Kashmir to resist that policy. There are diverse opinions regarding the reason for the
execution of Tegh Bahadur. However Aurangazeb committed a great blunder by executing hill' It
resulted in an irreconcilable breach between the
. Sikhs and the Mughals ...
GURU GOVIND (1675-1708 A.D.)
Guru Govind was the tenth Sikh Gun. He was the son and successor of Tej Bahadur. He was endowed
with immense courage and ability. He is said to have converted a jackals into tigers and sparrows into
hawks. It indicates that he became a source of inspiration to the Sikhs. Guru Govind was determined to
wipe out the Mughal rule in India. He declarer "I shall make men of all four

370

castes into lions and destroy ,the Mughals." Guru Govind was the real founder of th Sikh military power
in India.
Guru Govind was convinced that the Mughals were hostile to his community and religion. So he was
determined not only to resist the Mughals but to avenge the injustice meted out to his race. He was the
first Guru to reform the Sikh commtinify so that they could meet the demands of the changed condition.
He introduced reforms abolishing the caste system and insisted on social equality, common worship,
common place of pilgrimage and common dress. Guru Govind introduced his reforms in an age when
social degradation and corruption was rampant. He introduced simpolicity in manners, singleness
ofpurpose and desire. He was responsible for the growth of brotherhood of Sikhs by establishing the
Khalsa. In this Brotherhood called Khalsa, a ceremony of baptism was introduced and it consisted of
drinking water consecrated by a sword. It was obligatory for every member of the Khalsa to carry the
five Ks viz., Khangi (Comb), Kach (Breeches), Kard (Knife), Kesh (Hair) and
Kirpan (Sword). '
Guru Govind Singh compiled a supplementary Granth known as.Disen Padsha-ka-Grandh (the Book of
the tenth sovereign). The members of the Khalsa dedicated their lives to the service of the main
Gurudwara and vowed vengence upon their enemies. Guru Govind Singh fought against the hill tribes in
Punjab and built for himself a small principality to carryon his military activities. The Mughal Emperor,
Aurangzeb sent his armies against him several times. Guru Govind Singh proved to be a menace to the
Mughals. In one of the battles he was defeated and two of his sons were captured and executed cruelly
by the Mughals. It only enhanced the hatred on Guru Govind towards the Mughals. Later on he defeated
a Mughal a'rmy undeliDilawar Khan near Mukteshwar and settled down at Anandpur. - During his last
days, Aurangazeb decided to conclude peace with Guru Govind. But even before he .
. could receive him Auningazeb passed away in 1707. His son, Bahadur Shah invited Govind Singh to
accompany him to the Deccan, but on the way Govind Singh was murdered by an Afghan in 1708. He
was the last Sikh leader. Guru Govind Singh was convinced that the Sikhs wanted Secufar leadership and
not spiritual g\1idance. So he did not nominote any successor as the spiritual

leader. So he inspired the Sikhs by saying "Where there are two Sikhs there is a company of saints;
where there are five Sikhs there is a God" Guru Govind nominoted Banda as his military successor and
never bothered to nominote a spiritual successor.
Banda was well experienced in military organization. He consolidated the Sikhs and continued the war
against the Mughals. He conquered Sir hind after killing its Faujdar. The entire region between the rivers
Sutlej and Jumna came under his control. At Mokhlispur, Banda built Lohgarh (Blood and Iron Fort)
which became the'seat of his power. He began his independent rule there and also struck coins in his
own name .

The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah was alarmed by the growing power of Banda and led an expedition
against him. When the Mughal forces captured Lohgarh, Banda retreated to the hills, North of Lahore.
After Bahadur Shah's death, he again captured Lohgarh and plundered the province of Sirhind. However
in 1715 he was captured by the Mughal forces and killed in a brutal manner, ... The Sayyid brothers
launched a vigorous campaign against the Sikhs and they also announced a reward for every Sikh head.
However
the Sikhs did not lose hope.
KAPUR SINGH
The Sikhs continued their struggle against the Mughals. Under the leadership of Kapur Singh of
Faizullahpur, they started an organization which later on developed into the famous Dal Khalsa or the
theocracy of the Sikhs. Meanwhile the Mughal Government was sinking due to internal intrigues
confusion. Moreover th Mughal Government had to face the invasions of the Persians and the Afghans.
So The Sikhs used that opportunity to strengthen their financial position and increase their military
strength. The Sikhs also constructed a fort at Dalewal on the River Ravi and began to plunder the
neighbouring. regions.
By 1752, the control of the Mughals over Punjab ended but the Sikhs had to face the invasion of Ahmed
Shah Abdali, the Afghan ruler. After the third battle of Panipat the Sikhs used guerilla tactics and
prevented the penetratio'h of Ahmed Shah Abdali. However Ahmed Shah Abdali won a victory over the
ikhs at Ludhiana but it

372

did not end in a decisive victory. He also realized that it was impossible to subdue the Sikhs. The entire
Sikh populace formed the militia and religious fervour was their strength, Abdali observed these factors.
Meanwhile a revolt had started in his homeland and he had to give up his idea of defeating and
subjugating the Sikhs.
After Ahmed Shah Abdali left IndIa, all his territories were occupied by the Sikhs. By 1773, the Sikhs had
extended their sway over the entire region form Saharanpur in the east to Attock in the west and from
Multan in the South to Kangra and Jammu in the North. The Sikhs declared their independence and
organized themselves into 12 association each with its c>wn Mis] or kingdom. They were Bhangi,
Jabgeyam, Sukerchakia, Nakai, Fyzuallahpuria, Ahluwalia, Ramarhia, Dalewalia, Karora Singhia,
Nishunwa]a, Sahid and Nihang Phulika. Each Misl was under the control of a powerful chieftain. The
confeder,acy of these Sikh states constantly indulged in mutual conflicts and during the first decade of
the 19th . century they were united only during the nde of Ranjit Singh.

8.
4.8 THE RULE OF SHIV AJI
According to Percieval Spear, the rise of the Marathas is "one of the many historical mysteries of Indian
history."
He wonders whether Mughal intolerance and invasion ignited a spark of Notional Hindu movement
in:Maharasthra.
It is also important to consider the fact that the rise of the Marathas was not an isolated event in the
history of the 18th century but the culminotion of a long process of socio-political movement, whose
beginnings go back to the 14th and 15th centuries.
The physical features of Maharashtra have shaped the history of the region and moulded the life and
character of the people.
The mountainous territory has remained an obstacle in the way of invaders posing severe challenges.
It has facilitated the establishment of hill forts. The people of the region are sturdy, hardworking and
possess stubborn determinotion. The rugged life which they have to endure has made the people of this
region more self-reliant. The Marathas learnt to ride horses in a swift manner in the terrain region. They
became experts in guerilla warfare. The Marathas could harass the Mughal army incessantly. The hilly
areas provided the Marathas with notural defence fortifications. The Marathas would have been
unsuccessful in pitched battles against the Mughals because the determining factors would have been
the number of soldiers and available resources.

The Marathas were fired with the spirit of patriotism. They cherished deep respect and pride about the
glorious Hindu culture and pride about the glorious Hindu culture and tradition.
The Bhakti movement had roots in Maharasthra. It created a feeling of oneness among the people by
inculcating the feeling of Bhakti among the people. The Bhakti movement had the healthy impact of
unifying the people of Maharashtra. Sathianothair rightly observes that the
teal cause of Maratha revival is to be sought in the social content rather than the geographic.al
environment, inspite of which the Marathas had already been conquered. Especially in the 14th and
15th centuries a socio-religious movement started in Maharashtra due to great preachers such as
Tukaram, Eknoth, Samartha Ramdas and Vamana Pandita. Ranade compares this movement with the
Protestant reformation that took place in Europe in the 16th century. This movement broke the artificial
barriers of caste and created a sense of social equality in the Marathas. So a sense of political unity
developed among the Marathas .. The devotional songs of the religious teaches also served as a bond of
unity among the Marathas.
The decline of the Deccan Sultanote that had held the Marathas in subjugation also helped in the rise of
the Maratha notionalism, The Deccan Sultanote was on the verge of collapse due to internal intrigues.
SQ..many Maratha families rose to positions of power and influence as generals and administrators in
these courts. As the power of the Deccan Sultans began to decline, the Marathas began to nurture the
idea of Independence. So the rise of the Marathas was, therefore, not a sudden or isolated phenomenon
as GrantDuff held in the 19th ceptury. It was the notural result of about tow hundred years of
preparation under the stress of social and religious reform movements which infused a rare sort of
energy in the Marathas.
The concept of an independent Maratha kingdom was formulated by Shivaji. He enunciated the idea of
establishing the Maraha Swarajya. The Marathas had acquired training under the Muslim states of the
Deccan region. They were also employed in the revenue' department in the, South Indian Muslim
stat.es. Some of them rose to the position of ministers also. Brahmin ambassadors were employed in
diplomatic relations by the ruler of Ahmednagar. The Marathas were also under the service of the
Golkonda and Bijapur Sultans. The Maratha Jagirdats played an important role in administrative and
military mattes in the court of Ahmednagar and

37

Bijapur. Thereby they acquired immense wealth and training in administration. During the rule of
Jahangirand Shahjahan, Shahji Bhonsla played a significant role in Bijapur politics. His son, Shivaji
proved to be dynamic and enthusiastic enough to carve an independent Maratha kingdom. By his
inspiration, the Marathas looked upon the protection of the pristine purityof Hindu culture againstthe
Muslim onslaughts as their prime duty especially from
the time of Shivaji ..
SHIVAJI (1627-80)
EARL Y LIFE
Shivaji was born in 1627 at Shivaner. His father was Shahji Bhonsla and mother, Jijabai. Shahji occupied
an important position in the politics of Bijapur and Ahmednagar. Jijabai was the daughter of Jadhav Rao,
the greatest MarathaJagirdar and a descendent of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri. Shivaji was influenced
by his mother to a large extent. She indeed shaped the character of young Shivaji. She was a pious lady.
She narrated tales from the epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharathaand instilled the thoughts of
bravery and heroism in the mind of the young Shivaji. She also inculcated the idea of protecting Hindu
traditions andcustoms as an important duty in Shivaji. Dadaji Konda Dev, the teacher of Shivaji trained
him in the art 9f warfare. The adventurous lad, Shivaji excelled in horse riding and sword fighting. He
wandered throughout Maharashtra and acquainted himself with the secret routes and passes in the
mountainsc . It enabled him to have a thorough knowledge of the geography 6f th eland. He learnt the
art of administration. The two Bhakti Saints, Ramdas and Tukaram influenced $hivaji's outlook. Shivaji
regarded Ramdas as his spiritual guide. The sacred Mantra which Ramdas whispered in the ears of
Shivaji was the love towards the motherland.
CONQUESTS
Shivaji was ambitious.
He gained many forts from their hereditary owners Or the local offices of Bijapur. He used force and
diplomacy in conquering the forts. Muhammad Adil Shah of Bijapur (1646-56) was suffering from
prolonged illness. His regents were selfish and incompetent. An atmosphere of chaos and confusion
prevailed. Seizing the opportunity, Shivajicaptured the fort of Torna

376

which was 20 miles South-West of Po on a in 1646. Later on he turned his attention towards the fort of
Raigarh. He captured it and reconstructed the fort which was in a bad condition. He also secured
Supa from his uncle, Sambhaji Mohite. The forts of Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar and Kondana came
under the authority of Shivaji.
The activities of Shivaji alarmed the Bijapur Sultan. He decided to curb the grow.th of the power of
Shivaji.
Shivaji continued his aggression in 1655. He engineered the murder of Chandra Rao of Mores by a hired
assassin and captured the important fort of Javil. According to J.N.sarkar, "The conquest of Javil was the
result of deliberate murder and organized treachery on the part of Shivaji
The only redeeming feature of this dark episode in his life is that the crime was not aggravated by
hypocrisy." Shivaji was enthusiastic and courageous. He proceeded towards Konkan. The Marathas
under Abaji Sonder occupied Kalyan, an important town and marched Southwards in Kolaba district. The
Bijapur Sultan imprisoned Shahji, father of Shivaji on the ground that he had connived with Shivaji and
encouraged him to follow a policy of aggression. Shivaji was forced to put a stop to his raids. He
negotiated with Prince Murad and expressed his willingness to join them Mugnal service. The Bijapur
Sultan was taken aback by the diplomatic move of Shivaji and released Shahji in 1649. However Shahji
was released on the condition that he would cease all his raids and maintain peace in the region. Shivaji
refrained from causing any disturbances for about six years form 1649 to 1655. During the period,
Shivaji consolidated his position and enhanced his power.
CONFLICT WITH BIJAPUR
Muhammad Adil Shah of Bijapur died in 1656. At that time Aurangazeb was the Governor of Oeccan. He
took advantage of the critical situation in Bijapur and directed his forcestagainstit. His general, Mir Jumla
was successful in capturing Bidil:r, Kalyana and Parinda in 1657. Bijapur surrendered certain districts to
Aurangazeb and agreed to pay a heavy war indemnity.
By 1657, Aurangazeb began to contest for the throne of DeIhL Shivaji raided the districts of Ahmednagar
and Junnar but Aurangazeb attacked him by surprbe and routed him.
The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to bring Shivaji dead or alive.
Afzal Khan was one of the eminent generals of the Sultan of Bijapur. He commanded a large force
consisting of 10,000 cavalry. He was filled with confidence and boasted that he would bring the
mountain rat (Shivaji) in chains. He encamped at Wai about 16 miles,
East, Pratapgad where Shivaji had established himself.
Afzal Khan b I') at once began negC'tiations with Shivaji through Krishnaji Bhaskar. \ He extended an
invitation to Shivaji to meet him in person to settle
the differences. Shivaji treated Krishnaji Bhaskar with such warmth

and plain honesty that Krishnaji decided to reveal the real intentions of Afzal Khan.
He hinted to Shivaji that Afzal Khan meant mischief.
Shivaji decided to be Qn his guard and was mentally well prepared
to meetAfzal Khan. Military preparations were made on both sides .
. Shivaji met Afzal Khan at the appointed place. Afzal Khan embraced Shivaji. Suddenly, with his left arm
he tightly gripped Shivaji's neck and with his right hand he tried to run him through with his sword.
Shivaji with immense presence of mind( with the help of the "tiger claw' fastened to his left hand forced
Afal Khan to relax his grip and in a swift movement stabled Afzal Khan with his dagger.
Afzal Khan fell to the ground.
Immediately the Bijapur forces and the Marathas clashed against each other in a fierce battle.
Afzal Khan was kiiled and the Bijapur forces were completely routed. For the next three years, the war
between Bijapur and Shivaji continued unabated. Shivaji captured some important places Southward of
Panhala and along the banks dthe Krishna. He defeated the Bijapur army under Rustum Khan and
marched upto the very gates of Bijapur and his generals plundered the rich sea-port of Rajput.
Finally the Sultan ofBijapur recognized the sovereignty of Shivaji
over all the territories which he had captured.
SHIVAJI AND THE MUGHALS
The Mughals were constantly pushing towards the South.
Invariably they came into conflict with Shivaji. Moreover Shivaji was following an aggressive expansionist
policy. He raided some of t,he Mughal territories. In 1660, Aurangazeb despatched his eminent general,
Shayista Khan against Shivaji.
Shayista Khan was appbinted as the Governor of Deccan region. The Marathas harassed the Mughal
army.
Shayista Khan defeated the Marathas in some battles and occupied certain forts but he was unable to
tolerate the menace of the Marathas. The Mughals were not trained and experienced in fighting in a
mountainous region.
Shayista Khan found it extremely strenuous. He decided to spend the rainy season in PGona.
Unfortunotely he took residence in a house where Shivaji ad spent his childhood.
Shivaji was well acquainted with every

nook and corner of the huge mansion.

He decided to raid the place of Shayista Khan. Shivaji entered Poolla with his followers in the form of a
marriage party.
He entered the house of Shayista Khan who was in a shound sleep. He was awakened by one of his slave
;irls. Eve:1 before he could realize what was happening, Shivaji severe a off l;'S three fingers.
Shayista Khan managed to escape. His sort was surrounded and killed. Shivaji tookall those in his
residence as captives.
Shayista Khan returned back to Aurangabad.
The daring feat of Shivaji added to his prestige and his fame began to spread throughout the country.
Aurangabad recalled Shayista khan from the Deccan and appointed him as the Governor of Bengal.
In 1664, Shivaji attacked the rich pOft of Sur at and plundered it. Two-thirds of surat was destroyed by
fire.
JAI SINGH AND SHIVAJI (1665)
Aurangazeb ,9.espatched Jai Singh of Amber to punish Shivaji in 1665. , Jai Singh laid siege to Purandar
the familie? of Maratha offices had sought refuge. The Mughal troops created havoc in manyMarathq.
villages. Even Raigarh, the centre of Shivaji's administration was threatened by the enemies.
Shivaji had no other alternative and he decided to sue for peace.
Shivaji visited the camp of Jai Singh had conclude the treaty of Purandhar. According to it, shivaji was
forced to surrender 23 of his forts. Only 12 forts remained under his control.
His son, Sambhaji was enrolled as a Panj Hazari Mansabdar and he was to be' given a Jagir.
In a way, shivaji was also recognized as an important power to be reckoned in the Deccan region and
was not forced to attend the Mughal court like other Mansabdars.
shivaji promised to render assistance to Aurangazeb in his Deccan expeditions. He als agreed to pay 40
li-lkhs of Hu.ns to Aurangazeb in 13 annual instalments. In return, he expected that
. his right over the land in Konkan region which yielded four lakhs and Balaq region which yielded five
lakhs should be confirmed. shivaji had to occupy those areas with his own troops.
.
10.
IMPRISONMENT OF SHIV AJI

The treaty of Purandhar was a diplomatic move. Shivaji accompanied Aurangzeb's army against Bijapur.
But it turned out to be unsuccessful. Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the Mughal court. According to
Sardesai, Shivaji agreed to the proposal in order to gain personal knowledge of Aurangazeb and to
estimate his strength and resources.
Jai Singh assured Shivaji that he would be safe. Shivaji and his son, Sambhaji reached Agra but he was
not allowed to meet Aurangazeb.
He was also not respected as expected. A few days later Aurangazeb and Shivaji met, only to converse in
, hostile tones.
Aurangazeb had Shivaji' arrested and imprisoned.
, Shivaji was terribly upset and began to hatch a plot to escape from' prison.
He pretended to be ill land secure permission to send baskets of sweets to be distributed among the
Brahmanasl and the poor.
By then Shivaji and Sambhaji had been in prison for nearly three months.
The baskets were checked before they left the prison of Shivaji.
As days passed on and the guards relaxed Shivaji and his son Sambhaji concealed themselves in the
sweet baskets and escaped from prison.
Shivaji reached Maharashtra in 16661 after a period of nine months.
This heroic. deed of Shivaji filled the hearts of the Marathas with great pride and the fame of Shivaji
began to spread far 'and wide.
JASV ANT SINGH AND SHIV AJI
Raja Jai Singh was recalled in 1667. On his way back he was killed at Burhanpur. He must have been
poisoned by his sonl Kirat Singh at the instigation of Aurangazeb. Raja Jasvant Singh was despatched to
the Deccan.
He was friendly towards Shivaji. The Mughal troops were busy with the Afghans on the Northwest.
Prince Muazzam persuaded Aurangazeb to grant the title of 'Raja' to Shivaji. Aurangazeb did so. Shivaji's
sonl Sambhaji was given the rank of Maniabadar of 5000. Shivaji was given aJagirin Berar. But in 16701
conflict between theMl,lghals and the Marathas became inevitable.
Shivaji captured many forts.
He raided Surat for the second time. The trade of the richest port of India was ruined. He also invaded
Baglan and Khandesh territories.

Shivaji also plundered Hubli and occupied Karwar and Ankola.

(SOUTHERN EXPEDITIONS
Between 1676-77 Shivaji undertook his expedition towards the Southern region.
He set out with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 Infantry.
Abul Hasan Kutb Shah of Golkonda and his tyvo Brahmin ministers connived with Shivaji and prepared a
plan to capture Bijapur and divide it between themselves.
Shivaji proceeded through Madras and subdued Jinji and occupied the strong fortress. He placed
garrisons in charge of the fortress.
Shivaji was successful in capturing Tiruvanamalai and Vellore in the Carnotic which had be assigned to
Shahji.
He concluded a treaty with his brother, Ekoji by which Tanjore and the adjoining districts were given to
Ekoji.
Mysbre territory was presented to Dipa Bai; Wife of Ekoji.
Shivaji began to levy Chauth and Sardeshmukh in those territories which remained under his (wntrol.
CORONOTION OF SHIVAJI
In 1674, Shivaji was coronoted at Raigarh according to the Vedic rites. He was declared as a true
Kshatriya after undergoing a purificatory ceremony.
Learned Brahmanas from all over India under the leadership of t,he celebrated Gaga:bhatta of Banaras,
officiated at the ceremonies. Shivaji assumed the itle Chatrapathi and Gau-Brahmana Prati, Palak
(Protector of Brahmanas and cows). Shivaji declared Raigarh as his capital.
LAST DAYS OF SHIVAJI
Towards the end of 1679, Shivaji had to face a serious set back in a battle against the MughaHorces. He
did not live long after that. He began to suffered from fever and dysentery and died at the early of fiftythree. His kingdom comprised of the western Ghats and the Konkan between Kalyan and Goa when he
breathed his last.
SHIV AJI'S AD.MINISTRATION
. The Maratha Government was considerably influenced by Muslim political iftstitutions of the North
and the South. During the reign of Akbar, local Government of an ever-expanding empire was organized
as best as possible. The same arrangement persisted till the time of Aurangazeb with only a minor
adjustment here and . there. By this,it acquired strength and vitality. But the Marathas

had no such opportunities. Hence their local institutions weft

destroyed before they acquired maturity and strength.
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT UNDERSHIVAJI
Shivaji established amore or less analogous- machinery. His
'principal ministers were eight in number and each one of them was called Pradhan or Head.
Hence the Council, Ashtapradhan that is eight Heads of Departments came into existence.
1.
The Peshwa or the M1.khya Pradhan- He attended to all types of Government business and put
his seal on official business and put his seal on 'official letters and documents.
He led campa"igns into enemy territory and made provision for governing all the conquered territories.
He acted under the direction of the Chatrapati and was entitled to precedence over all military offices
and ministers.
2.
The Senapati- He was incharge of organizing the army and maintaining law and discipline. He
was expected to lead campaigns against the enemy and to prepare a correct inventory of the booty
captured.
The prayers and problems of the soldiers were presented before the Chatrapati who controlled him.

3.
The Amatya- he maintained a record of the revenue and expenditure of the state. He scrutinized
the papers received from the Chitnis and the Fadnis to which were affixed the seal and signoture of the
Amatya as a mark of his approval.
He was the head of the Finance Department.
4.
The Sachiva- The Sachiva drafted letters on behalf of the Chatrapati and carefully scrutinized
their contents before dispatching it. He had to fix his seal of approval on all official letters and orders.
5.
The Sam ant a- The Samanta was the foreign minister and he arranged for the reception of
foreign envoys and diplomatic agents. He put his seal of approval on all correspondence with foreign
princes and was also expected to accompany the army.
- 6. The Mantri- The Mantri was in charge of the Department dealing with information, intelligence,
diplomacy, war and peace.
He was also expected to go on campaigns and administer conquered territory. He fixed his seal6f
approval on all letters passing through his l).ands.

11.
The Pandita Rao- The Pandita Rao was in charge of ecclesiastical Department and dealt with all
matters relating to religion and public morals.
Matters relating to ritual, conduct and atonement were decided by him. In matters relatil)-g to
punishment he was expected to act with discretion and benevolence.
12.
The Nyayadhish- The Nyayadhish had jurisdiction over all types of cases, civil and criminal and
delivered judgement under his signoture.
The rrtembrs of the Ashtapradhan had to perfo'rm a large variety of functions. With the exception of the
Nyayadhish and the Pandita Rao, every other minister was expected to render military service. In this
capacity they were known as Sar Karkuns because theyhad a number of Karkuns serving under the
Peshwa, Mantri and Sachiva. Shivaji kept the Ashtapradhan under his strictc;ntrol by appointing their
assistants and subordinote himself. Each Pradhan had one or two principal assistants. During the
absence of the Sar-Karkuns from the provinces the Government was made to work by Darakhdars while
for their duties at the centre during their absence there was a Mutlq. Both these categories of officers
were appointed by the Chatrapati ..
MILITARY ORGANIZATION
Shivaji' army consisted mainly of three classes of soldiers .. They were the Paga or Personal followers of
Shivaji, the Silahdars or the mercenaries recruited for a short period and Mawal Infantrymen. Shivaji
also possessed some guns which were mostly for the defence of forts. In Shivaji's military strategy,
elephants had litle utility.
Shivaji had organized the wholealmy under graded offices. A Havaldar commanded 25 Paga troops; a
Jumladar commanded 5 Havaldars; a Hazari was in charge of 10 Jamladars and a Panj Hazaricommanded
5 Hazaris.The Panj Hazaris had Sar_Naubat over them as the chief commander of thePaga troops. The
Silahdars (Cavarymen) were also organized on similar lines but they had their own offices in the lower
rungs while they had to submit to the authority of Sar Naubat of Paga. The infantry troops of Shivaji
were
highly efficient and many of his signal victories were the outcome of their heroic exploits. A Naik
commanded 9 Paiks (foot soldiers),
a Havaldar commanded 5 Naiks, 2 or 3 Havaldars were commanded by a Jumladar and 10 Jumladars by a
Hazari, while the Sar Naubat commanded 7 Hazaris. The entire Infantry and Cavalry force w'as headed
by the Senapti, while the Chatrapati was the commander- in-chief of the entire armed force of the
kingdom.
Shivaji enforced rigorous discipline. All cases of disobedience were punished in an exemplary manner.
During the rainy season, the troops were stationed in contonments. On the Dussehra day or soon after
it, the campaigns were started which were to continue for the next eight months. Before the soldiers
left their camps an

inventory of personal possessions of each soldiers was prepared and'

a copy of it was deposite<;l. with the Government. When the period of fighting was over, the troops
returned to the headquarters. During the campaign, the troops were supported by spoils of War. As the
approached the frontiers of their homeland, a body-search of each soldier was made of all that was
found in excess of his recorded property was seized. The light cavalry of the Marathas was best suited
for Shivaji's Guerilla tactics. He realized the value of a naval force and tried to build a navy for the
defence of the coastal regions and for the improvement of foreign trade. But the ships were inferior to
that of the English and Dutch ships. Forts played an important role in the military organization.
FISCAL POLICY
Shivaji considered Malik Amber's system as the ideal system
. but he made modifications wherever necessary. Land was measured by the Jarib which measured 5
Cubits 5 fists and was called Kathi. . The share of the state was fixed at 30% of the produce but later on it
was increased to 40% when other taxes were abolished. The cultivator was permitted to pay in cash or
in kind according to his convenience.
Shivaji ordered the Kulkarnis to undertake survey and measurement of land in the village by consulting
with the local peasants. He also made provisions of granting loans to the peasants to encourage
cultivation.
The collection of revenue from the village was entrusted to Havaldars who received 3 to 5 Huns a year.
Shivaji took care t.o prevet any office becoming hereditary.
CHAUTH AND SARDESHMUKHI ..
Shivaji claimed to be the hereditary Sardeshmukh of Maharashtra and claimed 10% of its revenues.
Prior to Shivaji's reign, the Sardeshmul Khan assisted in collection of revenues and received a
commission of 10% for their services.
Shivaji contended that the Muslim usuerpers had deprived him of this hereditary privilege. If they paid
him 10% of the revenue he would keep quiet otherwise he -,vould forcibly realize his dues. Usually
Shivaji had to suppress and extract the tax from most of his enemies.
When the enemy was defeated, he had to pay Sardeshmukhi to Shivaji.
When the right of levying Sardeshmukhi had been conceded, he made demand for Chauth. Shivaji
argued that although the land in question formed a part of Sardeshmukhi, opposition by Muslims had
forced him to maintain an army for realizing it ad protecting his rights. The responsibility for imposing
this needless expense on . him rested on the enemy who must therefore make good his loss by paying 1
14th of the total revenue.
This was called Chauth. Both these levies were realized by a demonstration of military force.

Shivaji had made Chauth and Sardeshmukhi as a means of extending his sphere of influence. The view of
Ranade is that Chauth was a military contribution without any moral and legal obligation.
It was a payment in lieu of protection against the invasion of a third power. The view of Sardesai is that
Chauth was a tribute realized form hostile or rival territories.
Shivaji got Chauth from the territories invaded by him with the promise that he would protect them
from other foreign invaders.
According to Prof. J.N.sarkar, "The payment of the Chauth merely saved the place from the unwelcome
presence of the Maratha soldiers and civil underlinks. The Chauth was only a means of buying off one
robber."
ESTIMATE OF SHIVAJI
Shivaji was a born leader with immense military capacity and skill. He was the real founder of the
Maratha kingdom. He was a formidable enemy of the Mughals. The Marathas regarded him as their
hero and a divine person to free them from the yoke of the Muslims rule. Shivaji was deeply religious.
He upheld the traditions . of Hinduism and believed in protecting it from the onslaught of the
Muslims. However, he was never a religious bigot. He passed an
order that whenever his troops led expeditions they had to refrain from polluting mosques and
destroying the Koran. Shivaji was a cultured and he followed a policy of religious tolerance. He showed
respect to religious texts of all religions. He declared himself as the protector of the Hindus, the
Brahmanas ,and the cows. However he ,, never destroy a single mosque. He patronized Muslim scholars
and saints also. He employed Muslims in civil and military deparemnts. When Aurangazeb issued a fresh
order reimposing the Jizya on all the Hindus, it became an open challenge as much to Shivaji as many
Rajput chiefs. Shivaji wrote a strong letter of protest to Aurangazeb. He wrote "God is the Lord of all
men and not of the Mohammedans only. Islam and Hinduism are only different pigments used by the
Divine painter to picture the Human species."

'

Shivaji inculcated the feeling of unity among the people of Maharashtra. His heroic deeds were like
great legends which inspired the common people. He displayed his military skill in facing the attacks of
Afzal Khan and ShayistaKhan. Shivaji was daring as a warrior and believed in self-discipline. Sir Jadunoth
Sarkar says that no blind fanotic, no mere brigand can found a state. Shivaji was a king among men. He
built an administrative system and raised a notional army without any foreign help. Shivaji brought the
different clans of Maharashtra under a single authority and imbibed in them the idea of fighting against
the Muslims who were threatening their integrity. He was not only the maker of Maratha notion but
also the greatest constructive genius of medieval India.
Shivaji is one of the most controversial personalities in Inidna history. For Hindus he appeared as a
messiah, while for the Muslims' he was somebody very different. It has been summed up in the words of
Khafi Khan as "an entrepreneur of rapine and a Hindu edition of Ala-ud-din or Tamarlane." But it also

appears that both are inclined to exaggerate the one or the other aspect of Shivaji's personality and
achievements. So it has been hardly possible for any person to accept the view of Khafi Khan in the light
of the enduring achievement of Shviaji.Both as a person and asa ruler, Shivaji occupies a distinguished
place in Indian history. His private is marked by a high standard of morality. He was a dutiful son, a
faithful husband, an affectionote brother and a loving father. He was a sincerly religious 'and he never
turned out to be a religious bigot on any occasion.
Shivaji also emerged as a person endowed with the qualities of establishing a separate Maratha
kingdom. He was a military genius
15\ and he excelled in Guerilla warfare. He baffled the Mughal generals by winning victories against all
odds. Shivaji was a wise judge of men and times and showed remarkable capacity in selecting his
generals, GovernoJ;s and diplomats. All the best elements of Maharashtra were in fact drawn to him. He
evolved an administrative system which reflected the harmonious blending of Hindu and Muslim
elements in his administrative system to suit political condition at that time and to promote the welfare
of the people of his kingdom.
The greatest achievement of Shviaji was the sense of unity which he instilled in 96 Maratha clans. He
brought them under a single Maratha banner. He opposed the Mughals when their power was at its
zenith. Such was the courage and confidence of Shivaji. All throught his life he remained as a menace to
the Mughals. He also instilled the feeling of patriotism in the Marathas. In the later years the Marathas
played an important role in opposing the sovereignty of the Mughals. During the rule of the Peshwas the
idea of HindPad-Padshahi developed due to the inspiration ofShivaji. However according to Prof:
Srivastava, Shivajiwas a realist, not a visionary and we have no concrete evidence to show that he ever
entertained such an ambition." The Swaraj that he founded did not survive long because of the inherent
defects which sapped its main foundation. According to Sarkar, "In proportion as Shivaji's ideal of a
Hindu 'Swaraj' was based on orthodoxy with all its attendant evils like casteism undermining once again
social solidarity. Further, Shivaji followed the Machiavellian principle that the end justifies the means."
Shivaji's policy has alo been criticized. He had sown the seeds of mutual suspicion and jealouy and
hatred among the nobles. Shivaji's policy of collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the neighbouring
regions, gave a provincial colour to his victory and failed to inspire any country-wide enthusiasm. These
plundering raids of Shivaji and his successors released in the country, forces of lawlessness, which
imperceptibly cleared the way before
another foreigner namely the English.

387

PLACES OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE

1.
Delhi- Delhi was the capital of the Chauhans. It was the seat of power of the Muslims who
established their rule at Delhi in 1206 A.D. Delhi was also the capital of the Mughals who started
their rule in 1526 A.D. "
2.
Devagiri- Devagiri was the capital of the Yadavas. Mohammadbin- Tughlaq transferred his
capital from Delhi to Devagiri and renamed it as Daulatabad.
3.
Warangal- Warangal was the capital of Kakatiyas. Ala-ud-Din Khalji and even Mohammad-binTughlaq attacked Warangal and f()rced the Kakatiya rulers to accept the sovereignty of the Delhi Sultans
..
4.
Dwarasamudra- Dwarasamudra in Karnotaka was the capital of the Hoysalas. Ala-ud-Din Khalji
and Mohammad-binTughlaq attacked DwarasamuQra. Dwarasamudra is also called as Halebid and is
famous for the Hoysaleshwara temple.
5.
Agra- Agra is famous for the Taj Mahal constructd by Shahjahan in memory of his beloved
queen, Mumtaz Begum. It is regarded as a lyric in marble and a symbol of eternal love.
6.
Surat- Surat in Gujarat was a flourishing trade centre. Akbar led an expedition and established
his control over it.
7.
Panipat- Panipat is the most famous battlefield in Haryana. He first battle of Panipat was fought
between Ibrahim Lodi and" Babur. The second battle of Panipat was fought between Akbar and Hemu in
1556.
8.
Rameshwara- Rameshwara in Tamil Nadu is famous for the famous Rameshwara temple. It was
also plundered by Malik Kafur, the general of Ala-ud-Din KhaljL
9.
Shivaneri- Shivaneri in Maharashtra was the birth place of Shivaji who established the famous
Maratha empire. He opposed the rule of the Mughal Emperor, Aurangazeb.
10.
Poona- Poona was the stronghold of the Marathas. Shivaji attacked Shayista Khan in his camp at
Poona and cut off his thumb.

388

11.
Ahmednagar- Ahmednagar was the capital of the Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar. Ahmednagar
was annexed to the Mughal empire during the rule of Akbar ..
12.
Fatehpur Sikri- Fatehpur Si:kri in Uttar Pradesh is famous for the tomb of Sheikh Salim Crusti
bywhose blessings Akbar begot children. So the monuments of Akbar's period are found in Fatehpur
Sikri. The Buland Dar,:",aza at Fatehpur Sikri was constructed by Akbar to commemorate his victory after
he conquered Gujarat.
13.
Chitoor';' Chittor in Rajasthan was the stronghold of the Rajputs of Mewar. Rana Ratan Singh of
Chit tor fought against Ala-udDin Khalji. The fort of Chitoor was occupied by Ala-ud-Din
Khalji: '
14.
Haldighati- In the battle of Haldighati fought in 1571, Maharana Prat1P Singh was defeated by
Akbar.
15.
Amrits.u- Amritsar is the holy place of the Sikhs and the Golden temple was constructed by the
Sikhs.
16.
Mewar- Mewarwas the stronghold of the Rajputs. Rana Sangha of Mewar and Maharana Pratap
Singh of Mewar carried on a relentless struggle against the Mughals.
17.
Mathura- Mathura was the major centere of the Jats. The Keshav Rai temple at Mathura was
destroyed during the period of Aurangazeb ..
18.

Ranthobhor- The fort of Ranthombhor during the rule of Akbar ..

19.

Pandharapura- Pandharapura in Maharashtra is famous for the Vittala temple.

20.

Jinjee- Shivaji followed an aggressive policy and occupied Jinjee.

J,

,
,.
, .Panipal

Amrils<lr

"

Delhi
Falehpur Sikri
Agra ' ,N1alhura
Mewar.

Haldighal

Chittor ,Ranlhombhor

INDIA
PLACES OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE

389

Sural .f
J

'Devagiri .Ahmed nagar Shivaneri

,Poona

',Warangal

Pandharapur
f
J
.i.
, ',nJee

,
Ramehwaram

390
INDIA

.'

EMPIRE OF ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI

f Kanauj .
Fatehpur Sikri.
Gwalior

-Oudh

Ranthomi{:)qr Kina 3
Malwa
"t

Delhi
Lakhna'utic

-'Gujrat
Ujjaini
13.
.
1O-f.;1I; ..

Devagiri
Orissa f
(Daul;tabad)

]A"

Warrangal .
Telangana (
Tanjorel
Madurai . "7. Rames,wara"",

391
INDIA
AKBAR'S EMPIRE
.'

"(

Lahore

Multan
Delhi
,
Kanauj

Malwa
Bihar

Sindh
AmarJ(ot Ranthamabhar
Fatehpur sikri, .
Lucknow
Allahabad
Gondwara

Khandesh Asirgarh Berar

Orissa

Vijayanagar
Kahchi
Bay of Bengal
Arabian sea
ill:.
Talijore
. " ,Ceylon t
Indian Ocean

392
Diu Daman " Kalyan
{ Ratnagiri ,.
Surhanpur MAHARASHTRA Nagpur
Ahmedanag.ar
Po6na 'Rajgarh 'Satara Kolhapur
'Sijapur ;
Raichur
.Sellary
KarwarZe<

olar A"1 . Madras

Sira 1<: V.IIo iPondichery .Gangee "''lO' Porto Nova

Cahcut "Bing810re

Mysor8.l'.tTanJore
Cochin f'"

Trichiapally

i
Cui Ian 'tj.t .

"Kalyan
INDIA
SHIVAJI'S EMPIRE

Dr. B. R. Parineetha holds a Masters Degree in History. In 1986, she passed her M.A. Examinotion by
secur'ing first rank and become the recipient of Bangalore University Gold Medal. In the same year she
was conferred the Jawharlal Nehru Memorial FundAward for being a meritorious student. She -has
secured M.Phil. Degree from Bangalore University in 2001.
A keen academician with immense competitive spirit, she contributed several articles to Competition
Success Review Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Some of her articles on current issues and issues of internotional
importance were published and some others were adjudged as highly commendable articles.
In 1994, she won the N.R. Chandran Memorial Fund Award, and in 1991 received the 'Ms. Intellectual
Award'. In 1991 she became the recipient of Ms. Super Brain Super Personality Award, which she
received from the Lok Sabha Speaker. In recognition of her all round achievement she was conferred the
'Outstanding Citizen of the Community Award' and 'Kalasha Award for Vocational excellence. 'She is
also, the redpient of Rotary foundation Award and she served us cultural ambassador in Los Angeles,
U.S.A.
She has penned textbooks ror both Pre-University and Degree Classes both in English and Kannada
medium. Pr;esently she is working as a Lecturer in History in Notional College, Jayanagar, Bangalore.
She has also secured Doctor of Philosophy Degree from Bangalore University.
BALAJI BOOK HOUSE
1/1, Resham Mahal, Sanjeev Naik Lane, Avenue Road Cross, Bangalore - 560002.