Flowing Wells

Learning Objectives
Production Technology
Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
Performance of Flowing Wells
Single phase
Two phase
Vertical Lift Performance

Single phase
Two phase
Professor Bahman Tohidi

Institute of Petroleum Engineering
Heriot-Watt University
Edinburgh EH14 4AS
Scotland
Tel: +44 (0)131 451 3672
Fax: +44 (0)131 451 3127
Email: B.Tohidi@hw.ac.uk
January 04
Flow Through Chokes

Matching Inflow and Tubing Performances
January 04
Introduction
Introduction
Production is generally limited by the pressure in
the reservoir and difficult to do something about it.
A major task is to optimise the design to maximise
oil and gas recovery.
Production by natural flow

Need for better understanding of various
concepts which define well performance.
Pressure loss occurs in:
the reservoir
the bottom hole completion
the tubing or casing
the wellhead
the flowline
the flowline choke
pressure losses in the separator and export
pipeline to storage
January 04
Production Performance
The nature of the fluid flow

Time taken for the pressure change in the
reservoir
Fluid to migrate from one location to another
Inflow performance of formation fluid flow

from formation to the wellbore.
Vertical lift performance as the fluids flow
up the tubing to surface.
Choke or bean performance as the fluids
flow through the restriction at surface.
Fluid Flow Through Porous Media
Production performance involves

matching up the following three
aspects:
January 04
January 04
For any pressure changes in the reservoir, it might

take days, even years to manifest themselves in
other parts of the reservoir.
Therefore flow regime would not be steady state
Darcys law could not be applied
Time dependent variables should be examined
January 04
Characterisation and Modelling of Flow

Patterns
Idealised Flow Pattern

They are:
Linear, Radial, Hemi-spherical, and Spherical
The actual flow patterns are usually complex,

due to:
1. The shape of oil formations and aquifers are
quite irregular
2. Permeability, porosity, saturations, etc are
not homogeneous
3. Irregular well pattern through the pay zone
4. Difference in production rate from well to
well
5. Many wells do not fully penetrate the pay
zone, or not fully perforated.
The most important cases are linear and

radial models, both used to describe the
water encroachment from an aquifer.
Radial model is used to describe the flow
around the wellbore.
January 04
January 04
Well Inflow Performance

P1
Definition
One Darcy is defined as the permeability which will
permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a
linear velocity of one centimeter per second for a
pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter.
Darcys Law
P1 P2 A
U=
Q K P1 P2
K P
=
=
A L
L
Q=K
Assumptions For Use of Darcys Law
P1 P2 A
L
10
10
Reservoir is horizontal and of

constant thickness h.
Constant rock properties and K.
Single phase flow
Reservoir is circular of radius re
Well is located at the centre of the
reservoir and is of radius rw.
Fluid is of constant viscosity .
The well is vertical and completed
open hole
Steady flow
Laminar flow
Rock 100% saturated with one fluid
Fluid does not react with the rock
Rock is homogeneous and isotropic
January
04
Fluid
is incompressible
12
12
Characteristics of the Flow Regimes
Radial Flow for Incompressible Fluids
January 04
Darcys Law
P2
January 04
Steady-State; the pressure and the rate distribution in

the reservoir remain constant with time.
Unsteady-State (Transient); the pressure and/or the
rate vary with time.
Semi-Steady State (Pseudo Steady-State); is a
special case of unsteady state which resembles
steady-state flow.
It is always necessary to recognise whether a well or
a reservoir is nearest to one of the above states, as
the working equations are generally different.
13
13
January 04
14
14
Coping with Complexities
Radial Flow for Incompressible Fluids
There are essentially two possibilities:
Two cases are of primary interest:

Steady state: The reservoir conditions does not
change with time.
1. The drainage area of the well, reservoir or aquifer is

modelled fairly closely by subdividing the formation
into small blocks. This results in a complex series of
equations which are solved by numerical or seminumerical methods.
Flow at r=re
Semi steady state or pseudo steady state:

Reservoir conditions changes with time, but dP/dr is
fairly constant and does not change with time.
No flow occurs across the outer boundary
Fluid production of fluids must be compensated for by the
expansion of residual fluids in the reservoir.
January 04
15
2. The drained area is represented by a single block in

such a way that the global features are preserved.
Inhomogeneities are averaged out or substituted by a
simple pattern. Here the equations of flow can be
solved analytically.
15
January 04
Steady State - Radial Flow of an

Incompressible Fluid
16
qr dr
q re dr
= r
2Kh r
2Kh rw r
[Pe Pw ] = qr ln( re )
2Kh rw
Pe
Pw
18
dP =
re
rw
[Pe - Pw ] is the total pressure drop across the reservoir and

is denoted the drawdown.
qr is the fluid flowrate at reservoir conditions.
If the production rate measured at standard conditions at
surface i.e. qs then qs.B = qr
Can be integrated between the limits of:

inner boundary i.e. the wellbore sand face: r = rw P = Pw
outer boundary i.e. the drainage radius: r = re P = Pe
16

A = 2rh
q
q
K dP
U= r = r =
A 2rh dr
q dr
dP = r
2Kh r
January 04
[Pe Pw ] =
18

January 04
qsB
r
ln( e )
2Kh rw
19
19

If the production rate measured at standard conditions at

surface i.e. qs then qs.B = qr
[Pe Pw ] =
qsB
r
ln( e )
2Kh rw
In field units, i.e., P and qs in psi and STB/day
[Pe Pw ] =
qsB re
1
ln( )
7.082 x10 3 Kh
rw
Highly supportive reservoir pressure maintenance

with water injection or gas reinjection.
Reservoir production associated with a substantial
qsB re
1
expanding gas cap. [P P ] =
ln( )
e
January 04
20
20
January 04
7.082 x10 3 Kh
rw
21
21
Semi Steady State Radial Flow of a

Slightly Compressible Fluid

dP
)r =r = 0
dr e
dP
( )r <re cons tan t
dr
P = f (t)
If there is no flow across the outer boundary, flow

occurs solely as a result of the expansion of fluid
remaining within the reservoir. The reservoir is
frequently defined as being bounded.
C=
1 V
.
V P
C is the isothermal coefficient of compressibility.
January 04
22
22
January 04

23
23

The application of Darcys law with the system

compressibility equation applied to cylindrical reservoir
volume, results in an equation which needs to be solved
analytically to give :
Pe has no physical significance.

Volumetrically averaged reservoir pressure should be
used.
q=constant
P
Pe
h
Pave
Pwf
rw
January 04
25
25
Radial Flow Theory for Single Phase

Compressible Fluids
January 04
re
26
26
Steady State Radial Flow for a Gas

Approximate solution - average pressure or P2
approach.
Oil, in most cases, can be considered as only

slightly compressible.
Gases, however, are highly compressible.
The prediction of inflow performance for gas wells is
more complex due to:
Gas viscosity is dependent upon pressure.
Gas compressibility is highly dependent upon pressure.
QR in bbls/day
Qs SCF/day
Conversion to SCF/day
January 04
Qs MSCF/day
27
27
January 04
30
30
Semi-Steady State Flow for a Gas System
Steady State Radial Flow for a Gas

Approximate solution - average pressure or P2
approach.
Using the bounded reservoir assumption and the

definition of isothermal compressibility:
Pwf2
Pwf
Q AOF = Absolute Open Flow

January 04
31
31
Multiphase Flow within the Reservoir
January 04
33
33
Multiphase Flow within the Reservoir
Only single phase flow, so far.

Most oil reservoirs will produce at a bottom hole
pressure below the bubble point, either: Initially where the reservoir is saturated
Or after production where the pressure in the pore space
declines below the bubble point, resulting in 2-phase flow
Saturations in pore space

Critical saturation
Connate water
Residual saturation
Absolute permeability
Relative permeability
January 04
So+Sw+Sg=1.0
Sc
Swc
Sor
K
kro=ko/K
34
34
2-Phase Flow, Vogels Equation
35
P r = 2400 psi
q o = 100 b/d
Pwf = 1800 psi
qo
1 0.2(
Pwf
Pr
) 0.8(
Pwf
Pr
=
)2
1 0.2(
100
= 250 b/d
1800
1800 2
) 0.8(
)
2400
2400
For P = 800 psi
This equation has been found to be a good representation of many

reservoirs and is widely used in the prediction of IPR curves for 2phase flow. Also, it appears to work for water cuts of up to 50%.
36
35
Find q omax and q o for Pwf = 800 psi, given the following data :
qo max =
qo
P
P
= 1 0.2( wf ) 0.8( wf )2
qomax
Pr
Pr
Vogels Equation, Example-1
A simplified solution was offered by Vogel. He simulated the PVT

properties and cumulative production from different wells on
computer to produce many IPR curves. These were then normalised
for pressure and producing rate. The curves produced represent
many different depletion drive reservoir. A single curve can be fitted
to the data with the following equation.
January 04
January 04
Pwf
Pwf 2
800 2
800
) = 211 b/d
qo = qo max 1 0.2(
) 0.8(
) 0.8(
) = 250 1 0.2(
2400
2400
Pr
Pr
36
January 04
37
37
Vogels Equation, Example, Cont.

If other values of Pwf
are chosen, sufficient
qos can be generated
to plot the curve, e.g.:
In this case there is a single Pr

phase liquid which exists
above the bubble point. Below
the bubble point the system
becomes 2-phase.
P
IPR
3000
2500
Pwf
qo
211
175
128
69
1500
500
0
0
100
qo
200
38
38
January 04
P r = 3000 psia
Pb = 2000 psia
k = 30 md
h = 60 ft
re = 2000 ft
rw = 0.4 ft
qo =
qo =
o = 0.68 cp
Find :
b. 1000 psia
40
40
41
Example-2, Solution
Re membering that the PI is the slope of the IPR, if Vogel' s equation

is differentiated it gives the PI.
iii) a. Pwf = 2500 psi, i.e. > Pb ,
0.2 1.6Pb
1 .8
- dqo
= qo max
+
= qo max
dPwf
Pb2
Pb
Pb
q = PI(Pr Pwf ) = 2.01 (3000 2500) = 1005 b/d

b. Pwf = 1000 psi, i.e. < Pb
P
qo max ( Vogel) = PI b
1 .8
1000
1000 2
qo(Vogel) = qmax( Vogel ) 1 0.2(
) 0.8(
) = 1563 b/d
2000
2000
qo(total) = qb + qo(Vogel) = 2010 + 1563 = 3573 b/d
2010
= 2.01 b/d/psi
3000 2000
Pb
2000
= 2.01
= 2233 b/d
1.8
1.8
= qb + qmax( vogel ) = 2010 + 2233 = 4243 b/d
qo max( vogel ) = PI
qmax( total )
0.2 1.6Pwf
0.2 1.6Pwf
dqo
- dqo
= qo max
= qo max
+
2
2
dPwf
dPwf
Pr
Pr
Pr
Pr
January 04
41
7.08 10 3 ko h( Pr Pwfs )
=
r 3
o B o (ln e )
rw 4
January 04
Example-2, Solution
therefore PI at Pb =
39
Pwf
Pwf 2
qo = qo max 1 0.2(
) 0.8(
)
P
Pr
r
ii ) q max , assuming Vogel IPR below Pb
and at Pwf = Pb PI =
39
7.08 10 3 30 60 (3000 2000)

= 2010 b/d
2000 3
+ 0)
0.68 1.2 (ln
0.4 4
ii) using Vogel beyond Pb
i) q b
January 04
qmax
i) There is no given PI above the bubble point,

therefore radial inflow equation is used :
7.08 10 3 ko h( Pr Pwfs )
r 3
o B o (ln e )
rw 4
iii) q o for Pwf of : a. 2500 psia
q
qb
Example-2, Solution
Given the following data :
Bo = 1.2
Vogel below Pb
300
Vogels Equation, Example-2
S=0
Straight line above Pb
The figure opposite shows the

IPR, which is a combined
linear-Vogel plot (i.e., straight
line above Pb and Vogel
below Pb with Pb substituted
for Pr).
1000
January 04
Pwf
2000
Pwf
800
1200
1600
2000
Vogels Equation, Combined Single Phase Liquid and 2Phase
42
42
January 04
43
43
Vogels Equation, Problems-1&2
Two Phase Flow: Effect of GOR
Problem - 1
Find qomax and plot IPR for the following data :
Pr = 1600 psig
Pb = 1600 psig
qo = 150 b/d
Pwf = 1000 psig
__________ __________ __________ _________

Problem - 2
Using the following data, find qb , qmax(total) , and q for Pwf = 2500 psi.
Pr = 4200 psi
Pb = 3000 psi
PI = 2 b/d/psi
Plot the IPR
January 04
44
44
January 04
Productivity Index (PI)
45
45
Oil Wells Productivity Index
Productivity index is a measure of the capability of a

reservoir to deliver fluids to the bottom of a wellbore.
It relates the surface production rate and the pressure

drop across the reservoir, known as the drawdown.
The Productivity Index (PI) is the ratio of

production to the pressure draw down at the
mid-point of the production interval
PI =
Qo
PR Pwf
PR = average reservoir presure
Pwf = flowing presure
To take into account the effect of the thickness of

producing interval and comparison of various wells,
the Specific Productivity Index is defined as:
Q o = oil flow rate
The productivity index is a measure of the oil well potential or ability

to produce and is a commonly measured well property.
PI is expressed either in stock tank barrel per day per psi or in stock
tank cubic metres per day per kPa.
January 04
47
47
Practical determination of PI
However, at high flow rate the linearity fails

and the productivity index declines, which
could be due to:
1- turbulence at high volumetric flow rates
2- decrease in relative permeability due to the
presence of free gas caused by the drop in
pressure at the well bore
3- the increased in oil viscosity with pressure
drop below bubble point
The flowing bottom hole pressure (Pwf) is recorded

- after the well has flowed at a stabilised rate for a
sufficient period (new wells)
- prior to shut in for the existing wells
50
49
49
Decline of PI at High Flow Rates
In both cases a subsurface pressure gauge is run into

the well
In most wells the productivity index remains

constant over a wide range of variation in
flow rate. Therefore, the oil flow rate is
directly proportional to bottom hole
pressure draw down.
The static pressure (PR) is measured by:

- prior to open a new well (after clean up)
- after sufficient shut in period (existing wells)
January 04
January 04
50
January 04
Qo
PI
PI
Flow rate
Drawdown
51
51
PI for Gas Reservoir in SS Flow
Gas Wells: Potential Curve
For gas wells, the equations commonly involve a P2

term, hence the PI is redefined in terms of this.
The productivity of a gas well is expressed by the

potential curve (or back pressure curve).
Q = C(Pwi2 Pwf2 )n
Q = volumetric flow rate
Pwi = shut - in reservoir pressure
Pwf = flowing sand face pressure
" C" and " n" are constants
log(Q) = log(C) + nlog(Pwi2 Pwf2 )

log(Pwi2 Pwf2 ) =
Parameters, assuming no
change in the fluid and
reservoir properties, should
remain constant. Hence, J
should be a constant.
January 04
1
1
1
log(Q) log(C) = log(Q) + C'
n
n
n
1
is the slope of the plot of (Pwi2 Pwf2 ) vs Q on a log - log paper.
n
n varies between 1 (laminar steady - state flow) and 0.5 (turbulent flow).
C is calculated from one stabilised point flow data.
53
53
January 04
54
54
Potential Curve: Practical

Determination
Gas Wells: Potential Curve
The potential curve is obtained either through a back

pressure test or an isochornal flow test.
Potential Curve
10000
Zero sand face pressure
Pwi^2-Pwf^2
1000
100
Absolute
Open
Flow (AOF)
Slope=1/n
10
Back pressure tests are used for formations with good

permeability, where the measured pressure at the end of
each flow period reaches a stabilised value.
1
1
10
January 04
100
q
1000
10000
55
A back pressure test consists of succession of four

increasing flow rates. The pressures are measured at
the end of a flow period at a given rate, after which the
rate is changed immediately to a new value without
closing the well.
55
January 04
q4
q2
An isochronal test consists of flowing the well at four

flow rates for period of equal duration. After each period
the well is shut-in for sufficiently long time in order to
reach static conditions with a satisfactory approximation.
t
Pwf1
Pwf2
An additional point is used from a run with an extended

flow period approximating stabilised conditions. A line
drawn through this point, with correct n represents the
true stabilised potential curve.
Pwf3
Pwf4
t
January 04
56
In low permeability formations where stabilised flow

conditions would be attained in a prohibitive time,
isochronal tests give better results.
q3
q1
Pwf
56
Potential Curve: Practical

Determination
Potential Curve: Back Pressure Test

q
57
57
January 04
58
58
Example 1
Potential Curve: Isochronal Test

q
q4
q3
q2
From a well test, it has been determined that

the performance constant, C of the well is
0.0037 (for qsc in MMSCF/D) and n=0.93.
Determine the flow rate when Pr=3000 psia
and Pwf=1850 psia. What is the Absolute
Open Flow (AOF) potential.
q1
t
Pwf
qqc = C Pr Pwf2
) = 0.0037((3000) (1850) )
n
2 0.93
AOF = 0.0037 (3000 )2 (0)2
0.93
= 6.96 mmscf/d
= 10.86 mmscf/d
t
January 04
59
59
January 04
Analyse the following isochronal well test data

Sand-face
Pressure
(psia)
2200
1892
1782
1647
1511
Flow Rate
(MMSCF/D)
Pwf
(psia)
2200
1892
1782
1647
1511
Afterwards, the well continued to produced at 6 mmscf/d and

reached a stabilised flowing sandface pressure of 1180 psia.
1180
Plot the deliverability curve and determine flow index and the
performance constant.
Determine AOF
January 04
61
61
Pr Pwf2 = (2200)2 0
January 04
Pr2-Pwf2
(psia)2
0
1.26 x 106
1.66 x 106
2.13 x 106
2.56 x 106
3.45 x 106
62
62
Perturbations from Radial Flow Theory for

Single Phase Flow
IPR were derived on the

assumption that radial
flow occurred
The formation was

assumed to be isotropic
and homogeneous.
However the basic

process of drilling and
completing a well will
cause changes in the
condition of the physical
flow process.
= 4.84106
AOF= 8.4 MMSCF/D
Pr -Pwf (psia )
Pwf2
qsc
(MMSCF/D)
(psia)2
0
4.84 x 106
2.8
3.58 x 106
3.4
3.18 x 106
4.8
2.71 x 106
5.4
2.28 x 106
Stabilised point
6.0
1.39 x 106
Plot (Pr2-Pwf2) v qsc on log-log paper.
Example 2: Isochronal Test- Solution

1.00E+07
60
The following table is prepared
Shut-in bottom
hole pressure
(psia)
2200
2200
2200
2200
2200
0
2.8
3.4
4.8
5.4
60
Example 2: Isochronal TestSolution
Example 2: Isochronal Test

Duration of
Test
(hours)
Shut-in
6
6
6
6
C=
=
qsc
2
(Pr Pwf2 )n
6
(3.45 10 6 )1.0
= 1.74 10 6
AOF= 1.74106
1.00E+06
1.E+06
Q (SCF/D)
1.E+07
1 log(4.0 106 ) log(1.0 106 )

= 1.0 n = 1.0
=
n log(8.8 106 ) log(2.2 106 )
January 04
(22002 02 )1.0 =
8.42MMSCF/D
63
63
January 04
64
64

Single Phase Flow

Single Phase Flow
These perturbations to radial flow may comprise the

following:
A zone of permanent or temporary permeability

impairment around the borehole due to mud,
completion fluid, and possibly cement filtrate
invasion.
A large number of wells are cased off and then

perforated.
Often, only a small section of the reservoir is to be

perforated (fluid convergence and vertical
permeability).
January 04
65
Perturbations from radial flow theory will generate an

extra pressure drop component which will affect the
the actual bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf.
where Pwf actual is the actual bottom hole flowing

pressure and Pwf ideal is the idealised bottomhole
flowing pressure which assumes true radial flow.
And PSKIN is the additional pressure loss associated

with the perturbation(s). It should be noted that most
of the perturbations will cause the PSKIN to be
positive and accordingly
65
January 04

Single Phase Flow
It should be noted that most of the perturbations will
cause the PSKIN to be positive and accordingly
For fractures, acid stimulations and for deep

perforations, there will be less resistance to flow and
hence
67
Pressure drop associated with these near wellbore

phenomena is termed a SKIN and is generally
defined as a dimensionless skin factor, S:
The pressure drop associated with these near

wellbore phenomena is termed a SKIN and is defined
as a dimensionless skin factor, S:
January 04
68
68
January 04
Skin Factor
67
Skin Factor
69
69
Skin Factor
The actual drawdown across the reservoir when a

skin exists, Pactual, can be related to the ideal
drawdown predicted from radial flow theory Pideal
and the skin pressure drop PSKIN by:
We can simply add the PSKIN to the radial flow

expressions developed earlier e.g. for steady state
flow of an incompressible fluid, by adding in the skin
pressure drop:
For compressible fluids
In field units
January 04
70
70
January 04
72
72
10
Tubing Performance
The pressure loss in the tubing can be a significant

proportion of the total pressure loss. However its
calculation is complicated by the number of phases
which may exist in the tubing.
It is possible to derive a mathematical expression

which describes fluid flow in a pipe by applying the
principle of conservation of energy.
The principle of the conservation of energy equates

the energy of fluid entering in and exiting from a
control volume.
January 04
73
73
January 04
Single Phase Turbulent Flow
It can be seen that

the pressure
gradient dP/dL is a
function of:
January 04
In flowing to surface,
the fluid will:
lose pressure
87
87
88
88
lose heat to the

surrounding
formations
January 04
Dry Gas Flow
Effect of Pressure
Gas is a low viscosity, low density fluid with a very
high coefficient of isothermal compressibility, e.g.,
Cg = 300 x 10-6 vol/vol /psi
As the gas flows to surface, its pressure will decline
and it will undergo the following changes:
For most gas production wells, the flow regime in

the tubing will be transitional or turbulent.
The relative
contribution of both
the frictional and
hydrostatic pressure
gradients as a
function of gas
flowrate
the density will dramatically decline

the potential energy or hydrostatic pressure gradient will
decline proportionally.
the gas will expand, resulting in an increase in velocity.
the frictional pressure gradient will increase
86
Expansion for high

compressibility fluids
Dry Gas Flow
January 04
86
Single Phase Turbulent Flow
Frictional pressure loss for single phase turbulent

flow will still be a function of velocity as in the case
for laminar flow, but the proportionality will be more
complex and a function of the relative roughness.
89
89
January 04
90
90
11
Single Phase Liquid Flow - Oil or Water
Effect of Pressure
In general, crude oil can be classified as slightly
compressible, the degree of compressibility being
dependent on the crude oil gravity - a light crude oil
with an API gravity of, say, 35 would be more
compressible than a heavier crude oil with an API
gravity of 20 API. A typical oil compressibility (Co )
would be 8 - 12 x 10-6 vol/vol/ psi.
Water is even less compressible and is frequently
considered to be incompressible (Cw = 6 - 8x10-6
vol/vol/psi).
January 04
92
For the flow up tubing of a single phase

liquid, the following will occur:
As the liquid flows upwards, the density will
decline by the order of 0.5 - 1.0% for every 1000
psi drop in pressure. The effect on hydrostatic
pressure gradient is minimal.
As pressure declines, the viscosity will decrease
slightly. Hence, for oil or water, the impact of flow
on the physical properties of the fluid will be
negligible and hence the increase in frictional
gradient will remain almost constant.
92
January 04
93
93
Procedure, Single Phase Flow
The pressure drop equation must be integrated in

order to calculate the pressure drop as a function of
flow rate (or velocity) and pipe diameter.
It should be combined with a continuity equation and
an equation of state to express velocity and density in
terms of pressure.
The equation can be integrated numerically by
dividing the pipe into small increments and evaluating
the gas or fluid properties at average pressure and
temperature in the increments. Small increments will
improve the accuracy.
January 04
94
94
January 04
The behaviour of gas in tubing strings is markedly

different. The flow of a gas-liquid mixture would be
more complex than for single phase flow.
Each of the phases, have individual properties such
as density and viscosity which is a function of P&T
and hence position in the well.
Some types of multiphase flow are:
97
96
98
98
In the production of a
reservoir containing oil
and gas in solution, it is
preferable to maintain
the flowing bottom hole
pressure above the
bubble point so that
single phase oil flows
through the reservoir
pore space.
Gas-Liquid Mixtures
Liquid-Liquid Flow
Gas-Liquid-Liquid
Gas-Liquid-Solid
Gas-Liquid-Liquid-Solid
January 04
96
Gas-Liquid Mixtures
Multiphase Flow in Vertical and Inclined Wells
97
January 04
12
Flow Regimes in Vertical 2-Phase Flow, Cont.

As the liquid moves up the tubing, the
pressure drops and gas bubbles
begin to form. This flow regime where
gas bubbles are dispersed in a
continuous liquid medium is known
as bubble flow.
As the fluid moves further up the
tubing, the gas bubbles grow and
become more numerous. The larger
bubbles slip upward at a higher
velocity than the smaller ones,
because of the buoyancy effect.
January 04
Mist
Flow
Annular
Flow
Slug or Plug
Flow
Single Phase
Liquid Flow
101
January 04
Not all these flow regimes will occur simultaneously

in a single tubing string, but frequently 2 or possibly
3 may be present.
In addition to flow regimes, the viscosity of oil and
gas and their variation with pressure and
temperature, PVT characteristics, flowing bottom
hole pressure (BHP), and tubing head pressure
(THP) affect the pressure gradient.
January 04
Bubble
Flow
Single Phase
Liquid Flow
102
102
These flow patterns have been observed by a

number of investigators who have conducted
experiments with air-water mixtures in visual flow
columns.
The conventional manner of depicting the
experimental data from these observations is to
correlate the liquid and gas velocity parameters
against the physical description of the flow pattern
observed.
Such presentations of data are referred to as flow
pattern maps. The map is a log-log plot of the
superficial velocities of the gas and liquid phases.
Annular
Flow
Slug or Plug
Flow
Bubble
Flow
Single Phase
Liquid Flow
103
Slug or Plug
Flow
Mist
Flow
Continued decrease in pressure with resultant

increase in gas volume results in a thinner and
thinner oil film, until finally the film disappears and
the flow regime becomes a continuous gas phase in
which oil droplets are carried along with the gas,
i.e., Mist Flow.
Annular
Flow
Still higher in the tubing, the gas pockets may have

grown and expanded to such as extent that they are
able to break through the more viscous oil slug. Gas
forms a continuous phase near the centre of the
tubing carrying droplets of the oil up with it. Along
the walls of the tubing there is an upward moving oil
film. This is Annular Flow.
Bubble
Flow
101
Mist
Flow
A stage is reached where these large bubbles

extend across almost the entire diameter of the
tubing. As a result, slugs of oil containing small
bubbles are separated from each other by gas
pockets that occupy the entire tubing cross section
except for a film of oil moving relatively slowly along
the tubing wall. This is Slug or Plug Flow.
103
January 04
104
104
Practical Application of Multiphase Flow

Flow pattern map
for a gas/water
mixture
January 04
105
105
Multiphase flow correlations could be used for:

1. Predict tubing head pressure (THP) at various rates
2. Predict flowing bottom hole pressure (BHP) at various rates
3. Determine the PI of wells
4. Select correct tubing sizes
5. Predict maximum flow rates
6. Predict when a well will die and hence time for artificial lift
7. Design artificial lift applications
The important variables are: tubing diameter, flowrate, gas

liquid ratio (GLR), viscosity, etc.
January 04
106
106
13
Flow Characteristics for Hydrocarbon

Reservoir Fluids Systems

Dry Gas
Gas Condensate
Since no liquid phase will be present under

any pressure conditions, the flow will be
monophasic.
At low liquid concentration at the dew point,

the liquid phase could be present as a mist
and as an annular film or subsequently a
slug at higher concentrations.
However, as flow continues up the tubing, the
gas will expand dramatically and any liquid will
transfer from slug to annular film to mist.
The above flow phenomena may be
particularly exacerbated if the fluid is a
retrograde condensate where liquid dropout in
the tubing may revaporise as it flows up the
tubing and the pressure declines.
Wet Gas
A wet reservoir gas will have small quantities
of liquid associated with it. As the gas flows to
surface, the pressure will decline to the dew
point, hence mist of particles in a continuous
gas phase.
Subsequent liquid deposition will emerge as
mist.
January 04
109
109
January 04
110
110
115
115

Volatile Oil
Flow Patterns
in a Horizontal
Pipe
A volatile oil is characterised by a high GOR and thus

as it flows to surface it may pass through all of the flow
patterns above, including the single phase regime if
Pwf>P BPt .
The range of patterns developed will depend on the flow
velocity and the GOR.
Black Oil
A black oil has a very low GOR and accordingly is
unlikely to progress beyond the bubble and slug flow
regimes into annular flow.
Heavy Oil
Heavy oil normally has a very low (or nonexistent) GOR
and as such it will vary from single phase oil to the
bubble flow regime.
January 04
111
111
Fluid Parameters in Multiphase Flow:

Slippage

Holdup
If a gas-liquid mixture flows up a tubing string, the

effects of buoyancy on the phases will not be equal.
The lighter of the phases will rise upwards at an
incrementally higher rate compared to the oil.
The slip velocity, Vs, is defined as the difference in
velocities of the two phases, ie, for a gas-oil system.
Vs= Vg- Vo
Particularly in the flow slug regime, the impact of
slippage is to assist in lifting the heavier phase (oil).
However if slippage is severe it can promote
segregated flow particularly in the low velocity
bubble flow regime.
January 04
118
January 04
118
Holdup is a term used to define the volumetric ratio

between two phases which occupy a specified
volume or length of pipe.
The liquid holdup for a gas-liquid mixture flowing in a
pipe is referred to as HL:
HL therefore has a value between zero and one.

Similarly, the gas holdup Hg is defined as:
January 04
119
119
14

Fluid Velocity
Practical Application of Multiphase Flow
A difficulty arises as to how to define the

velocity of a specific phase. There are two
options:
The first option is to define velocity based upon
the total cross-sectional area of the pipe.
The velocity in this case is termed the superficial
velocity.
A more accurate value for the velocity of each
phase is to correct for the holdup of each phase.
January 04
120
120
dP
dP
dP
dP
)Tot = ( )elev + ( )frict + ( )accel
dL
dL
dL
dL
January 04
123
123
A, B, C=Different
Tubing Head
Pressures
Flow regime
( v )
dP
)accel = m
dL
2gc dL
2
m
125
125
Pressure Transverse or Gradient Curves

By shifting the curves
downwards, he found that,
for a constant GLR,
flowrate and tubing size,
the curves overlapped
Then, a single curve could
be utilised to represent
flow in the tubing under
assumed conditions.
The impact was in effect to
extend the depth of the
well by a length which,
would dissipate the tubing
head pressure.
January 04
Hold up
January 04
Pressure Transverse or Gradient Curves
Most of the multiphase flow correlations can

be used with the following general procedure:
Use will be made of the general equation:
dP
)elev = m
dL
f v
dP
( )frict = m m m
dL
2gc d
1. Computer - recommended if time and

location permits
2. Working curves (pressure traverse or
pressure gradient curves) - for initial
estimation or when computer programme is
not available.
Multiphase Flow Models
There are two choices in conducting two

phase flow calculations in calculating vertical
lift performance of a well:
January 04
126
126
128
128
Gradient Curves
Gilbert was then able to
collect all the curves for a
constant tubing size and
flowrate on one graph,
resulting in a series of
gradient curves which
would accommodate a
variety of GLRs.
He then prepared a series
of gradient curves at
constant liquid production
rate and tubing size.
A, B, C=Different
Tubing Head
Pressures
127
127
January 04
15
Gradient Curves
January 04
129
129
January 04
130
130
132
132
134
134
Positive or Fixed Choke

This normally consists
of two parts:
A choke which consists
of a machined housing
into which the orifice
capability or "bean" is
installed.
A "bean" which consists
of a short length 1-6", of
thick walled tube with a
smooth, machined bore
of specified size.
January 04
131
131
January 04
Valve Seat with Adjustable Valve Stem
Rotating Disc Choke
In this design, the orifice

consists of a valve seat
into which a valve stem
can be inserted and
retracted, thus adjusting
the orifice size.
The movement of the
valve stem can either be
manual or automatic
using an hydraulic or
electrohydraulic
controller.
January 04
133
133
January 04
16
Choke Flow Characteristics
Critical Flow through Chokes
Chokes normally operate in multiphase

systems. Single phase can occur in dry gas
wells.
January 04
135
R=P2/P1
The value of R at the
point where the
plateau production
rate is achieved is
termed the
critical pressure ratio
Rc.
135
January 04
137
136
136

For a two-phase compressible mixture, say, oil and
gas, the sonic velocity will generally be lower than
that for a gas system, i.e., Rc =0.5 - 0.6
Critical flow behaviour is only exhibited by highly

compressible fluid such as gases and gas/liquid
mixtures.
For gas, which is a highly compressible fluid, the
critical downstream pressure Pc is achieved when
velocity through the vena contracta equals the
sonic velocity
this means that a disturbance in pressure or flow
downstream of the choke must travel at greater
than the speed of sound to influence upstream flow
conditions.
In general, critical flow conditions will exist when
Rc=<0.5
January 04
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
137
1.00
0.98
0.95
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
=Qg/(Qo+Qg)
January 04
138
138
January 04
140
140
Multiphase Flow through a Choke

A number of researchers have published studies on
multiphase flow through chokes.
Some of the studies relate to correlation of field
measurements.
PTH = tubing head flowing pressure in psia
Cd = constant
R =gas liquid ratio (MSCF/bbl)
Q =oil flowrate (STB/d)
S =bean size in 1/64"
Gilbert (435 is reported in some literature)
Achong (R in SCF/bbl)
January 04
139
139
17
10
20
Matching the Inflow and Tubing Performance

Method 1 - Reservoir
and tubing pressure
loss convergence in
predicting bottomhole
flowing pressure
64
January 04
141
141
January 04
142
142

Method 2 cumulative pressure
loss from reservoir
to separator
January 04
143
143
January 04
145
145
January 04
144
144
18

Flowing Wells

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Flowing Wells

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Learning Objectives

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

Performance of Flowing Wells

Vertical Lift Performance

Professor Bahman Tohidi

Performance of Flowing Wells

Flow Through Chokes

Production by natural flow

Performance of Flowing Wells

Performance of Flowing Wells

The nature of the fluid flow

Inflow performance of formation fluid flow

Performance of Flowing Wells

Performance of Flowing Wells

Fluid Flow Through Porous Media

Production performance involves

For any pressure changes in the reservoir, it might

Performance of Flowing Wells

Characterisation and Modelling of Flow

Idealised Flow Pattern

The actual flow patterns are usually complex,

The most important cases are linear and

Performance of Flowing Wells

Well Inflow Performance

Assumptions For Use of Darcys Law

Performance of Flowing Wells

Reservoir is horizontal and of

Performance of Flowing Wells

Characteristics of the Flow Regimes

Radial Flow for Incompressible Fluids

Performance of Flowing Wells

Steady-State; the pressure and the rate distribution in

Performance of Flowing Wells

Coping with Complexities

Radial Flow for Incompressible Fluids

There are essentially two possibilities:

Two cases are of primary interest:

1. The drainage area of the well, reservoir or aquifer is

Semi steady state or pseudo steady state:

Performance of Flowing Wells

2. The drained area is represented by a single block in

Steady State - Radial Flow of an

[Pe - Pw ] is the total pressure drop across the reservoir and

Can be integrated between the limits of:

Steady State - Radial Flow of an

Performance of Flowing Wells

Steady State - Radial Flow of an

Steady State - Radial Flow of an

If the production rate measured at standard conditions at

In field units, i.e., P and qs in psi and STB/day

Highly supportive reservoir pressure maintenance

Performance of Flowing Wells

Performance of Flowing Wells

Semi Steady State Radial Flow of a

Semi Steady State Radial Flow of a

If there is no flow across the outer boundary, flow

C is the isothermal coefficient of compressibility.

Performance of Flowing Wells

Semi Steady State Radial Flow of a

Performance of Flowing Wells

Semi Steady State Radial Flow of a

The application of Darcys law with the system

Pe has no physical significance.

Performance of Flowing Wells

__ _