Structure of the cell

Prof. Surangi Yasawardene

Cell

U
nits of measurement
SI UnitSymbol

Value

Micron
(micrometer)

(m)

Millimicron
(nanometer)

m (nm) 10-3m
10-6mm

Angstrom

10-3mm
10-6m

10-1nm
10-10m

Cell is the functional unit of all tissues.

Can perform individually all the essential life functions

Wide range of specialisations within tissues.

Tissues Aggregations of cells of a common type(s)

Function

Specialized Cells

Movement
Conductivity
Synthesis & Secretion
of mucous

Muscle Cell
Nerve Cell
Mucous gland cells

Range of morphological forms.

Yet a basic model of cell structure.

Light microscope limit of

resolution= 0.5 m
(500nm)
Electron microscope = 1nm (10)
Most cellular functions take place at
biochemical level

Cell

Cytoplas
m
Nucleus

Protoplas
m

Cytoplas
m
Nucleus

Hematoxylin and eosin stained preparations

Nucleus dark blue- Basic dye, H stains acidic structures
Cytoplasm pinkish Acidic dye, E stains basic structures
LM Individual cytoplasmic components are not clearly visible.
Plasma membrane (Plasmalemma)

Outer most component of the cytoplasm.

Separates from extracellular environment.
Selective barrier.

7.5-10 nm in thickness
Composed of
phospholipids
protein

polysaccharides
(lesser
amount)
In 1950s with EM
o Trilaminar ultra structure
o unit membrane concept

Bilayer of phospholipid
molecules.

Weak intermolecular
forces
o Hold the bilayer
together
o Allow phospholipid
molecules to move
relatively freely
within each layer

Integral proteins
extending through
the entire thickness
of the membrane
function as pores

Proteins>50% w/w

Integral

Peripheral

Incorporated
within the
lipid bilayer

Glycolipids

Loose
association
with
membrane
surfaces

Fluid mosaic model

of membrane
structure.
Proposed in early
1970s by Singer &
Nicholson

Glycoproteins
Project from the surface of the
bilayer
Cell recognition
Intercellular adhesions
Adsorption of molecules to the cell surface

Transport across plasma membranes

1. Passive diffusion
According to the concentration gradient
o HCO3- ions
o Urea moleculesStrictly passive
2. Facilitated diffusion
o Concentration dependent
o Larger hydrophilic metabolites- glucose, aminoacids
o Requires carriers
o Strictly passive
3. Active transport
o Independent of concentration gradient
Sodium pump
o Energy (ATP) required
4. Bulk transport
Engulfment of large molecules or small particles by cytoplasmic
extensions.
Pinocytosis Small
Phagocytosis Large

vacuoles
Endocytosis
vacuoles
Membrane Specialisations

Apposed surfaces of cells are linked by several different types of

membranes and cytoskeletal specialisations.
Cell junctions
Form a continuous layer
communicate to achieve functional requirements.

3 types1)Occluding junctions (Tight junctions, Zonula occludens)

Immediately beneath luminal surfaces.
Seal the intercellular spaces.

2)Adhering junctions (Zonula adherens or desmosomes-Macula

adherens)
Tightly bind the constituent cells
Act as anchorage sites for the cytoskeleton of each cell so that
cytoskeletons are linked to functional unit
2 types
Zonula adherens
Adhering junctions forming continuous band around the cell (in
columnar cells)
Structural reinforcement to the occluding junction
Desmosomes (Macula adherens)
Small circular patches
Arranged deep to continuous adhering junctions
Zonula occludens
Zonula adherens
Desmosomes

Junctional Complex

3) Communicating junctions (Gap junctions, nexus junctions)

Circular intercellular contact area containing tiny pores.
Permit passage of small molecules between adjacent cells.
Ions involved in electrical excitation of cell membrane.
Nutrients
Chemical signaling agents
Luminal Surfaces
Cilia
Microvilli
Stereocilia-Long microvilli
Found singly or in small numbers
Not motile
Basal Surfaces
Hemidesmosomes-inner aspect of basal plasma membrane
Anchorage of cell via cytoskeleton to the basement membrane
Cell Junctions
Epithelial cells are bound together by several types of plasma membrane
specialisations
Desmosome(macular adherens)
Commonest type
Scattered throughout intercellular interfaces
Act as anchorage points for the cytoskeleton
2) Gap junctions (Nexus)

Functions as adherent zone.

Permits transfer of information and metabolites between adjacent
cells
3) Tight junction
Just below the luminal surface.
Outer laminar of opposing plasma membrane are fused with one
another
Areas which are not fused present.
4) Adherent junctions
Deep to the tight junctions.
Opposing plasma membranes diverge.
On the cytoplasmic aspect fine mat of filamentous material
Cytoplasm
Organelles
Enclosed in a membrane
Contain enzymes that participate in cellular
metabolic activity
Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes
Inclusions
Temporary component of certain cells.
Accumulation of pigments, lipids, proteins or carbohydrates
May or may not be enclosed in a membrane.

Other components
Not enclosed in membrane.
Do not participate directly in cellular
metabolism.
Centrioles, Microtubules, Microfilaments.
Sub cellular elements- Organelles
Organelles are suspended in a fluid medium called- Cytosol (hyaloplasma)
Mitochondria
Elongated, cigar-shaped organelles.

Mitochondria
Aerobic respiration takes place within the matrix and inner membrane.

Matrix contains DNA arranged as a

circle.
Matrix also contains ribosomes.
Size, shape and arrangement of cristae
vary according to the metabolic status
of the cell type.
More freely
within the
Matrix - Amorphous substance,
cytosol.
Dense matrix granules

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Network of tubules, vesicles and
flattened cisternae. Ramifies throughout the cytoplasm
Membranes of the ER frequently continuous with the nuclear envelope
membrane.

Ribosomes
Small, electron dense particles.
15-20 nm in diameter
Attached to the outer surfaces of the membranes.
Composed of RNA and protein.
2 Classes
Ribosomes
Consists of 2 different sized subunits that are synthesized in the nucleoli.
Isolated granules free in cytoplasm or in groups polysomes.
Protein is synthesized on the ribosomes of the rough ER.
Golgi Apparatus
Group of piled-up flat vesicles with peripheral dilatations.
Plays a role in the process of synthesis, concentration and storage of
secretory products of most glandular cells.
In secretion products consisting of protein-carbohydrate complexes, the
carbohydrate is added in Golgi apparatus.
Lysosomes
Membrane-bound organelles containing a granular, amorphous material.
Contains about 12 different enzymes.
Secondary lysosomes recognized by their diverse particulate content.
Some electron-dense
Distinction between residual bodies and secondary lysosomes difficult.
Autophagy degradation of cellular organelles.

Lysosomes
Inclusions
Lipid droplets
Variable size and electron density.Not bound by a membrane.
In usual stained slides these have been dissolved out and
represented as holes.
Seen in liver.
Carbohydrate / Glycogen
Single, minute dense granules particles
Or
aggregations glycogen rossettes ( particles)
Glycogen is dissolved by aqueous fixatives, but can demonstrate by fixing
in absolute alcohol.
Pigment granules
Melanin, lutein and lipochrome
Crystals
Secretory granules
Synthesized in close association with the ER.
Other Components
Microfilaments
Minute filaments of the cytoskeleton.
Mixed population of filamentous proteins- protein Actin
Arranged as bundles tonofibrils
Tonofibrils converge upon the plasma membrane in the region of certain
types of intercellular junctions.
Integrates the plasma membrane into the cytoskeleton.
Microtubules
Tubular structures of cytoskeleton.
Demonstrate in the cytoplasm of many cell types.
Major elements of a supporting framework.
Composed of a globular protein tubulin (arranged in a closely packed
helical manner)
Tubulin subunits disaggregate and reaggregate readily.
Dynamic, rather than static framework.

Direct intracellular transport by acting as guide rails for the movement

of organelles such as mitochondria or secretory vesicles.

Centrosome
Zone of cytoplasm usually centrally located in the cell adjacent to the
nucleus.
A pair of centrioles a diplosome
Involved in formation of the mitotic apparatus
Each centriole nine triplets of parallelmicrotubules.
The 2 centrioles are arranged with their long axes at right angles to each
other.
During prophase 2 pairs of centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the
cell but remain connected to each other via the microtubules of the
mitotic spindle.
Nucleus
Largest organelle.
Nuclear envelope separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm.
Contains DNA 20%
Protein - nucleoprotein
RNA newly synthesized mRNA
transfer RNA
ribosomal RNA
Nuclei appear as heterogenous structures with electron-dense and
electron-lucent areas.
Heterochromatin Not active in protein synthesis. Clumpled around the
periphery and throughout the nucleus.
Barr body In females, the quiescent X chromosome. Small discrete mass.
Euchromatin Electron-lucent nuclear material. Represents part of DNA
which is active in protein synthesis (RNA synthesis)
Many nuclei of cells highly active in protein synthesis contain 1 or more
extremely dense structures called nucleoli.
These are sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis.
Nuclear Envelope
2 layers of membrane.
Space between these layers is continuous in places with cisternae of the
ER.

Nuclear envelope considered as a specialized region of ER.

Outer surface of the outer nuclear membrane studded with ribosomes.
Nuclear pores perforations in the nuclear membrane.
At the margins of which inner and outer membranes become continuous.
The membrane at the periphery is thickened and closed by a diaphragm
of unknown structure.
Permit exchange of metabolites between nucleus and cytoplasm.