RADIAN ACADEMY

MATHS for GROUP-I EXAM E-Copy

NATURAL NUMBERS:
The set of the natural numbers is denoted by N, thus.
N = {1, 2, 3, 4 . . . . }
Remember : 0 (zero) is not a natural number and set of
natural numbers is infinite.
WHOLE NUMBERS:
The set of whole numbers is denoted by W, thus.
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . . }

MATERIALS

i)

PURE RECURRING: Decimal in which all the

figures after the decimal point are repeated, is
known as a pure recurring decimal such as
0.666666., 0.2626262626 etc, are pure
recurring decimals.

ii)

MIXED RECURRING: A decimal in which at least

one figure after the decimal point is repeated is
known as a mixed recurring decimal.
0.17777777., 0.2959595959595. etc, are
called mixed recurring decimals.

INTEGERS : Natural numbers, along with their negatives

including 0 (zero) are called Integers.
The set of integers is denoted by I or Z thus
RATIO
I = { ., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .}

RATIO & PROPORTION

The ratio of two quantities a and b in the same

RATIONAL NUMBERS : A number of the form p/q. where units, is the fraction a and we write it as a : b.
b
p and q are integers and q 0 is called a Rational
Number.
In the ratio a : b, we call a as the first term or
The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q thus,
Q = { p/q : p, q are Integers and q 0}

antecedent and b, the second term or consequent.

Example: The ratio 5 : 9 represents

5
with antecedent
9

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS: A number which cant be 5, consequent 9.

expressed in the form p/q is called an Irrational Number.
INCOMMENSURABLE: If the ratio of two quantities
Thus, 2. 3, 7, 42, 618 are irrational numbers.

can not be expressed as the ratio of two integers it is

REAL NUMBERS: The rational and irrational numbers said to be incommensurable. As an example the ratio
taken together constitute Real Numbers.

2.

of the side of a square to its diagonal is 1 :

The set of real numbers is denoted by R.

PROPERTIES:
a) If both the quantities x and y of a ratio are
ABSOLUTE VALUE: The Absolute Value of a real
multiplied or divided by the same quantity, the
number is that number, which is obtained by dropping
result does not change.
the sign of the real number if any and is denoted by b) Two or more ratios can be compared by making
placing the real number with in the symbol | | .
their denominator same.
Thus, |-7 | =7 , |-9.64 | = 9.64, |25| = 25

Note: In general an even number is represented as 2n,

n N, and an odd number as (2n-1) where n N

EXAMPLE: 4 : 5 = 8 : 10 = 12 : 15 = 4/7 : 5/7 etc.

1. Compound Ratio: Ratios are compounded by

multiplying together the antecedents for a new
antecedent, and the consequents or a new
consequent. The compounded ratio of the ratios
(a: b) , (c : d) & (e : f) is (ace : bdf).
Thus the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 are prime numbers.
PRIME NUMBERS: A natural number that is divisible by 1
and itself only is called a Prime Number.

:
COMPOSITE NUMBERS: A natural number that is 2. If a : b is the given ratio, then
a
b
neither 1 nor a prime number is called a Composite
called
its
inverse
or
reciprocal
ratio.
number.
Thus the numbers 4, 6, 8, 10,. 12, 14 . . . . are composite
numbers.

or b : a is

3. Comparison of Ratios: ( a : b) > (c : d ) if

a
b

>

c
d

4. If the antecedent = the consequent, the ratio is

called the ratio of equality. Ex. 3 : 3.
NOTE: Number 1 is neither a prime number nor a
composite number.
5. If the antecedent > the consequent, the ratio is
called the ratio of greater inequality. Ex. 4:3.
RECURRING OR REPEATING DECIMALS:
In
repeating decimals a digit or a block of digits repeats 6. If the antecedent < the consequent, the ratio is
called the ratio of less inequality. Ex. 3:4.
itself again and again. We represent such decimals by
putting a bar on repeated digit or digits.
7. Duplicate ratio of a : b is (a2 : b2)
8. Sub-duplicate ratio of a : b is ( a :

b)

9. Triplicate ratio of a:b is (a3 : b3)

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10. Sub-triplicate ratio of (a : b) is (a1/3 : b1/3)

VARIATION
If x is Directly Proportional to y, then x = ky for
11. If sum of two numbers is A and their difference is a some constant k and we write it as
xy
then the ratio of the two numbers is (A+a):(Aa).
If x is Inversely Proportional to y then xy = k for
12. The ratio between two numbers is a:b. If each some constant k and we write ,
number is increased by x, the ratio becomes c:d,
1
x
Xa(c d )
Xb(c d )
y
then the two numbers are
and
.
ad bc
ad bc
CONTINUED PROPORTION: When the first is to the
second as the second is to the third, as the third is to
13. A number which when added to the terms of the the fourth, and so on, are equal they are said to be in
ad bc
continued proportion i.e.
ratio a:b makes it equal to c:d is
c d

x y z t u
= = = = = .......
y z t u m

14. The incomes of persons are in the ratio a:b and

their expenditures are in the ratio c:d. If each of them The quantities x, y, z, t, u, m are said to be in continued
saves Rs. X, then their incomes are given by proportion.
Xa(d c )
Xb(d c )
RESULTS:
and
.
1. Four quantities are in proportion if and only if,
ad bc
ad bc
product of the extreme terms is equal to the
product of middle terms and conversely.
15. If in x litres mixture of milk and water, the ratio of
milk and water is a:b, the quantity of water added to
2. If three quantities are in continued proportion then
ad bc
be added in order to make it equal to c:d is
the product of the extreme terms is equal to the
c d
square of the middle terms.
PROPORTION
The equality of two ratios is called Proportion.
3. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM: If three quantities
If a/b = c/d, then a, b, c, d are proportional. This
are in continued proportion then the ratio of first to
can be expressed as a : b = c : d or a : b :: c : d. Here
third is the squared ratio of the first to second.
a and d are called extremes, while b and c are called
mean terms.
PERCENTAGE, PROFIT, LOSS AND DISCOUNT
1. Product of means = Product of extremes.
Thus if, a : b :: c : d, then bc = ad.
2. Fourth Proportional
If a:b = c:d, then d is called the fourth proportional
to a, b, c.
3. Third Proportional
If a : b = b : c, then c is called the third proportional
to a and b.
4. Mean Proportional
Mean proportional between a and b is ab .
5. Invertendo
If

b
d
a
c
=
, then
=
b
d
a
c

6. Alternendo
If

a
b
a
c
=
, then
=
b
d
c
d

7. Componendo
If

a+b c+d
a
c
=
, then
=
b
d
b
d

8. Dividendo
If

ab cd
a
c
=
, then
=
b
d
b
d

9. Componendo-Dividendo
If

c
a+b
c +d
a
= , then
=
b
d
ab
c d

a)

Gain % = (Gain x 100)

CP
b)
Loss % = (Loss x 100)
CP
c)
SP =
(100 x Gain %) x CP
100
d)
SP =
(100 Loss %) x CP
100
e)
CP =
100 x SP
(100 + Gain %)
f)
CP =
100 x SP
(100 Loss %)
TRADE DISCOUNT: The discount is always given on
the marked price. Successive discounts are attractive
to the buyer but profitable to the seller e.g. two
discounts of 20% and l10% come out to be only 28% to
the purchaser. As a matter of fact purchaser thinks it
30% discount.

SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTEREST

COMPOUND INTEREST: Compound interest is
defined as the interest which is every time added to the
principal whenever it is due. Addition is done after a
fixed period, usually after a year. After the interest is
added to the principal, the total amount acts as
principal. Thus the difference between the original
principal and final amount is called compound interest.

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PRINCIPAL: The money lended on interest is called

principal or sum.
Thus , if V is the value at a time t and R% p.a is the
rate of depreciation, then the value of machine after n
SIMPLE INTEREST: The extra money paid by the years is given by
borrower is called interest.
n
AMOUNT: Amount Principal Interest.

= V x 1

100

Formulae for Simple Interest: If P, R and T are Amount after T years is given by
principal, rate and time then S.I. is given by
T
R

P R T
A = P 1

S.I. =
100

100
100 S .I .
P=
R T
100 S .I
R=
P T
100 xS .I
T=
P R

NOTE:
(a) For 2 years the difference between the compound
interest and the simple interest is equal to simple
interest for 1 year on 1st years interest.
(b) The amount of the previous year is the principal for
the successive year.
(c) The difference between the amount due at the end
of two consecutive years = simple interest for one year
on the lesser amount.
COMPOUND INTEREST: CI = Amount P
(d) When the interest is payable half yearly, divide the
If P = principal, R = rate % p.a. and T = time (years) rate by 2 and multiply the time by 2.
then
(e) When the interest is payable quarterly or once in
(a) Amount after T years (compounded annually)
1/4th year divide the rate by 4 and multiply the time by
r
4.
R

(f) There is no difference between simple interest and

= P 1 +

100
compound interest on the principal for first year. C.I , is
more that S.I. after one year.
(b) Amount after T year (compounded half yearly)

= P 1 + 2
100

2T

REMAINDER THEOREM: Let f(x) be a polynomial of

degree greater than or equal to one and a be any real
number. If f(x) is divisible by (x-a) , then the remainder
is equal to f(a).
In this case rate becomes half and time becomes Example: Determine the remainder when the
polynomial f(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 2x + 1 is divided by (x-1).
double.
(c) If the rate be p% , q%, and r% during first year,
second year and third year, then amount after 3 Solution: By remainder theorem, the required
remainder is equal to f(1).
years.
Now, f(x) = x3 3x2 + 2x + 1
p
q
r

=> f(1) = 1 3 + 2 + 1 = 1.
=P 1 +

1 +
1 +
Hence , the required remainder is equal to 1.
100 100 100
POPULATION GROWTH FORMULAE:
a)
If P is the population and R % is the growth rate FACTOR THEOREM: Let f(x) be a polynomial of
degree greater than or equal to one and a be a real
then in n years population will be
number such that f(a) = 0, then (x-a) is a factor of f(x),
n
R

Conversely, if (x+a) is a factor of f(x), then f(-a) =0.

= P x 1 +

100

b) If p% is the growth rate during first year and q% REMARK:

during second year then the population after 2 years is i) (x+a) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) if f(-a) =0.
ii) (ax-b) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) if f(b/a) = o
given by.
iii) ax + b is a factor of a polynomial if f(-b/a) = o
p
q

iv) (x-a) (x-b) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) if f(a) = 0

= p 1 +

1 +
100 100
and f(b) = 0.
TIME, SPEED & DISTANCE
This formula can be used for more than two years.
c) If R % per annum is the decrease in population
SPEED: Distance covered per unit time is called speed.
then after n years.
=px

1
100

Speed =

Distance
Time

Distance = Speed Time (or) Time = Distance/Speed

DEPRECIATION: It is a well known fact that the value

If the speed of a body is changed in the ratio a : b then the ratio
of a machine or car or any other article decreases with of the time taken changes in the ratio b : a
time due to wear and tear. The decrease in value is
called depreciation value.
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NOTE: Distance is normally measured in kilometres, metres or If a body covers part of the journey at speed x and the remaining
miles; Time in hours or seconds and Speed in km/hr (kmph), part of the journey at speed y and the distances of the two parts
miles/hr (mph) or metres/second (m/s).
of the journey are in the ratio m : n, then
To convert speed in kmph to m/sec, multiply it with 5/18.
To convert speed in m/sec to kmph, multiply it with 18/5.

AVERAGE SPEED: Average speed of a body travelling at

different speeds is defined as follows.
Total distance travelled
Average Speed =
Total time taken

The average speed for the entire journey is

( m + n ) xy
xn + ym

TRAINS
1. Time taken by a train of length d metres to pass a pole or
a standing man or a signal post is equal to the time taken by
the train to cover d metres.

NOTE: The average speed of a moving body is NOT EQUAL to 2. Time taken by a train of length d1 metres to pass a
stationary object of length d2 metres is the time taken by the
the average of the speeds.
train to cover (d1 + d2) metres.
A body travels from point A to another point B with a speed of x
kmph and back to point A (from point B) with a speed of y kmph. 3. If two trains or two bodies are moving in the same direction
at u m/s and v m/s, where u > v, then their relatives speed = (u
v) m/s.
x kmph

y kmph

4. If two trains are moving in opposite directions at

u m/s and v m/s then the relative speed is = (u + v) m/s.

Let AB = d, the time taken by the body to travel from A to B be

5. If two trains of length a metres and b metres are
t1 and that from B to A be t2.
moving in opposite directions at u m/s and v m/s, then time
Then t1 = d/x and t2 = d/y. The total distance travelled is 2d.
a+b
sec.
taken by the trains to cross each other is
2d
2d
2d
u+v
=
Average Speed =
=
d d
1 1
t1 + t 2
6. If two trains of length a metres & b metres are moving
+
d +
x y
in the same direction at u m/s and v m/s, then the time taken by
x y
a+b
2
2 xy
=
=
sec.
the faster train to cross the slower train is
1 1
x+y
u v
x + y
7. If two trains A & B start at the same time from points

P and Q towards each other and after crossing they take

a secand b sec in reaching B and A respectively, then
2xy
kmph
Average Speed =
x+y
(As speed): (Bs speed) = ( b : a )
NOTE: This formula does not depend on the distance
between A and B. This formula can be used only if the distances
BOATS AND STREAMS
travelled in each case are equal.

If the entire journey AD is travelled with the different speeds, A

to B with a uniform speed of x kmph, B to C with a uniform
speed of y kmph and C to D with a uniform speed of z kmph
such that AB = BC = CD.
x kmph

y kmph

z kmph

A
BC
D
The average speed from A to D is given by the formula
Average Speed =

3
1 1 1
+ +
x y z

3
yz + zx + xy
xyz

1.
In river, the direction along the stream is called
downstream and, the direction against the stream is called
upstream.
2.
If the speed of a boat in still water is u km/hr and the
speed of the stream is v km/hr, then:
Speed of boat in downstream = (u + v) km/hr.
Speed of the boat in upstream = ( u v) km/hr.
3.
If the speed downstream is x km/hr and the speed
upstream is y km/hr, then:
Speed in still water = (x + y)/2 km/hr
Rate of stream
= (x y)/2 km/hr.

RACES AND CIRCULAR TRACK

Let the two persons A and B with respective speeds of a

and b (a > b) be running around a circular track (of length L)
starting at the same point at the same time.
Running in the Running in the
In general the n equal distances are travelled with the speeds
SAME direction
OPPOSITE dir.
of x1 kmph, x2 kmph, ...., xn kmph, then the average speed is Time taken to meet
given by
FIRST
for
the
L
L
TIME some where
n
kmph
Average Speed =
a b
a+b
on the track.
1 1
1
Time taken to meet
+ + .... +
for the first time at
x1 x2
xn
L L
L L
the
same LCM ,
LCM ,
STARTING
a b
a b
NOTE: The above is the harmonic mean of n numbers.
POINT.
Average Speed

3 xyz
xy + yz + zx

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

THREE PERSONS

A general quadratic equation is expressed as

2
Let the three people A, B and C with respective speeds of a , b ax + bx + c = 0, where a0; a, b and c are constants.
and c (a > b > c) be running around a circular track (of length L) Roots of the quadratic equation:
starting at the same point at the same time in the same
A quadratic equation has two roots and given by
direction.
CLOCKS

How many times the hands of a clock Coincide or making

o
an angle 0 or lie in a straight line facing same direction
in a day?

Note: Day in a problem means 24 hours not 12 hours.

Time taken to meet

for the FIRST TIME
on the track.

LCM

L
L
,

a b b c

Time taken to meet for

the first time at the
STARTING POINT.

LCM

L L L
, ,
a b c

In 12 hrs, the two hands of the clock coincide once in every 1

hour. Between 11 and 12, the coincidence is at 12 O' clock. =
Between 12 and 1, there is no further coincidence, because it
coincides at 12. In 12 hrs, the two hands of the clock coincide
11 times only. In a day, the two hands coincide 22 times.

b b 2 4ac
2a

I. If D = b2 4ac > 0 the roots are real and distinct.

II. If D = b2 4ac = 0 the roots are real and equal.
III. If D = b2 4ac < 0 the roots are imaginary.
RELATION BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
If and are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

How many times the hands of a clock are at right angles in

then
a day?

Every one hour, the two hands are at right angles twice, except
between 3 & 4 and 9 & 10.
Considering 2 to 3 they are at right angles for first time
between 2:25 to 2:30. For the second time they are at right
angles at 3. Between 3 and 4, they are at right angles only
once. (ie) between 3.30 and 3.35.
Similar argument holds for 9 & 10.
The hands of a clock are at right angles 22 times in 12 hrs.
In a day, 44 times they are at right angles.

and =

How many times the hands of a clock are at 180 or lie in a

The quantity D = b2 4ac is known as the discriminant.
straight line but facing opposite direction in a day?

In 12 hrs, the two hands of the clock at straight angle once in

every 1 hr.
Between 5 and 6, the angle between them is 180 at 6 O' clock
only. Also, between 6 O' clock and 7 O' clock, they will not be
at 180 as it start from 180.
In 12 hrs, 11 times. In 24 hrs, 22 times, they are at 180.

b + b 2 4ac
2a

How many times the hands of a clock lie on the same

straight line in a day?

+ =

-b
c
and =
a
a

Hence x2 ( + ) x + = 0 (or) (x ) (x ) = 0
HIGHER DEGREE EQUATION:
P(x) = a0xn + a1x n-1 + . + a n-1 x + an = 0
Where the coefficients a0, a1, . an and a0 0 is called
an equation of nth degree, which has exactly n roots
1, 2, n.
i = 1 + 2 + .n

a1
a0

ij = 12 + + n-1n = -

a2
a0

The two hands lie on the same straight line, when they coincide
an
and when they are at straight angle.
i = 1 2 n = (-1)n
a0
In 12 hrs. the hands of the clock lie on the same straight line 22
times.
In a day, they lie on the same straight line 44 times.
FUNCTION
The following table sum up the above discussions:

Angle b/w the hands

Number of times
12 hrs
24hrs (Day)

0 (Coincidence)
180 (Straight Angle)
0 or 180
(Straight line)
90 (Right angle)

11
11
22

22
22
44

22

44

A function from X to Y is defined as a relation X x Y

such that no two different ordered pairs of the relation
have the same first component and every element of X
has an image in Y.
It is denoted by f : X Y or X x Y
DOMAIN: Domain of a function is the set of values of
a, when (a, b) belongs to the function.

MINUTE HAND
In 1 hour, the minute hand makes a complete rotation of 360.
RANGE: Range of a function is the set of value of b,
In 1 minute it rotates about 360/60 = 6.

when (a, b) belongs to the function.

HOUR HAND
In 1 hour, the hour hand makes a complete rotation of 30. In 1 CO-DOMAIN: If (a, b) belong to a function f: A -> B
minute it rotates about 30/60 = .
then b is called co-domain of the function. Range is a
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subset of co-domain, sometimes the range and co- MANTISSA: Mantissa of a number is found with the
domain have the same elements.
help of logarithmic tables.
1. The mantissa is the same for the logarithms of all
FUNCTION
DOMAIN
numbers having the same significant digits.
[-1.1]
Sin-1 x
2. The logarithm of one digit number, say 2, is to be
Cos-1 x
[-1.1]
see in the table, opposite to 20.
], [
3. The mantissa is always taken positive.
Tan-1 x
], [
Cot-1x
-1
ANTILOGARITHM: If log a = m, then a = antilog of m,
(- , -1] U [ 1, )
Sec x
-1
i.e., The number corresponding to a given logarithm is
(- , -1] U [ 1, )
Cosec x
called antilogarithm.
1. The function is called an onto function if every
element of set Y has at least one pre-image in set 1. If the characteristic of the logarithm is positive,
then: put the decimal point after ( n+1)th digit,
X.
where n is equal to characteristic.
.
X
Y
2.
If the characteristic of the logarithm is negative,
1
a
the:put the decimal point so that the first significant
2
b
digit is at nth place, where n = characteristic.
3
c
4
Properties of Logarithms.
1. Log 1 = 0 , irrespective of the base
2. The function is called one-one if distinct elements
2. Log a a = 1, logarithm of any number to its own
have distinct images.
base is always 1.
3. Logarithm of product
X
Y
Log a (mn) = Log a m + Log a n
1
a
4.
Logarithm
of ratio
2
b
(m/n)
= Log a m - Log a n
Log
a
3
c
5. Logarithm of a Power
Log a m n = nLog a m
6. Base changing formula
3. The function is called many-to-one, if one or more
Log a m = Log a m x Log a b
elements of set X there correspond only one
7.
Log a q(n p) = Log n p / Log a q irrespective of
element of set Y.
the base.
X
Y
8.
Particular case
a
log a a n = n
b
1
9. a log a n = n
In particular e In n = n
c
NOTE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

One-one is also written as 1 1.

An onto function is also called surjection
An into function is also called Injection
Both Injective & Surjective in called Bijective

LOGARITHMS
COMMON LOGARITHMS: Logarithms calculated to
the base 10. These consists of two parts:
1) Characteristic (the integral value)
2) Mantissa (the positive fraction)
CHARACTERISTIC:
1) To find the characteristic of a number greater than
one.
Characteristic is one less than the number of digits to
the left of the decimal point in the given number.
Ex. characterstic of 514.34 is 2 and 3125.875 is 3.

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS:

Those logarithms
whose base is 10 are known as Common (decimal)
logarithms while which has base e (e = 2.71828.) are
known as natural or Napierian logarithms. Natural
logarithm is changed to decimal logarithm as
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
PERMUTATIONS: It is defined as the ways of
arranging object. Here the order i.e. position is
important.
The number of permutations of objects taken r at a
time is
n
n

Pr = n (n-1)(n-2)(n-3)(n-r+1) =

Pn = n!;

P0 = 1;

n!
( n r )!

P1 = n

NOTE: n! = n(n-1)(n-2) . 321 =1

2) To find the characteristic of a number less than one. RESULTS:

Characteristic is one more than the number of zeros i) The total number of permutation of n items taken all
between the decimal point and the first significant digit together, when p items are of one type, q are of
second type and r of then third kind and the remaining
of the number and is negative.
Ex. characterstic of 0.34 is 1 and 0.00075 is 4 .

are of different type is

n!
p! q! r !

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ii) The number of circular permutations of n different 4. Characteristic : A quality possessed by an individual
person, object or item of a population, e.g. heights of
objects is n-1!.

individuals, nationality of a group of passengers on a

flight etc.
COMBINATIONS
5.
Variable
and attribute: A measurable characteristic
When r objects taken out of
n objects then
is called a variable or a variate. A non-measurable
combination of n objects taken r at a time, we write
characteristic is called an attribute. It may be noted
n!
n
Cr = C (n, r) =
here that by measurable characteristics we mean
( n r )! r !
those characteristics which are expressible in terms of
n
n
Note: Cr = C n-r
some numerical units, e.g. age, height, income etc.

STATISTICS
STATISTICS is concerned with scientific methods for
collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting and
analyzing data, as well as drawing valid conclusions and
making reasonable decisions on the basis of such
analysis.
LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS
1. Statistics is not suited to the study of qualitative
phenomenon.
2. Statistics does not study individuals but is used only
to analyse an aggregate of objects. We study group
characteristics through statistical analysis.
3. Statistical decisions are true only on an average and
also the average is to be taken for a large number of
observations. For a few cases in succession the
decision may not be true.
4. Statistical decisions are to be made carefully by
experts. Untrained persons using statistical tools, may
lead to false conclusions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS.
1.

2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

In statistics all information are to be expressed in

quantitative terms. Even in the study of quality like
intelligence of a group of students we require scores
or marks secured in a test.
Statistics deals with a collection of facts not an
individual happening.
Statistical data are collected with a definite object in
mind. i.e. there must be a definite field of enquiry.
In every field of enquiry there are large number of
factors, each of which contributes to the final data
collected.
So statistics may be affected by a
multiplicity of causes.
Statistics is not an exact science.
Statistics should be so related that cause and effect
relationship can be established.
A statistical enquiry passes through four stages,
Collection of data, Classification & tabulation of data,
Analysis of data and Interpretation of data.

COMMONLY USED TERMS:

1. Data: A collection of observations expressed in
numerical figures, obtained by measuring or counting.
2. Population: A population or a universe consists of
the totality of the set of objects, with which we are
concerned, e.g. all workers working in a plant, all
times produced by a machine in a particular period
etc.
3. A sample: A sample is a sub-set of the population i.e.
it is a selected number of individuals each of which is
a member of the population.

CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE VARIABLE.

A variable which can theoretically assume any value
between two given values is called a Continuous variable
otherwise it is a discrete variable; heights, weights ,
agricultural holding are some examples of continuous
variables whereas number of workers in a factory, number
of defectives produced, readings on a Taxi meter are
examples of discrete variables.
Data which can be described by a discrete or continuous
variable are called discrete data or continuous data
respectively.
The first and foremost task of a Statistician is to collect
and assemble his data. When he himself prepares the
data, it is called a primary data but when he borrows them
from other sources (Government, semi-Government or
non-official records) the data is called a secondary one.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
The term of Central Tendency of a given statistical data
we mean that central value of the data about which the
observations are concentrated. A central value which
enables us
to comprehend in a single effort the
significance of the whole is know as Statistical Average or
simply average.
The three common measures of Central Tendency are
i) Mean ii) Median iii) Mode
THE MOST COMMON AND USEFUL MEASURE IS THE
MEAN.
ARITHMETIC MEAN
Advantages:
1. This is the widely used measure of Central Tendency.
2. It is simple to understand and easy to Calculate.
3. It is rigidly defined
4. Calculations depend on all the values
5. It is suitable for algebraic treatment.
6. It is least affected by sampling fluctuations.
Disadvantages:
i)
Cannot be determined by inspection
ii)
It is very much affected by the presence of a few
extremely large or small values of the variable
iii)
Mean cannot be calculated if a single term is
missing.
iv)
A.M. cannot be calculated for grouped frequency
distribution with open end classes, unless some
assumptions are made.

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GEOMETRIC MEAN
Advantages:
i)
G.M. is not widely used. It is particularly suitable
for averaging rates of changes.
ii)
It is rigidly defined and depends on all values of
the series.
iii)
It is suitable for algebraic treatment
iv)
G.M. is not affected by the presence of very large
or small values of the variable.
Disadvantages:
i)
Unlike A.M, G.M. is neither simple to understand
nor simple to calculate.
ii)
If any value of the series is Zero. G.M. cannot be
calculated.
iii)
Calculation of G.M. is impossible unless all the
values are positive.
HARMONIC MEAN:
Advantages:
i)
It is useful in averaging rates ratios and prices.
ii)
It is suitable for algebraic treatments
iii)
Its calculation is based on all values of the series.
Disadvantages:
i)
It is very limited use and not easy to understand
ii)
H.M. cannot be calculated if any value is Zero.

QUARTILES OF UNGROUPED DATA: Write the n

items of the data in ascending order. Then Lower
Quartile Q1 = (n +1)/4th item
n +1
th item
Middle Quartile Q2 (Median) =
2
th
Upper Quartile Q3 = 3 (n+1) /4 item.
DISPERSION: The variation or scattering or deviation of
the different values of a variable from their average is
known as Dispersion.
ABSOLUTE MEASURES: The three absolute measures
are
i)
Range
ii)
Mean deviation
iii)
Standard deviation.
Range: Range is the simplest measure of dispersion. It is
the difference between the largest and the smallest
values of a variable. This is not the widely used measure
as it lacks in accuracy.
Coefficient of Mean Dispersion:
The coefficient of mean dispersion is defined by the
formula.

RELATION BETWEEN A.M., G.M. and H.M.

Coefficient of Mean Dispersion
For any set of positive values of a variable, we can write
A.M. G.M. H.M. equality occurring only when the
MeanDeviationfrommean
values are equal.
=

Mean

For a pair of observations only, AM x HM = (GM)2

MEDIAN:
Advantages:
i)
It is easily understood.
ii)
Not affected by extreme values.
iii)
Can be determined by inspection in case of a
simple frequency distribution.
iv)
It can be calculated from a grouped frequency
distribution with open-end classes, provided by
closed classes are of equal width.
Disadvantages:
i)
It is not well-defined and also it is not possible to
find a well defined mode.
ii)
It is not suitable for algebraic treatment
iii)
It is not based on all values of the variable
iv)
It is affected by sampling fluctuations.
MEDIAN: The value of the item which divides the data
into two equal parts is called median.
Median of ungrouped data: If the n items in the data
are arranged in ascending or descending order and
n +1
th item;
if n is ODD then ,
2
n
n
if n is EVEN, then the average of
th,
+1 th
2
2
items is called median.
QUARTILE DEVIATION: The items which divide the data
into four parts are called quartiles. They are denoted by
Q1 , Q2, Q3
Quartile deviation = Q3 Q1
2

Or =

MeanDeviationfromMedian
Median

STANDARD DEVIATION: This is most important absolute

measure of dispersion. Standard deviation (S.D.) for a set
of values of a variable is defined as the positive square
root of the arithmetic mean o the squares of all the
deviations of the values from their arithmetic mean. In
short, it may be defined as the square root of the Mean
squares of deviation from mean.
S.D is usually denoted by a greek small letter
(pronounced Sigma)
If x1, x2 . . . . xn be a series of values of a variable and
their A.M. : then S.D. is defined by

( x x) + ( x
2

x + ..... + xn x

For a frequency distribution

This square of S.D . is known as VARIANCE

f xi x
N

, where N = f

i.e. variance = = (S.D.)

i) Coefficient of range =

Max.value min. value

max.value + min. value
ii) Coefficient of Q.D. = Q3 Q1
Q3 + Q1

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RELATIVE MEASURES OF DISPERSION

x =

n1 x1 + n2 x 2
n1 + n2
n1 12 + n2 2 2 + n1d12 + n2 d 2 2
n1 + n2

2 =

Binomial distribution is a discrete distribution. A

binomial distribution can be used when
a) The number of trials is finite
b) The trials are independent of each other
c) The probability of success is constant for each
trial.
An experiment which has two mutually disjoint outcomes,
usually called success and failure is called a Bernouilli
trial.
An experiment consisting of a repeated number of
Bernoulli trials is called a binomial experiment.

where d1 = x - x , d2 = x 2 - x

The relative measures of dispersion are pure numbers POISSON DISTRIBUTION:

and are mainly employed in comparing the dispersions of A random variable X is said to follow Poisson distribution
two or more distributions. There are two relative if its probability mass function is given by
measures:

i)

Coefficient of Variation

S .D.
x 100
(as percentage) =
Mean
ii)

Coefficient of Mean Deviation (as percentage) =

e x
P (X=x) =
x!
0

when x = 0, 1, 2, 3 , . . . .
otherwise

is known as the parameter of the Poisson distribution.

MeanDeviation
x 100
MeanorMedian

Mean =
Variance =
Standard deviation =
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:
MEASURES OF SKEWNESS:
A continuous random variable X is said to follow normal
The degree of skew ness is measured by its coefficient. distribution with mean and standard deviation if its
The very common measures are:
probability density function is given by
1. Pearsons first measure:

Mean Mode
Skewness =
S tan darddeviation
2. Pearsons second measures:

3 ( Mean Mode )
Skewness =
S tan darddeviation
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

A random variable X is said to follow binomial distribution

if its probability mass function is given by

P(X ) =

{ cx p q
{ 0

n-x

when

x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . n
Otherwise

X denotes the number of successes.

n denotes the total number of trials.
p is the probability of success in each trial.
q is the probability of failure in each trial.
We have q = 1-p.

n and p are known as the parameters of the binomial

distribution .
Mean = np
Variance = npq
Standard deviation = (npq)

f (x) =

1( x )2

2 2

< x <
- < <
>0

an are called the parameters of the normal

distribution
Mean =
2
Variance =
Standard deviation =
Properties of normal distribution:
The total area under the normal curve is UNITY.
Mean, Median and mode of the distribution are all equal.
Mean = Median Mode =
The maximum probability density (i.e. the maximum
ordinate) occurs at x =
Maximum ordinate =

1
2

It has only one mode at x = , Therefore it is unimodal

Curve is symmetrical about x - , so that skewness =0.
NOTE:
1/3
The cube roots of unity, ie., the values of 1 are
1, -

3
3
1
1
+i
, - -I
2
2
2
2

These are denoted by 1, , 2. We have

a) 1 + + 2 = 0 b) 3=1
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m
m(m 1) 2
x+
x +
1!
2!
m(m 1)(m 2) 3
x +....
3!
m

1. (1 +x) =1+

2 (1+x)

-1

= 1 x + x . . . x + x x + . . .

-1

3. (1-x) = 1 + x + x2 + . x + x + x + . . .
4. (1 + x) -2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + . . .. .
5. (1 - x) -2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + . . .. .

x
x2
x3
x4
+
+
+
+
1!
2!
3!
4!
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
e =1+
1!
2!
3!
4!
x
x2
x3
x4
+
+
+
7. e x = 1 1!
2!
3!
4!
x x x

8. ex e-x = 2 + + . + .....
1! 3! 5!

1
1 1 1

=2 1 + +
+ ......
ee
1! 3! 5!

1
1
1
1
-1
=1+
+
+
+
e or
e
1!
2!
3!
x

6. e = 1 +

8. e + e

-x

=2

x2 x4 x6

1 + 2! + 4! + 6! ......

1 1 1

1 + 2! + 4! + 6!......
x2
x3 x4
10. log (1-x) = -x +
- . . . .. .
2
3
4
e+

1
=2
e

x 2 x3 x 4
- . .. .. ..
2
3
4

x 3 x5
1+ x
= 2 x +
+ + ......
12.log
1 x
3 5

3
5
7
x
x
x
+
+ .. . . . .
13. sin x = x 3!
5!
7!
x2 x4 x6
+ + + .....
14. cos x = 1 2! 4! 6!
2 5
x3
+
x +.....
15. tan x = x +
3
15
11.log (1-x) = -x -

CONIC : The locus of a point P which moves such that its

distance from a fixed point S bears a constant ratio to its
distance from a fixed l is called a conic.
The fixed point S is called the focus.
The fixed line l is called the directrix.

The constant ratio

SP
is called the eccentricity,
PM

denoted by e.
If e = 1 , the conic is called a parabola
If e < 1 the conic is called an ellipse
If e > 1 the conic is called a hyperbola
The general equation of a conic will be an equation of
second degree in x and y, in the form
ax2+ 2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy + e = 0
Conversely, the general equation of second degree in x
and y, i.e.,
2
2
ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2fy + e = 0 will represent a conic
if abc + 2fgh af2- bg2- ch2 0 and
2
i)
h - ab for a parabola
ii)
h2 < ab for an ellipse
2
iii)
h > ab for a hyperbola
2
iv)
h > ab and a+b =0 for a rectangular
hyperbola.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Distance Formulae: The distance between the points
A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is given by
2

AB = ( x 2 x 1)2 + ( y 2 y 1)
The distance of the point P(x,y) from the origin O is given
by
OP =

x2 + y2

SECTION FORMULAE:
(a) The coordinates (x,y) of a point R which divides the
join of two points P(x1,Y1) and Q(x2,y2) in the ratio m1:
m2 internally are given by
y= m1y2 + m2 y1
x = m1x2 + m2x1 ,
m 1 + m2
m 1 + m2
(b) If (x, y) divides the line segment PQ in the ratio k :1
(internally), then
x = kx2 + x1 , y = ky2 + y1
k+1
k+1
(c) If M(x, y) is a midpoint of PQ, then
X = 1 (x1 + x2),
y = 1 (y1 + y2)
2
2
(d) If R (x,y) divides PQ externally in the ratio m1:m2 ,
then
X = m1 x2 - m2 x1
m1 m2
Y = m1y2 m2 y1
m1 m2
e) If R(x, y) divides PQ externally in the ratio K:1 ,
then
y = ky2 y1
X = Kx2 - X1 .
k-1
k-1
CENTROID : It is the point where the three medians of a
triangle meet. Centroid divides each median in the ratio
2:1 . The coordinates (x,y ) of the centroid of the triangle
whose vertices are (x1,y1) (x2, y2) (x3+ y3)are given by
X = 1/3 (x1 + x2 +x3) = 1/3 (y1+y2+y3)
INCENTRE: It is the point where the internal bisectors of
a triangle intersect. The coordinates k (x, y) of the
incentre are given by:
x = ax1 + bx2 + mcx3
a+b+c

y = ay1 + by2 + cy3

a+b+c

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ORTHOCENTRE: The three altitudes (the lines through

the vertices and perpendicular to the opposite sides) of a
triangle interest in a common point called orthocenter of
a triangle.

Angle between he two straight lines:

Y = m1 x + c1, y = m2 x + c2
m1 m2
1 + m1 m2

tan =
CIRCUM-CENTRE: This is a point which is equidistant
from three vertices of a triangle. Thus it is the centre of
the circle that passes through the vertices of triangle. It is
also the point of intersection of the right bisectors of the
sides.

a) The above two straight lines are perpendicular if,

tan 90o = Not defined , i.e. if
= 90o
1 + m1m2 = o or m1 x m2 = 1

b) The above two straight lines are parallel if

AREA OF A TRIANGLE: The area of a triangle whose
= 0 => tan = 0, i.e. m1 = m2
vertices are A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C (x3, y3) is given by
ANGLE BETWEEN THE TWO STRAIGHT LINES:
= 1/2 (x1(y2-y3)+x2(y3-y1) + x3(y2 y2)}
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0

If there pints A, B, C are collinear (lie on the same

straight line). Then Area = 0.
LOCUS OF A POINT: It is the path traced by a pilot
moving under certain conditions. Thus the locus of a
point which moves such that it is always at a constant
distance from a given point in a plane, is a circle.

tan =

a1b2 a2b1
a1a2 + b1b2

a) The above lines are perpendicular if

A1b2 a2b1 = 0

EQUATION OF A LOCUS: The equation of the locus of a

i.e.
a1
=
b1
moving point P(x,y) is an algebraic relation between x and
b2
a2
y satisfying the given conditions, under which P moves.
Thus, if P(x,y) moves along the circle of radius r having
The equations of two parallel lines differ in constant term
kits centre at the origin, then equation of the locus is
X2 + y2 = r2
only.
STRAIGHT LINE;
Equation of a straight line parallel to the straight line
EQUATIONS O A STRAIGHT LINE:
ax + by + c= 0 , is ax + by + k = 0
(a ) Equations of coordinate axes: Sine at every point
on the x-axis, y=0, hence the equation of the axis of x is y Equation of a straight lien perpendicular to the straight line
= 0 . Similarly, the equation of the y=axis is x=0.
ax + by + c = 0, is bx ay + k = 0
Equations of straight lines in various forms:
(a) Slope Intercept form
y= mx + C
(b) slope-point form
y y1 = m (x -x1)
(c) Intercept form
x+ y =1
a b
(d) Two point form
y y1 = y2 y1 (x x1)
x2 x1
(e) Parametric form,:
= r
x-x1
= y-y1
cos
sin
any point on this line
(x1 = r cos , y1 = r sin )
(f) Normal form
X cos + y sin = p
(g) General equation:
Ax + By + C = 0

Equation of a straight line through the point of

intersection of the straight lines
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is
a1x + b1y + c1 + k (a2x + b2y + c2) = 0
m = tan tan

1 + tan tan

Length p of the perpendicular from
P (x1 , y1) to the lien ax + by + c = 0
P=

ax1 + by1 + c
a2 + b2

Perpendicular distance p between and parallel straight

lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0, are
P = c1 - c2
2
2
a +b
Equation of angle bisectors between the straight lines,
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2y + c2 = 0 , are
a1 x + b1y + c1
2
2
a 1+b1

a2x + b2y + c2
2
2
a 2 + b 2

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Concurrency of the three straight lines, The straight lines: Sum or Differnce nto product:
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
b) sin A + sin B = 2sin A+B/2cos A-B/2
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
c) sinA SinB = 2cos A+B/2sin A-B/2
a3x + b3y + c3 = 0
d) cosA + cos B = 2cosA =B /2cos A-B / 2
e) cos A cos B = -2A+B/2sin A-B/2
are concurrent if
Product into sum or difference:
a1 b1 c1
a) 2sinA cosB = sin (A +B) + sin (A-B)
b) 2cosA cosB = cos(A+B) + cos(A-B)
a2 b2 c2 = 0
c) 2sinA sinB = cos (A-B) cos (A+B)
a3 b3 c3
TRIGONOMETRY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

sin = p/h = perpendicular / hypotenuse

cos = b / h = base / hypotenuse
tan = p/b = perpendicular/base
cosec = h/p = hypotenuse / perpendicular
sec = h/b = hypotenuse / base
cot = b/ = base / perpendicular

TRIGONEMETRIC RELATIONS:
1. sin = 1/cosec
2. cos = 1/sec
3. tan = 1/ cot
4. tan = sin / cos
5. cot = cos / sin
QUADRANTS
The two axes Xn OX and Y n OY divides the plane into
Four Quadrants.
i.In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.

Relations between he sides and angles of a triangle:

In ABC,
a) Sinc formula

a
b
c
=
=
= 2R
sin A sin B sin C
b) Consine formulae
Cos A =

b2 + c 2 a 2
2bc

Cos B =

c 2 + a 2 b2
2ca

Cos C =

a2 + b2 c2
2ab

PROJECTION FORMULAE:
a) a = b cosC + c cosB
b) b = c cosA + a cosC
ii. In second quadrant, only sin and cosec are positive.
c) c = a cosB + b cosA
iii. In third quadrant, only tan and cot are positive.
iv. In fourth quadrant, only cos and sec are positive.
General values of Trigonometric Functions:
a) If sin = Sin
IMPORTANT RELATIONS
Then , = n + (-1)n , n 1
I.
sin2 + cos2 = 1
2
2
II.
1 + tan = sec
b) If cos = cos
2
2
III.
1 + cos = cosec
Then, = n , n 1

SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAE:

1) sin (AB) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
2) cos (AB) = cos A cos B or + sin A sin B
3) tan (AB) = tan A tan B / 1 tan A tan B
4) sin (AB) sin (A B)
5) sin (AB) sin (A B)
= sin2 A Sin2B = Cos2B Cos2A
6) cos ( A +B) Cos (A B)
= cos2A sin2 B = cos2b sin2A

i) velocity at time t is v =

ds
dt

ii) acceleration at time t is a =

dv
d 2s
=
2
dt
dt

DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE:

a) sin2 = 2sin cos = 2tan / 1+ tan2
2
2
b) cos2 = cos sin
2
= 2cos 1
2
= 1 2sin
2
2
= 1-tan / 1 + tan
7) cos2 = (1 + cos2)
2
8) tan2 = 2tan / 1 tan
Triple-Angle Formulae:
3
a) sin3 = 3sin - 4 sin
3
b) cos3 = 4cos - 3 cos
3
2
c) tan3 = 3tan - tan / 1-3tan
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LOGICAL REASONING

for

TNPSC EXAMS

Logic is the science and art of reasoning correctly, the

science of the necessary laws of thought; Reasoning is
the minds power of drawing conclusions and deducting
inference from premises. And so, Logical Reasoning
implies the process of drawing logical conclusions from
given facts in conformity to what is fairly to be expected or
called for. It must be noted that logical conclusions
means what is derived by reasoning or logic and not the
truth or fact.
PROPOSITION: The logical proposition is an expression
or a statement which affirms or denies something, so that
it can be characterised as true or false, valid or invalid.
Like any other grammatical sentence, a proposition has a
subject, a predicate and a copula connecting the two.

RADIAN IAS ACADEMY

For the validity of drawing inference in an argument
the propositions are also classified on the basis of
quality; as Affirmative (Positive) or Negative, and
Quantity; as Universal or Particular
a) UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE A Proposition

Only subjective term is distributed:

Example: I. All men are strong.
II. All Birds have beaks.
In the above statements, subject is All , i.e. All men
and All birds;
b) UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE E Proposition:

Here, Philosophers the subject, intelligent is predicate

and are is copula.

Both subjective and predicative terms are distributed

Example I. No man is perfect
II. No fools are wise
In the above statements, the distributed term is No,
No one. When no man is perfect, then one who is
perfect cannot be man. Similarly, when no fools are
wise, then one who is wise cannot be a fool.

The propositions can be classified into Four categories.

c) PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE I Proposition:

Example: Philosophers are intelligent.

(I) CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION: Emphasises what is

and what is not, i.e., a subject is a predicate or is not
predicate.
Example: I. All cats are dogs.
II. No hens are ducks.
Logically speaking, all cats must be dogs irrespective of
the truth that cats can never be dogs. So, also in second
sentence, no hens are ducks leaves no argument that
some hens may be ducks.
(II) DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION: Leave every scope of
confusion as they have either -------- or --------- in then
Example: Either she is shy or she is cunning.
These type of propositions give two alternatives.

Neither of the terms is distributed.

Example: I. Some children are very naughty
II. Some politicians are dishonest
In the above statements, the distributed term is not
particular, i.e. some. When some children are
naughty, then some of those who are naughty may be
children.
Similarly, when some politicians are
dishonest, then some dishonest men may be
politicians. There is no defined certainty.
d) PARTICULAR NEGATIVE: O Propositions:

Here the predicative term is distributed. Some used

with a negative sign is a particular negative
proposition.
Example: I. Some students are not intelligent
II. All animals are not pets.
In the statement All animals may mislead it to be a
Universal negative but All with not is a particular
negative. However, words such as some mostly all
but one etc. are particular Propositions.

I.
Antecedent i.e. she is shy and
II.
Consequent i.e. or she is cunning
The inferences drawn on such statements are probably
true or probably false. The right inference often depends
PREMISE is a proposition stated or assumed for afteron ones own ability to sense and analyse the validity of
reasoning especially one of the two propositions in a
the logic.
syllogism, from which the conclusion is drawn. Of the two
statements, the first is major premise and the second is
(III) HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION: Correspond to the
minor premise.
conditions, and the conditional part starts with words such
Example: All dogs are hens. (major premise)
as if.
All pups are dogs. (minor premise)
Example: If I am late, I will miss the train. Here also,
Inference: All pups are hens.
proposition has two parts.
Based on the two premises, the inference is drawn.
TERM is a word used in a specially understood or defined
source which
may be subject or predicate of a
proposition. The terms in the major premise are called
(IV) RELATIONAL PROPOSITION: Denote the relation major terms and that in the minor premise are called
between the subject and the predicate. The relation can minor terms. The middle term occurs in both the premise.
be (I) symmetrical (II) non-symmetrical or (III) In the above example, dogs, hens and pups are three
terms used. Of these hens is the major term, pups; is the
asymmetrical.
minor term and dogs is the connecting or the middle
term.
Example: I.
She is as tall as Pinki
II.
Jai is wiser than Roy
INFERENCE is the act of drawing a logical conclusion
III.
Tim is brother of Ria.
from given premise. This logical deduction follows
necessarily from the reasoning of given premises and not
of the truth.
I.
II.

antecedent if I am late, and

consequeny I will miss the train

RADIAN IAS ACADEMY ANNA ARCH-CHENNAI & SIMMAKKAL-MADURAI mailtoradian@yahoo.co.in 98404-00825, 98404-33955