UNIT 1

Cholera

Transmitted through drinking contaminated water

Bacteria releases exotoxins
One part of the bacteria binds to intestinal epithelial cells
Other part stimulates the facilitated diffusion of chloride
ions into the lumen
Water potential of lumen decreases
Water moves into the lumen by osmosis
Diarrhoea

The epithelial cells that line the small intestine are adapted for
the absorption of glucose. Explain how?

Villi and microvilli for larger diffusion area

Membrane bound maltase to breakdown maltose into alpha
glucose
Mitochondria for ATP (Na/Glucose pump)
Co transport of sodium ions and glucose

Structure of cell membrane

Fluid Mosaic (proteins can move about within the

phospholipid bilayer)
Bilayer
Cholesterol for fluidity
Extrinsic and Intrinsic proteins
Glycoproteins
Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic fatty acid tails
Proteins: channel, carrier, enzymes, receptors, antigens

Nervous coordination of cardiac cycle

Heart muscle is myogenic

SAN initiates electrical impulse down the atrium causing
contraction
Stops at AV node to allow all the blood to trickle into the
ventricles
Electrical impulse the travels down the bundles of His
Contracts from base up

Phagocytosis

Bacteria produces toxins which the phagocyte detects

(chemotaxis)
The phagocyte binds to the bacteria

Bacteria is enclosed in a phagosome

Hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes break down
bacteria
Bacteria is engulfed and digested by phagocyte

Ventilation

Diaphram contracts and flattens

Thorax volume increases
Decrease in pressure
Air moves in from high to low pressure

T and B cells

Antigen presenting cell presents antigen

Complimentary T cell selected
T cell undergoes mitosis to form T helper, T killer and T
memory cells
T helper cells then complimentary bind to antigen presented
by B cells
T cells release chemicals which stimulate cell division of B
cells
B cell undergoes mitosis to form plasma cells and memory
cells

Tuberculosis
Primary infection

Transmitted by an aerosol into the lungs

Bacteria attack alveoli cells

Scar tissue forms

Less diffusion due to thicker tissue

Bacteria engulfed by phagocytes

Trapped in tubercle to prevent bacteria from replicating

Secondary infection

Bacteria activated and start replicating

Replicate in blood and damage organs

Cardiac cycle

Diastole= SL Valves closed; AV valves open; blood enters

atria and trickle into ventricles
Atrial Systole= when atria full; contract; blood pressure in
atria increases and blood passes through AV valves into
ventricles
Ventricular Systole= ventricle full; ventricles contract; blood
pressure increases and AV valves close; blood pushes past
SL valves
ELASTIC RECOIL INCREASES PRESSURE IN AORTA MORE THAN
VENTRICLES; SEMILUNAR VALVES CLOSE

How are the lungs adapted to allow efficient gas exchange?

Numerous alveoli walls and many capillary = large surface

area = faster rate of diffusion
Thin alveoli and capillary walls = short diffusion distance
Ventilation (bringing in air with low oxygen concentration)
and circulation (replacing blood with high oxygen
concentration) = maintains a diffusion gradient.

Cell fractionation
Ice cold = reduce enzyme activity
Buffer = maintain constant ph
Isotonic = prevent osmosis

ORS
Glucose and sodium ions
Co transport channel proteins transport Na+ and glucose
Water potential of intestinal cells lowered
Water moves into cells by osmosis

How are the products of digestion of starch broken down?

Na+ glucose cotransport channel proteins in the membrane

of the epithelial cells
Na+ pump actively transports Na+ ions from the epithelial
cells into the blood
Na+ concentration gradient maintained between lumen and
blood
Glucose inside epithelial cells moves into blood by
facilitated diffusion

Emphysema

alveoli break down

less surface area

lots of elastic tissue
alveoli cannot recoil
reduced diffusion gradient
less oxygen diffuses into the blood
less respiration/ATP

Breathing difficulty

alveoli do not inflate fully

breathing no longer passive
conc. Gradient and rate of diffusion reduced

Reduction in efficiency of gas exchange

walls of alveoli thicken

longer diffusion pathway
scarred fibrosis tissue
reduced surface area

Asthma

attack narrows airway

air in alveoli not efficiently replaced
difference in conc. lower, so rate of diffusion lower

Effect of training on resting heart rate

cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

increased size of heart muscle

increased stroke volume

cardiac output is the same

lower heart rate

Testing for reducing sugars

Benedict and heat = blue to red precipitate

Non-reducing sugars

heat sugar with HCl, neutralise with NaOH, benedicts test