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FacultyofEngineering
CivilEngineering
EngineeringGeology

Lecture2

Minerals & Rocks

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas
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Geology:

Latin words Geo+Logia, (the Science of the earth) it studies

the earth formation, the history, structure, the process
inside and on the earth surface.
Dependon:
1-Materials
2- Energy
3-History
Theimportanceofgeology
Energy, Water, Minerals, Instructions, Industry, Military,
and tourist

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Geomorphology
Thestudyoftheoriginandevolutionoftheearth's
landforms,bothonthecontinentsandwithintheocean
basins.
Primarysurfaceprocessesresponsibleformost
topographic
Featuresincludewind,waves,weathering,masswasting,
groundwater,surfacewater,glaciers,tectonism,and
volcanism

Geomorphologyhadgrowntoincludetheenvironmental
problemsinvolvedinlandformprocesses,including
subsidenceandlandslides.
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Minerals

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Definition:
Mineralareinorganic,naturallyoccurringsubstancesthathave
acharacteristicchemicalcomposition,distinctivephysical
properties,andcrystalstructure.
Properties:
1Luster:Howamineralreflectslight.
a) Metallic(M)(gold,silver)b)Nonmetallic(NM)(Quarts,
Talc).
2Hardness:Showstheresistancetoscratching
Mohsscaleofhardnessfrom1to10.
1=Talc
2=Gypsum
3=Calcite
4=Fluorite
5=Apatite(fluorapatite)
6=Orthoclase
7=Quartz
8=Topaz
9=Corundum
10=Diamond

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3CleavageandFracture:
cleavagesurfacesoccursassets
ofparallelofweakchemical
bondingbetweenparallellayers
Ofatomsinacrystal(planeof
weakness).
Cleavagecanbedescribedas:
excellent,good,orpoor.
Fracture:Iftherearenoplane
ofweaknessinthemineral.

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4Color:impartedbylight,eithertransmittedthroughorreflected
bythecrystal.
5Streak:thecolorofmineralafteritisgroundtopowder.
Otherproperties
6Crystalform:shapeofthecrystals.
7Reactiontoacid:ifmineralcontainscalciumcarbonateionit
willreact#iteffervesces(fizzes)incontactwithHydrochloric
acid(HCL).
8Magnetism:magnetswillbeattractedormineralisamagnetic
itself.

Kg 14182
of Salt

Kg 10155
of Clay

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Kg of 385
Zinc
million Kg 2,2
of Stone,
sand and
gravel

Kg of 705
Copper
g of 1700
Gold

313513
Liter of
Petroleum

Kg of 11904
Phosphate
Rock

Kg of 386
Lead
Kg of 31655
Cement

Kg 25947
of Coal
Kg of 15442
Iron Ore

million 1.5
m3 of
Natural Gas

Kg 11595
Other
Minerals
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ROCKS

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RockAggregateofoneormoreminerals(ormaterial)thatmakes
upthelithosphere.
(coal,obsidianarerocksnotmadeofminerals)
Rocksareclassifiedbasedonmodeoforigin
Igneouscrystallineformsasliquidcools
Metamorphiccrystallineformsasrocksare
heatedandsqueezed
Sedimentarynoncrystallinesmallerpieces
orchemicalsfromotherrocks
Rocksarenamedbasedontheirmineralcontentandtexture.
FeldsparsandQuartzarethe2mostcommonmineralsinthe
earthscrust.

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RocksCycle

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Whatisthebasic
buildingblockof
thesilicate
minerals?

Covalentbondingelectronsharing
Thesilicatetetrahedron=(SiO4)4
thebasicbuildingblockoftheEarthscrust
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HowdoestheSi
toOratioand
silicatestructure
varywithlower
temperatures?

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Quartz
SiO2
1:2

Si/O
Ratio

1:4

1:3

4:11

2:5

3:8
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IgneousRocks

basalt
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Wheredomostmagmasform?

DivergentPlateMargins
ConvergentPlateMargins
MantlePlumes/HotSpots
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Igneousrocksformedfrom:
Magma(moltenrockfoundatdepth).
Lava(moltenrockatEarthssurface).
Pyroclasticmaterial
Pyro=fire,clastic=debris
Airbornelava
Coolsasitfalls

Kilauea,Hawaii
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Types of Lavas
Basalticlavas:lowviscositymaficlavas,typically
eruptedat1000oto1200oC;cooltoformbasalt.
Rhyoliticlavas:highviscosityfelsiclavas,typically
eruptedat800oto1200oC;cooltoformrhyolite.
Andesiticlavas:intermediateincompositionand
viscositybetweenmaficandfelsicmagmas;coolto
formandesite.

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Aa
(jagged)

Pahoehoe
(Ropy)

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Pahoehoeformsinthemorefluidpartsofthelavaflow.
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Pillowlavasformwhenlavaeruptsontheseafloor.
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GeneticClassificationofIgneousRocks

Intrusive:crystallizedfromslowly
coolingmagmaintrudedwithinthe
Earthscrust;e.g.granite,gabbro
Extrusive:crystallizedfromrapidly

coolingmagmaextrudedonthesurface
oftheEarthaslavaoreruptedas
pyroclasticmaterial.

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FactorsAffectingMeltingof
Minerals(andRocks)
Pressure:IncreasedPressuresraisesmelting
points.
WaterContent:IncreasedWaterContent
lowersmeltingpoints.
Composition:Felsicmineralsmeltatlower
temperaturesthanmaficminerals

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Composition of the magma

Analogous to what makes up the stew"

What chemical elements are present
What material has the magma moved
through

Temperature of the melt

Not only how hot, but how long it stays that hot
also relates to pressure of the molten rock

Cooling environment
fast vs slow
Internal vs External

Water content
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Composition of Igneous rocks

1-Felsic or Sialic magma
Si-rich (> 65%)
rich in K, and Al
little Ca, Fe, and Mg.
2-Intermediate magma
between the two extremes in Si

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content and other atoms.

3-Mafic magma
Si - poor (< 35%)
richer in Ca, Fe, and Mg.
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Viscosity
of
Magma/
Lava
Viscosity of Magma/

Lava

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Viscosity- important for volcanic activity

the resistance of a liquid to flow

high viscosity = thick and stiff

low viscosity = thin and "runny".

Related to:
amount of water (H2O) in magma
amount of silica (Si) in magma
Mafic
thin, low viscosity
Felsic
thick, high viscosity

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Igneous Rock Textures:

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How big are the minerals?

1-Phaneritic Texture
Visible Mineral Grains

distinguishable as different colored interlocking shapes

2- Aphanitic Texture
Mineral grains too small to be seen
microscopic

3-Porphyritic Texture

Two distinct sizes of mineral grains

Large and Small
Large = Phenocrysts
Small = Groundmass or Matrix
Groundmass: Grains may be either visible or not.

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Categories of Igneous:

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Granite

Intrusive rocks

cool beneath Earth's surface

cool very slowly
higher P & T
Phaneritic textures

Extrusive rocks

cool on the Earth's Surface

cool relatively fast
lower T & P
Aphanitic textures
Pyroclastic textures

Rhyolite

Basalt
Basalt porphyry
porphyry

Complex

Partially cools below and above

Porphyritic textures

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Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Extrusive rocks

Bomb

Pumice

Mafic
Basalt

Felsic
Rhyolite

Gabbro

Granite

Porphyry

Intrusive rocks

Extrusive pyroclasts
form in violent
eruptions from lava
in the air.

Extrusive igneous
rocks cool rapidly
and are finegrained.
Intrusive igneous
rocks cool slowly,
allowing large,
coarse crystals to
form.

Phenocrysts

Porphyry

Some intrusive
porphyritic crystals
grow large, but the
remaining melt
cools faster,
forming smaller
crystals.
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BOWENS REACTION SERIES

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Magma
composition
Temperature
~600C

Orthoclase feldspar

Quartz

Biotite
mica

Pyroxene
Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate,
andesitic

se
cla
io a r
ag sp
Pl eld
f

Amphibole

~1200C

Felsic,
Rhyolitic
(high silica)

Muscovite mica

Simultaneous
crystallization

Mafic,
basaltic
Ultramafic
(low silica)

Calciumrich

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BOWENS REACTION SERIES

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As magma temperature
decreases
Magma
composition
Temperature
~600C

Orthoclase feldspar

Quartz

Biotite
mica

Pyroxene
Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate,
andesitic

se
cla
io a r
ag sp
Pl eld
f

Amphibole

~1200C

Felsic,
Rhyolitic
(high silica)

Muscovite mica

Simultaneous
crystallization

Mafic,
basaltic
Ultramafic
(low silica)

Calciumrich

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BOWENS REACTION SERIES

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As magma temperature
decreases

Temperature
~600C

materials
crystallize in
an ordered
series

Magma
composition
Orthoclase feldspar

Quartz

Biotite
mica

Pyroxene
Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate,
andesitic

se
cla
io a r
ag sp
Pl eld
f

Amphibole

~1200C

Felsic,
Rhyolitic
(high silica)

Muscovite mica

Simultaneous
crystallization

Mafic,
basaltic
Ultramafic
(low silica)

Calciumrich

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BOWENS REACTION SERIES

while plagioclase
feldspar crystallizes,
from calcium-rich
sodium-rich form

As magma temperature
decreases

Temperature
~600C

materials
crystallize in
an ordered
series

Magma
composition

Orthoclase feldspar

Felsic,
Rhyolitic
(high silica)

Muscovite mica
Quartz

Biotite
mica

Pyroxene
Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate,
andesitic

se
cla
io a r
ag sp
Pl eld
f

Amphibole

~1200C

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Simultaneous
crystallization

Mafic,
basaltic
Ultramafic
(low silica)

Calciumrich

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BOWENS REACTION SERIES

while plagioclase
feldspar crystallizes,
from calcium-rich
sodium-rich form

As magma temperature
decreases

Temperature
~600C

materials
crystallize in
an ordered
series

Magma
composition

Orthoclase feldspar

Felsic,
Rhyolitic
(high silica)

Muscovite mica
Quartz

Biotite
mica

Pyroxene
Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate,
andesitic

se
cla
io a r
ag sp
Pl eld
f

Amphibole

~1200C

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Simultaneous
crystallization

Mafic,
basaltic
Ultramafic
(low silica)

Calciumrich

and the composition

of magma changes
from ultramafic to
andesitic.
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Igneous rock names

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1-determined by texture
size and arrangement of mineral grains

2-mineral composition
minerals affect rock color and indicate temperature
of creation

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Pegmatite

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A Pegmatite is a very coarse-grained igneous rock.

Crystals are >2 cm, often larger.
Most are granitic, although mafic pegmatites can form.
Biotite mineral
grain
Feldspar
mineral
grain

Quartz mineral
grain
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Granite & Rhyolite

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Phaneritic Texture
Felsic magma

Granite

Aphanitic Texture
Felsic magma

Rhyolite

Dr.AbdelrahmanAbueladasCivilEngineeringClassEngineeringGeologyLecture2

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Andesite & Diorite

Aphanitic texture

forms from intermediate

composition magma

Phaneritic texture
-forms from intermediate
composition magma

Dr.AbdelrahmanAbueladasCivilEngineeringClassEngineeringGeologyLecture2

CE

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Basalt & Gabbro

aphanitic texture
forms from mafic magma

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phaneritic texture
forms from mafic magma

Basalt
Gabbro

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Peridotite- the abundance of Olivine crystals (more

than 40%) makes the rock take on a green
appearance

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Obsidian- a popular rock among paleopeople for

tool making

Volcanic
Glass
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Tuffs & Breccias

Tuffs & Breccias- look like sedimentary rock

But they are not.it is volcanic ash that is lithified

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An igneous sillConcordant with surrounding rock

It runs parallel to other rocks

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Necks & Ig Dikes

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Neck
Dike

igneous
Igneous sill
sill

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Sill

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Lecture3

Dike
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Metamorphism
and
metamorphicrocks

Dr.AbdelrahmanAbueladas

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Metamorphicofaregionbyheat,pressure,andchemicalaction.

Unchangedrocks

ZoneofRegional
Metamorphism

Zoneofcontact
Metamorphism
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The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle graphic is available from the SCGS website: http://www.dnr.sc.gov/geology/images/Rockcycle-pg.pdf

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Metamorphic Rocks

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Definitions

Metamorphic Rock
- "Meta"= Change (Grk)
- "Morph"= form (Grk)
--

a rock that has been changed

parent
from its original form (
parent ) by
heat , pressure , and fluid activity
into a new rock ( daughter
daughter ).

Dr.AbdelrahmanAbueladasCivilEngineeringClassEngineeringGeologyLecture2

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MetamorphicRocks
Metamorphism:tochangefromoneformto
another
Metamorphicrock:anyrockthathasundergone
changesintexture,mineralogical,orchemical
compositioninthesolidstate
Howdorocksmetamorphose?

Fromthepartialorcompleterecrystallizationofminerals
intherocksoverlongperiodsoftime

Rocksremainessentiallysolidduringmetamorphism
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Metamorphic Textures

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Foliated
Foliated
-- Folios
Folios == page
page or
or leaf-like
leaf-like
-- rock
rock has
has distinct
distinct banding
banding or
or layering
layering
often not
not smooth
smooth like
like in
in sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks
>> often

-- formed
formed under
under directed
directed pressure
pressure

Non-foliated
Non-foliated
-- no
no distinct
distinct layering
layering character
character
-- often
often aa massive
massive crystalline
crystalline texture
texture
-- formed
formed under
under uniform
uniform pressures
pressures
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Foliated Texture

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Foliated MM Rocks

slate
slate

schist
schist

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phyllite
phyllite

gneiss
gneiss
MM Rocks that could form as a shale
(sedimentary) parent rock is
exposed to increasing directed pressure and temperature
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Non-foliated Rocks

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Marble:
- metamorphosed
limestone

Quartzite:
Quartzite:
-- metamorphosed
metamorphosed
quartz sandstone
sandstone
quartz
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Metamorphic
ZonesZones
Metamorphic

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Class11Sediments&
sedimentaryrocks
Sediments&SedimentaryRocks

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Weathering,Erosion,andTransportation

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SEDIMENT
From
Weathering&Erosion
Precipitationfromsaturatedsolution
calcite,quartz

Productofevaporation
halite,gypsum

UnconsolidatedNOTcemented

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SEDIMENT
Transportation
Abrasion
Rounding
Sorting
Deposition
Environmentofdepositionspecific

Preservation

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SEDIMENT
Particlesize
Pebbles,cobbles,boulders
Gravel>2mm
Sand2mm0.063mm
Silt0.063mm0.004mm
Clay<0.004
DepositionClaysizedparticlevs.claymineral

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Sedimentaryrocks

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5 % by volume of the upper crust

75% by area of continental areas

Often the only record of geologic events:
e.g. The Himalayas will someday be sandstone
Theprocessthatchangessedimentstosedimentary
rocksiscalled(lithification)process:

1Compaction:reducesporespace.Claysandmudsareupto60%
water;10%aftercompaction
2Cementation:chemicalprecipitationofmineralmaterialbetween
grains(SiO2,CaCO3,Fe2O3)bindssedimentintohardrock.
3Recrystallization:PressureandTemperatureincreasewithburial
(30C/kmor1C/33m).
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Sedimentary rock

(a) Rock resulting from the consolidation of loose sediment that

has been derived from previously existing rocks and
accumulated in layers.
(b) Rock formed by the precipitation of minerals from solution
by either organic or inorganic processes.

Relative Abundance of Sedimentary Rock Types

Dr.AbdelrahmanAbueladas

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Diagenesis(orLithification)changessedimentto
rockbycompactionandcementation

Compactionistheremovalofwaterorairfromporespaces.
Freshdepositsofmudareveryporousandcontain60%waterin
theporespaces.
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Lecture3

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Cementationistheprecipitationofmineralsbetweenthegrains
duringburial.Cementsareusuallycalciteormicrocrystalline
quartz.

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Transport affects the sediment in several ways:

Sorting: measure of the variation in the
range of grain sizes in a clastic rock or
sediment
Well-sorted sediments indicate that they
have been subjected to prolonged water or
wind action.
Poorly-sorted sediments are either not farremoved from their source or deposited by
glaciers.
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Sorting

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Thefartherasedimentgrainistransportedthe
rounderitbecomes.
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Chemicalsedimentaryrocks
Limestone CaCO3
Chert SiO2
SaltNaCl
GypsumCaSO4 2H2O
Coal altered organic debris

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CHEMICALSEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

CarbonateRocks

Limestonemadeofcalcite
Inorganicvarieties
micrite,oolites,travertine

Dolomite
Recrystallization

Chertsilica
Evaporites
Rockgypsum
Rocksalt
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BIOCHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARYROCKS
Coal

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Developsfrompeat
plantfragments

Lignite
BituminousCoal

CarbonateRocks
Limestonemadeofcalcite
organicvarieties
Coquina
FossiliferousLimestone
Chalk
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1)ThemostcommonnaturalacidattheEarthssurfaceis
carbonicacid.
CO2+H2O=H2CO3
2)Themineralscalciteanddolomiteinlimestonetotally
dissolveinacidicwater.
calcite+carbonicacid=calciumion+bicarbonate
CaCO3+H2CO3 = Ca2++2HCO3
3)Calciteprecipitatesoutofasupersaturatedsolution.

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Chertnodulesinalimestone.Thesourceofsilicainamarine
rockisoftendissolutionofsiliceousorganismsincluding
spongespicules,radiolarians,anddiatoms.
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Theformationofcoalstartswiththeaccumulationof
organicmatterinaswamp.
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Withburialpressure,heat,andtime,thesedimentaryrock
formsofcoal,ligniteandbituminouscoal,are
metamorphosedtoanthracite.
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SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES
BEDDING
PrincipleofOriginalHorizontality
Beddingplane
Crossbedding
Gradedbed
Mudcracks
Ripplemarks
Fossils
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DUNES

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