Rajiv

Gandhi
wanadongri.

college

of

engineering

and

research,

BE 1ST YEAR
BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIT III
ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

1) Water supply
1.1 Importance
schemes

and

necessity

of

water

supply

Water supply scheme involves:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Collection
Conveyance
Treatment
Distribution of water

For every living being water, air, food, shelter etc are the primary
needs of which the water has the greatest importance. It is truly
said that the water is best of all things. Everywhere water is
required for various purposes such as:
a) For drinking and cooking
b) For bathing and washing
c) Washing of clothes and utensils
d) For watering of lawns and gardens
e) For heating and air conditioning systems
f) For growing of crops
g) Fire fighting
h) Steam power and various industrial processes
i) Construction works
j) Washing of vehicles
k) Street washing
l) Recreation in swimming pools fountains and cascades etc.

Without food human can survive for a number of days, but water
is such an essential element without it he cannot. In the ancient times
humans required water for drinking, bating, cooking etc. but with the
advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously increased
and now such a stage has come that without well organized public
water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic life and
develop the towns.
In ancient times the water was collected from surface sources
like rivers, lakes and ponds.etc. The original small water source
become insufficient and large water sources become inevitable. The
large water source may be far away from the township and the water
may not be safe for dinking. The role of water supply scheme, i.e.
collection, conveyance treatment and distribution of water comes in
handy here. For every town or a city, an administrative body, either
the municipality or corporation has been established to look after the
public health and to supply potable water to consumers after proper
treatment.

1.2: Salient
scheme:

features/essentials

of

water

supply

1) Population forecast: Every scheme should be such that it may

run satisfactorily at least for three decades. So, the probable
population of a town or a city should be ascertained for the future
decades.
2) Assessment of water demand: Depending upon the probable
population, the total water requirement for the town or city should be
estimated considering the domestic demand, industrial and fire
demand etc.
3) Record of industry: The nature and the number of the
industries in the town or a city should be recorded because the
industries require much water for running the maintenance. This
record should also be updated from time to time.

4) Record of public places: The nature and number of public

places like markets, cinema halls, auditoriums, parks, swimming
pools, schools, colleges etc. Should be recorded for the provision of
additional water requirement.
5) Sources of water: The cost of water supply scheme depends
on the selection of site for the sources of water. So the source of
water should be such that the cost of conveyance and treatment of
water may be reasonable.
6) Quality of water: There should not be too turbid and there
should be no or minimum sources of contamination to avoid any
excessive treatment.
7) Over-head Reservoir: The water after treatment is generally
stored in the overhear reservoirs from where it is supplied to the
consumers. The location of a reservoir should be such that the water
can flow to the network of distribution system.

1.3 Importance and Reliability of Water Works

Water is good carrier of disease germs and may be responsible
for water-borne diseases. Therefore, the water which is supplied to the
public should be wholesome and must be free from any pathogens,
poisonous substances and excessive amount of mineral and organic
matter. The water-borne diseases are cholera, typhoid, jaundice,
dysentery etc. therefore it is very important that water works must
remove all the impurities and bacteria from water and make it
wholesome.
The following is the
a) Water should be taken from the permanent (never failing)
surface of ground source.
b) Source of water should be large impounding reservoirs, from
where it can flow under the gravity to the city.
c) If reservoir is at low level water can be pumped to the city.
d) Water should be taken from the tube-wells.

The reliability of water works depends upon the design,

construction and maintenance of works for collection and
distributing the water.

1.4 Duties of Water Works Engineer

a) He must be well conversant with the planning, designing,
construction, maintenance and operation
of water works.
b) He must be capable of designing the water works scheme in
the best possible way with maximum economy and efficiency to
remove the impurities and bacteria.
c) He must be capable of operating water works scheme without
fail and should supply the safe palatable water to the public in
the required pressure at various points.
d) He should protect the sources of water as well as treat the
water from contamination or any type of pollution.
e) He should have sound knowledge of laboratory tests to check
the water samples for the presence of bacterias.
f) He should be able to alter the purification method depending on the type o
impurities and bacterias present in water.

2) SOURCES
FOLLOWING ARE THE SOURCES OF WATER:
1) Surface sources:
a) Rivers, streams
b) Lakes
c) Ponds
d) Impounded reservoirs.
2) Underground sources(sub-surface):
a) Springs
b) Wells
1) Artesian well
2) Dug/draw well

3) Tube well
c) Infiltration galleries.

Surface sources:
NATURAL PONDS AND LAKES

In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with

impervious bed by springs and streams are known as lakes. The
quality of water in the natural ponds and lakes depends upon the
basins capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground
etc. But lakes and ponds situated at higher altitudes contain almost
pure water which can be used without any treatment. But ponds
formed due to construction of houses, road, and railways contains
large amount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water
supply purposes.
STREAMS AND RIVERS

Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In
summer the quality of river water is better than monsoon because in
rainy season the run-off water also carries with clay, sand, silt etc
which make the water turbid. So river and stream water require
special treatments. Some rivers are snow fed and perennial and have
water throughout the year and therefore they do not require any
arrangements to hold the water. But some rivers dry up wholly or
partially in summer. So they require special arrangements to meet the
water demand during hot weather. Mostly all the cities are situated
near the rivers discharge their used water of sewage in the rivers,
therefore much care should be taken while drawing water from the
river.
IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRS:

In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the
requirements of hot weather. In such cases, the water can be stored
by constructing a bund, a weir or a dam across the river at such
places where minimum area of land is submerged in the water and
max. Quantity of water to be stored. In lakes and reservoirs,
suspended impurities settle down in the bottom, but in their beds
algae, weeds, vegetable and organic growth takes place which
produce bad smell, taste and colour in water. Therefore this water
should be used after purification. When water is stored for long time
in reservoirs it should be aerated.

SUBSURFACE SOURCES:
INFILTRATION GALLERIES:

INFILTRATION WELLS:

In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are

sunk in series in the blanks of river. The wells are closed at top and
open at bottom. They are constructed by brick masonry with open
joints as shown in fig.

Infiltration Well

Jack Well

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in

the top cover. The water filtrates through the bottom of such wells
and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified to some
extent. The infiltration well in turn is connected by porous. pipes to

collecting sump called jack well and there water is pumped to

purification plant for treatment
SPRINGS:

Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form

of springs. Springs generally supply small springs. Springs generally
supply small quantity of water and hence suitable for the hill towns.
Some springs discharge hot water due to presence of sulphur and
useful only for the curve of certain skin disease patients.
Types of springs:
1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the
water bearing stratum is exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs
are formed as shown in fig.

Gravity Spring

2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is

supporting the ground water reservoir becomes out crops as shown in
fig.

Surface Spring

3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper
impervious stratum as shown in fig.

Artesian spring

When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between
two imperious stratum, the formation of Artesian spring from deep seated spring.

Artesian spring
WELLS:

A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water. In India 75 to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for its
water supply.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earths surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers.
The following are different types of wells
1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells

(a) Shallow Wells:

Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earths surface. The
diameter of well varies from 2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m. Shallow wells may
be lined or unlined from inside. Fig. shows a shallow well with lining (steining). These
wells are also called draw wells or gravity wells or open wells or drag wells or
percolation wells.

Shallow Well

Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is
uppermost layer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they
are not suitable for public water supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from
shallow wells is better than the river water but requires purification. The shallow wells
should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc because of the
contamination of effluent.
The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small villages,
undeveloped municipal towns, isolated buildings etc because of limited supply and bad
quality of water.
(b) Deep Wells :
The Deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer
as shown in fig No. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the
outcrop to the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to the
atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly purified when it
reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore become hard.
In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the hardness of water.

Deep Well

The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is
not very near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric
pressure, therefore deep wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.

3) DRINKING WATER REQUIRMENTS

Absolutely pure water is never found in nature. Absolutely pure
water is that water which only contains two parts of Hydrogen and
one part of Oxygen by volume and nothing else. But the water found
in nature contains number of impurities in varying amounts. While
falling in the form of rains the water absorbs number of gases, dust
and organic and inorganic impurities. This water when moves on
ground further carries the silts and other impurities. Therefore the
runoff water has large no of impurities. These impurities make the
water unsuitable for the drinking. Therefore such impurities must be
removed from the water as well as while removing such impurities the
essential elements and bacterias that naturally present in water and
mostly useful for the human health must not be removed.
Therefore the drinking water has the following requirements
a) It should be free from the bacterias that causes the diseases.
b) It should be colourless
c) It should be odourless
d) It should be tasty and cool
e) It should be free from the silts
f) It should be free from any objectionable matter
g) It should have dissolved oxygen and free carbonic acid so that
it may remain fresh
h) It should not corrode pipes

The water supplied to the community should be strictly according to

the standards laid down from time to time.

4) IMPURITIES IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECT

Impurities in water can be listed as follows:
a) Suspended impurities
b) Colloidal Impurities
c) Dissolved impurities
(a) Suspended Impurities: These impurities are the suspension of
solid particles that are large enough to be removed by filtration or
surface and heavier ones settle down. The suspended particles which
have same specific gravity as that of water are mixed in the water.
Suspended impurities include clay, algae, fungi, organic and inorganic
matter and mineral matter etc.
These all impurities are macroscopic and cause turbidity in
water. The concentration of suspended matter in water is measured
by its turbidity.
Examples: sand clay and other inorganic soils, algae, bacterias.
(b) Colloidal Impurities: It is very finely divided dispersion of
particles in water. These particles are so small that these particles
cannot be removed by ordinary filters and are not visible to the naked
eye. As a matter of fact all the colloidal impurities are electrically
charged and remain in continuous motion. The electric charge is due
to presence of absorbed ions on the surface of the solid. Acid or
neutral materials such as silica, glass and most organic particles
acquire negative charge in neutral water, where as basic materials
such as metallic oxides AL 2O3 and. Fe2O3 are positively charged. These
electric charges on the surfaces of particles are large enough in
comparison with their mass to cause the particles to repel one
another when they move within the sphere of action of each others

charge. Due to this repelling action all colloidal particles remain in

motion and do not settle. That is why there removal is very difficult.
These colloidal impurities are generally associated with organic
matter containing bacterias and are the chief source of epidemics.
Most of the colour of water is due to colloidal impurities their
quantity is determined by the colour tests. The size of colloidal
particles is in between (1=1 micron=0.001mm) to (1=1 milli micron
=0.000001mm) or (10-3 mm to 10-6mm).
Examples: Silica, clay, iron oxide Fe2O3 , aluminum AL2O3 , manganese
oxide MnO2 ,Vegetable and organic waste.
(c) Dissolved Impurities: Some impurities are dissolved in water
when it moves over the rocks, soil etc. solids, liquids; gases are
dissolved in natural waters. These dissolved impurities may contain
organic compounds, inorganic salts and gases etc. The concentration
of local dissolved solids is usually expressed in p.p.m and is obtained
by weighing the residue after evaporation of the water sample from a
filtered sample.
Examples: calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, salts, gases
like hydrogen.
Effects of the impurities
IMPURITY

CONSTITUENTS

EFFECTS

a) Bacteria
Suspended b)Algae, Protozoa
Impurities
c)Silts
Dissolved
Impurities

a)Salts
1)Calcium &
Magnesium

Some cause diseases

Odour, Colour, Turbidity
Murkiness or Turbidity
Bicarbonate
Carbonate
Sulphate

Alkalinity
Alkalinity & Hardness
Hardness
Hardness Corrosion

Chloride
Bicarbonate
Carbonate
2)sodium
Sulphate
Fluoride
Chloride
b) Metals and Compounds

Alkalinity, Softening effect

Alkalinity, Softening effect
Foaming in Boilers
Dental Flurosis or mottled enamel
Taste

Iron oxide

Taste,

red

colour,

corrosiveness,

Manganese
Lead
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Cyanide
Boron
Selenium
Silver
nitrates

hardness
Black or brown colour
Cumulative poisoning
Toxicity , poisoning
Toxic effect on heart and nerves
Toxic & illness
Fatal
Affect central nervous system
Highly toxic to animals
Discoloration of skin & eyes
Blue
baby
conditions,
infant
poisoning, colour, acidity

( c ) Vegetable Dyes
( d ) gases

6)

Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Sulphide

Corrosiveness to metals
Acidity, corrosiveness
Odour, acidity, corrosiveness

TREATMENT OF WATER (Purification

of Water)

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Water available in various sources contains various types of impurities

and cannot be directly used by the public for various purposes, before
removing the impurities. For potability water should be free from
unpleasant tastes, odours and must have sparkling appearance. The
water must be free from disease-spreading germs. The amount and
type of treatment process will depend on the quality of raw water and
the standards of quality of raw water and the standards of quality to
be required after treatment as per the table no.
The surface sources generally contains large amount of impurities
therefore they requires sedimentation, filtration and chlorination as
treatment. If the water contains algae or other micro organisms, pre
chlorination has to be done tastes and odours , dissolved gases like
CO2, H2S are removed by aeration. During the flood season, the
turbidity of the surface water may be high and flocculation may
become necessary to remove turbidity.
Ground water which is usually clear may require only disinfection and
chemical treatment for the removal of pathogens, Iron removal,
Softening etc. Sometimes ground water contains dissolved gases like
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) carbon dioxide (CO2), which gives very bad
odour and requires its removal by aeration .

PURIFICATION OF WATER

Object: The water from sources may have some characteristics which
are unsuitable for human consumption, industrial use, commercial use
etc. the following are some of those characteristics:
a) Turbidity
b) It may contain colour
c) It may contain acids, salts and gases which have corrosive
action and may impart hardness of water.
d) It may contain bacteria which may cause water borne
diseases.
Therefore the object of purification of water is to remove those
impurities and make the water suitable for domestic, industrial,
commercial uses. Underground water may be free from the above
impurities but sometimes it may possess the property of hardness
which should be removed.
PRIMARY TREATMENT OF WATER
(TREATMENT UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM)

Water treatment includes many operations like Aeration, Flocculation,

Sedimentation,
Filtration,
Softening,
Chlorination
and
demineralization. Depending upon the quality of raw water and the
quality of water desired. Several combinations of the above processes
may be adopted as shown in the flow diagram above processes may
be adopted as shown in the flow diagram

One complete water treatment plant requires the following process

starting from the source of water up to the distribution zone in order
of sequence
SEQUENCE OF UNITS:
1) Intake point
2) Pump house
3) Plain sedimentation tank
4) Coagulation tank
5) Filtration unit
6) Chlorination unit
7) Water softening plant
8) Overhead reservoir

The following points should be kept in mind while giving layout of any treatment plant.
1. The W.T.P. should be located as near to the town so as to avoid the contamination.
2. All the units of plant should be located in order of sequence and flow from one unit to
other by gravity.
3. All the units are arranged in such a way that minimum area is required so as to reduce
the cost of construction.
4. Sufficient area should be reserved for the future expansion
5. Staff quarters and office should be provided near the treatment plants so that the
operators can watch the plants easily.
6. The site of treatment plant should be very neat and give very good aesthetic
appearance.
Functions of units:
1) Intake point: The function of this unit is to collect water in
the intake well so that the water can be supplied throughout the year.
2) Pump House: The function of this unit is to draw the water
from the intake well and to supply same to the treatment plat.

3) Plain Sedimentation Tank: The function of this unit is to

remove the heavier suspended particles in water. In this tank the
water is detained for some period or allowed to flow at very low
velocity so that the heavier suspended particles are settle down at the bottom of
the of sedimentation tank but some lighter particles still remain in suspension.

4) Coagulation Tank: the function of this unit is to remove the

lighter suspended particles by the application of some coagulants. In
this tank some recommended coagulants is mixed with water and the
water is allowed to flow at very low velocity through the coagulation
tank. The coagulants make the liter particles to gain the settle able
size and ultimately settle down at the bottom of the tank but some
finer colloidal particles still remain in the suspension.

Sedimentation with Coagulation

5) Filtration Unit: The function of this unit is to remove the

finer colloidal particles and some bacteria for filtering media of sand
and gravel but some bacteria still remain in the water.
6) Chlorination unit: the function of this unit is to destroy the
bacteria by application of chlorine.
7) Water Softening Tank: the function of this unit is to remove
the hardness of water to make it fit for commercial purpose. This unit
is not always necessary.

8) Overhead Reservoir: The function of this unit is to store

purified water after the treatment is complete. The water from the
reservoir is supplied to the consumers by gravity.

7) DISINFECTION OF WATER
NECESSITY OF DISINFECTION: The processes of destroying harmful
bacteria from water and to make it safe for drinking is known as
disinfection. The substances used for disinfection used for
disinfectants. The common disinfectants are lime, iodine and bromine,
ozone, potassium permanganate, silver; chlorine etc. chlorine is the
most important disinfectant which has a wonderful power for killing
bacteria in short span of time with a minimum amount of expenditure.
So this chemical is used in most developing countries.
The processes of destroying all the bacteria (either harmful or
harmless) are known as sterilization. But in a water supply scheme,
we require only the removal of harmful bacterias (i.e. pathogenic
bacteria) which may cause water borne diseases like cholera,
dysentery, typhoid etc.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANTS

1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for
use,.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria
3. They should be economical and easily available
4. They should not require high skill for their application
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and
objectionable to the user.
6. The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly.
METHODS OF DISINFECTION:
a) Disinfection by boiling
b) By ultra-violet rays
c) By iodine and bromine
d) By excess lime

e) By ozone
f) By potassium permanganate
g) By silver
h) By chlorine
Disinfection by Boiling: When water is boiled to the boiling
temperature ( 100oc ) the bacteria is completely removed. It should be
boiled at least for 10-15 minutes. Boiling also removes some of the
dissolved salts. It is the most effective method of disinfection. But this
is not suitable for large scale. It is suitable for domestic purpose, i.e.
to boil water before its use as drinking water. In case of an epidemic,
the consumers should always boil water to check the water borne
diseases.
Disinfection by ultraviolet rays: When mercury enclosed in a
quarts bulb an electric current is passed through it, the ultra violet
rays are emitted. These rays are found to be very powerful in killing
all type of bacteria. In this method the water is allowed to flow under
the bulb for several times. The depth of flow should not exceed 10-15
cm. this method does not impart any taste or colour to the water or
there is no possibility of overdosing. It is costly processes and suitable
for small water supply installations like factories, institutions, training
camp, etc.
Disinfection by iodine and bromine: the iodine and bromine also
have property of killing bacteria. Dose of iodine and bromine should
be 8-10 ppm. These chemicals are available in the form of small
pellets. The water is stored in a suitable container and required
number of pellets are dropped in the water and left for 5 minutes.
Water becomes safe for drinking. This method is suitable for small
water supply installations like industries, military or survey camps.
Disinfection by excess lime: naturally lime is added to the water is
to remove some salts but when excess lime is added to the water it is
found to be act as a disinfectant. The excesses lime increases the pH
value of water i.e. increases the alkalinity of water which is

detrimental to bacteria because bacteria cannot resist the alkalinity of

water. It is found that pH value 9-10 can remove bacteria to the
extent of 99% but after treatment the residual lime should be
removed by the method of re carbonation.
Disinfection by ozone: in atmosphere the molecules of oxygen
contains two items (O2 ) but it changes to three when electric current
of high voltage is passed through the stream of air in chamber. This
triatomic oxygen is known as ozone (O 3 ).the ozone easily breaks into
oxygen ( O2 ) and nascent atom ( O ). This third atom is very powerful
in killing bacteria. The dose of ozone varies from2-5 ppm and contact
period varies from 5-10 mins. If after treatment some residual ozone
is present in water, it is automatically removed. Since ozone is
unstable in nature, there is no possibility any danger to the
consumers. It is costly method.
Disinfection
by
potassium
permanganate:
potassium
permanganate is a powerful oxidizing agent. It oxidizes the organic
matter present in water and hence the bacteria get killed. this mostly
used for disinfecting water of wells in village, swimming pools, ponds
etc. not suitable for large scale. Dose of chemical is about2-3 ppm
and contact period is 2-3 hrs.
Disinfection by chlorine: Chlorine has got the wonderful power of
destroying bacteria. It is best among all the other disinfectants used
for the disinfection of water. It kills bacteria very fast and its effect
effect lasts for such a long time that it even acts in the distribution
systems. It is cheap and reliable. If some residual chlorine exists in
water it does not cause any harm to the consumers.

8) STANDARDS OF PURIFIED WATER

The physical, chemical, bacteriological standards for water quality as
suggested by the following agencies:
1) Indian Council of Medical Research (I.C.M.R) committee
2) World Health Organization (W.H.O)

3) United States Public Health Society (U.S.P.H.S)

4) American Water Works Association (A.W.W.A)
The manual on water supply and treatment prepared by the central
public health and environmental engineering Organization, under the
Ministry of Urban Development (MUD) India lays down the following
standards of water.
S.N

CHARECTERISTICS

ACCEPTIBLE

Turbidity ( J.T.U scale)

2.5

CAUSE
REJECTION
10

Colour (platinum cobalt scale)

5.0

2.5

Taste and Odour

unobjectionable

Unobjectionable

Total Dissolved Solids(mg/l)

500

1500

Hardness ( as CaCO3) (mg/l)

200

600

Chlorides ( as Cl) (mg/l)

200

1000

Fluorides ( as F) (mg/l)

1.0

1.5

Sulphates ( as SO4) (mg/l)

200

400

Nitrates ( as NO3) (mg/l)

45

45

10

Calcium ( as Ca) (mg/l)

75

200

11

Magnesium ( as Mg) (mg/l)

30

150

12

Iron ( as Fe) (mg/l)

0.1

1.0

13

Manganese ( as Mn) (mg/l)

0.05

0.5

14

Copper (as Cu) (mg/l)

0.05

1.5

15

Zinc (as Zn) (mg/l)

5.0

15.0

Toxic materials
16

Arsenic ( as As) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

17

0.01

19

Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/l)

0.01
Chromium (as Hexavalent Cr)
0.05
(mg/l)
Cynides ( as Cn) (mg/l)
0.05

20

Lead (as Pb) (mg/l)

0.1

0.01

21

Mercury (total Hg) (mg/l)

0.001

0.001

18

0.05
0.05

Radio Activity
22

Gross Alpha Activity

3 pci/l

3 pci/l

23

Gross Beta Activity

30 pci/l

30 pci/l

24

Pci= pico curie

OF

The figures indicated under acceptable column are the limits up to

which the water is generally acceptable for consumers. Cause of
rejection column shows the limit of tolerance if the supply contains
the impurities exceeds the limit the water is not safe for drinking and
must be rejected.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
(Collection & disposal methods of liquid, solid and
gaseous wastes)
SANITARY ENGINEERING: It is the branch of public health
engineering which deals with the preservation and maintenance of
health of the individual and the community, by preventing
communicable diseases. It consists of scientific and methodical
collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal of waste matter so
that public health can be protected from the offensive and injurious
substances. Sanitation is the prevention of sporadic outbreak of
disease, and can be achieved by either controlling or eliminating such
environmental factors that contributes into the some form or the
other to the transmission of diseases.
If the waste water created and given out by the human and
animal life, and also by industries etc, is allowed to accumulate, it will
get decompose and will contaminate or pollute air, water and food.
Hence sanitary disposal of waste, either in solid form or in liquid form,
is most essential. The sanitary sewage includes excreta (i.e. waste
matter eliminated from the boy), domestic sewage (i.e. used water
form the home community which includes toilet, bath, laundry, and

Lavatory and kitchen-sink wastes) and industrial waste. The improper

disposal of human excreta and sewage is the major factor threatening
the health and comfort of individuals where satisfactory sewage
system is not available.
IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINATIONS:
1) Refuse: is a general term used to indicate what is rejected or let
out as worthless. It may be liquid, semisolid or solid form and may be
divided into six catagories: a) garbage b) rubbish c) sullage d) sewage
e) subsoil water f) storm water.
2) Garbage: Dry refuse such as papers, decayed fruits, vegetables,
grass and leaves, and sweeping from streets, markets and other
public places. Thus garbage contains large amount of organic and
putrefying matter.
3) sullage: sullage is a term used to indicate waste water from
bathrooms kitchens, washing places and wash basins etc. It does not
create any bad smell because the organic matter in it is either absent
or in very negligible amount.
5) Sewage: sewage indicates the liquid waste from community. It
includes sullage , discharge from latrines, urinals, stables, industrial
waste and also ground surface and storm water. It is extremely
putrescible: its decomposition produces large quantities of
malodorous gases and it may contain numerous pathogenic or
disease producing bacteria.
6) Sub-soil water: it is the ground water that finds its entry into
sewers through leaks.
7) Storm water: it indicates the rain water of the locality
8) Sanitary sewage: sanitary sewage or the domestic sewage
indicates sewage mainly derived from the residential building and
industrial establishments. It is extremely foul in nature. Sanitary
sewage may be classified as a) domestic sewage and b) industrial
sewage.

9) Domestic sewage: it is the sewage obtained from the lavatory

basins, urinal and water closets of residential buildings office
buildings, theaters and other institutions. Since it contains human
excreta and urine, it is extremely foul in nature.
10) Industrial sewage: It s wastewater obtained from the industrial
and commercial establishments. Is may contain objectionable organic
compounds that may not be amenable to conventional treatment
processes.
11) Night soil: It is a term used to indicate the human excreta.
12) Sewer: it is an underground conduit or drain through which
sewage is carried to a point of discharge or disposal.
Sources of Wastes:
Solid waste- vegetable waste, kitchen waste, household
waste etc.
E-waste- discarded electronic devices like computer, TV,
music systems etc.
Liquid waste- water used for different industries e.g.
tanneries, distilleries, thermal power plants
Gaseous waste:
Plastic waste- plastic bags, bottles, bucket etc.
Metal waste- unused metal sheet, metal scraps etc.
Nuclear waste- unused materials from nuclear power
plants

For the disposal of waste products of a town two

works are required:
1) Collection works
2) Disposal works

The disposal works mainly consists of treatment works which are

essential to neither treat the waste water and dispose it off on such a
way that it may not cause any harm to the health of public nor pollute
the nearby water sources and environment. The collection works are
the works which are done to collect the waste products. In olden days
it was done by the conservancy method, but in modern cities it is
done by water carriage method. The water carriage system has so
many systems as separate, combined or partially separate in which
the sewage or storm water can be collected.
METHODS OF COLLECTION
The sanitation of a town or city is done by two methods which
are:
1) Conservancy system
2) Water carriage System.
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
This is an old system in which various types of wastes, such as
night soil, garbage etc. are collected separately in vessels or
deposited in pools or pits and then removed periodically at least once
in 24hrs. On account of this method of handling independently the
different type of refuse from place the term conservancy system has
been derived. The system is also known as the dry system. The
following are the methods of collection of various types of waste in
the system.
1) Night soil: night soils or human excreta in latrines, privies or
cesspools etc . is collected separately in pans or pails and carried on
heads of sweepers to a central place from where it is transported in
bullock carts or motor vans to a place away from the town for final
disposal. Normally it is buried into ground, in trenches, to give
excellent manure in one or two years.
2) Garbage: garbage is collected separately, in dust bins and
conveyed on head, carts or motor vans once or twice a day. It may
consist of waste matter of both non combustible as well as

combustible type the two are therefore sorted out. Garbage disposal
method includes the open ump, hog fiddling, and incineration,
dumping into sanitary field, fermentation or biological digestion.
Incineration, if properly controlled, is satisfactory for burning
combustible diffuse.
3) Refuse: sullage and storm water. Sullage and storm water are
collected and conveyed separately in closed or open gutters. The
liquid and semi liquid mass of filth which frequently overflow the
receptacles in privies is swept away by the sweepers to drain from the
privies, which carry it to drains carrying sullage and storm water ,
along the public lanes or streets.
In India, the conservancy system is still on vogue in all the
villages and small towns. Only a few cities have the water carriage
systems.
Disadvantages of conservancy system:
1) Hygiene and sanitary aspect: the conservancy system is
highly unhygienic and cause insanitary conditions since the excreta
start decomposing within few hrs of its production. Even if it is
assumed that cleaning will take place twice in a day, the excreta
remaining in the privies will emit bad smell and will give rise to fly
nuscence.
2) Transportation aspect: transportation of night soil takes
place in open carts through streets and other crowded localities this is
highly undesirable.
3) Labor aspect: the working of the system depends entirely on
the mercy of labors (sweepers). If they go on strike even for one day
for any reason what so ever, the privies can not be used because of
foul smell. Te whole locality will smell very badly.
4) Building design aspect: The lavatories or privies are to be
located outside the house and slightly away from the main building
the compact design is therefore is not possible.

5) Conditions of drains: insanitation may be there due to

carriage of sullage through open drains laid in the streets.
6) Human aspects: in the present day world, when man has
progressed much, it is highly humiliating to ask human beings to
transport night soil in pails on their heads.
7) Risk of epidemic: due to improper or careless disposal of
night soil, there are more chances of outbreak of epidemic.
8) Pollution problems: Liquid waste from lavatories etc.,
during their washing may soak in the ground, thus contaminating the
soil. If the ground water is a t a shallow depth, it may also be polluted
due to percolation of waste water.
9) Cost consideration: though t system is quit cheap in the
beginning its maintenance and establishment cost are very high.
10) Disposal land requirements:
considerable land for the disposal of sewage.

the

system

requires

WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

In this system, the collection, conveyance and disposal of various
types of waste are carried out with the help of water. Thus water is
used as medium to convey the waste from its point of production to
the pint of its treatment or a final disposal. Sufficient quantity of water
is required to be mix with the waste so that dilution ratio is so great
that the mixture may flow just like water.
In this system, specially designed latrines called water closet
(w.c) are used which are flushed with 5-10 liters of water after its used
by every person the human excreta is thus flushed away and lead to
suitable design and maintain sewer. The waste from kitchens, baths,
wash basins etc. re also laid to the sewers the sewers are the
underground closed pipes which are laid on suitable longitudinal
gradient slow that flow takes under gravity and proper flow velocity is
maintained to keep the sewer clean. The sewers laid the sewerage so
collected to suitable site where it is treated suitably and then is
disposed off by irrigation or by dilution.

It should be noted that the garbage is collected separately and

conveyed in same manner as in case if conservancy system. If
garbage is permitted in the sewers, they may be clogged.
This system requires large initial cost of installation and it
requires large quantity of water also to create efficient flow
conditions. If the financial conditions of people are poor, it may be
difficult to adopt this system. However this is the most efficient and
hygienic system of sewerage disposal, and may be adopted in stages
if sufficient funds are not available in the beginning.
ADVANTAGES OF WATER CARRIGE SYSTEM
This is the most modern system of drainage with the following
advantages.
1) Huygens and sanitary aspect: the system is very hygienic
since the night soil and other waste water is conveyed through closed
conduits which are not directly exposed to the atmosphere. There is
no bad smell because of continuous flow.
2) Epidemic aspect: there are no chances of outbreak of
epidemic because flies and other insects do not have direct access to
the sewage.
3) Pollution aspect: the liquid waste etc. is directly conveyed
through the sewers, and therefore there are no changes of the waste
Water being soaked in the ground thus contaminating the soil. The
waste water dies not percolate down to join the ground water. There
are no chances of pollution of water of well in individual houses if any.
4) Compactness in design: since the latrines are flushed after
every use, excreta do not remain and there are no foul smells. The
latrines can therefore be attached to the bedrooms and living. This
permits a compact design. The lavatories can be accommodated in
any part of the house.
5) Labour aspect: the labour required for the operation and
maintenance is extremely small. In fact, the functioning of the system
is practically automatic; except for the operation of certain pumps etc.

there is no labour problem. In the

latrines/lavatories can be conveniently
themselves.

individual houses, the

cleaned by occupants

6) Treatment aspect: the system permits the use of modern

methods of treatment of the sewage collected through the sewers.
The treated waste water and sewage can be safely disposed of
without any risk.
7) Land disposal requirements: because of treatment facilities
the land required for the disposal of the treated waste water is very
much smaller than that required for the conservancy system.
8) Cost consideration: though the initial cost of installation of the
system are very high, the running costs are very small manual labour
is very much reduced.
Management of Solid Waste

For waste management we stress on three Rs-Reduce, reuse and

recycle before destruction and safe storage of wastes.
(i)

Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of

raw materials correspondingly decreases the production of
waste. Reduced demand for any metallic product decreases its
mining, hence less production of waste.
(ii) Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers and
plastic bags which are discarded after use should be reused. In
Villages casseroles and silos are made from waste paper and
rubber rings from discarded cycle tubes. Such practices
reduce waste generation
(iii) Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing of
discarded materials into new useful products.
Formation of some old type products e.g., old aluminum cans
and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and
bottles.
Formation of new products: Preparation of cellulose insulation
from paper, preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.
Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel
cans.

The process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves money,

energy, raw materials, land space and also reduces pollution.
Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of trees for making fresh
paper. Reuse of metals will reduce mining and melting of ores for
recovery of metals from ores and prevent pollution.

(iv) Waste disposal:

For discarding wastes the following disposal methods can be adopted:
Sanitary landfill: In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin
layers, compacted and covered with clay or plastic foam. In the
modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner,
usually several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner
protects the ground water from being contaminated due to
percolation of leach ate. Leach ate from bottom is pumped and sent
for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel
and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near
the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground
water. Methane produced by anaerobic decomposition is collected and
burnt to produce electricity or heat.
Composting: Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the
biodegradable yard waste (kept separate from the municipal waste) is
allowed to degrade or decompose in an oxygen rich medium. A good
quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed
which improves the soil conditions and fertility. Wormy technology,
using earthworms can further help in converting solid organic waste
into good quality compost.
Incineration: Solid wastes can be brunt in large amounts at high
temperature (around 1800C) in incinerator. Incinerator is a high
temperature furnace used for burning solid wastes. Earlier
incinerators used to be made of simple brick lining, but the modern
ones are rotary. Kiln incinerators having a long inclined passage
through which the waste is constantly moved. There is about 75%
reduction in waste mass and 90% reduction in volume. The

incinerators in which the waste to be burnt is not segregated are

known as mass burn incinerators. There are special incinerators where
potentially harmful or hazardous.

Air Pollution
Air is defined as the elastic, invisible and tasteless mixture of
gases that surrounds the earth. Air pollution is an environmental evil.
Under ideal condition, the air that we inhale has a qualitative and
quantitative balance that maintains the well being of a man. When
the balance among the air components is distributed, air is said to be
polluted. Some specific definition of air pollution is given below.
According to Indian standards institution, air pollution is the
presence of ambient atmosphere of substances, generally resulting
from the activity of man, insufficient concentration, present for a
sufficient time and under circumstances with interfere significantly
with the comfort, health or welfare of persons or with the full use of
enjoyment of property.
Air pollution is an increasing problem in all countries where
urban growth and population increasing are accompanied by rapid
and extensive industrial development and extensive use of
automobiles. Air pollution is attributed as the price of
industrialization. Air pollution can impare health and sometimes
cause death. It can cause respiratory problems and eye irritation. it
also affects plants , animals and buildings.
Causes of air pollution:
As defined earlies, air pollution is any atmospheric condition
certain substances are present in such concentrations that they
produce undesirable effects on man and his environment. Following
are the main causes of the air pollution
1)

High rate of population growth: consequent to high

population density, there is higher rate of fuel consumption.

2)

3)

4)

5)

Rapid industrialization: this is one of the major causes. The

smokes from the factories, coke, oven and furnaces, steam
engine; exhaust fumes from power plants etc; chemical fumes
from oil refineries, zinc refineries, chemical industries,
metallurgical plants, iron and steel plants, incineration plants
etc. are the common sources of atmospheric pollution. Industrial
pollution is most is most complex, because of the large no. of
chemicals emitted by it in the atmosphere and the modifications
with these emitted pollutants can undergo by reactions with one
another in presence or absence of sunlight. Some, critics
comment on air pollution as the price of industrialization.
Transportation facilities: intensive increase in transportation
services such as motor vehicles, rails-trains, and aero planes
etc., through the world is another major contributing factor to air
pollution. The exhaust fumes form the automobiles pollutes the
atmosphere considerably in the urban area. Air pollution caused
by automobile is sometimes described as disease of wealth.
Radioactive substances: evolution of radioactive gases and
suspended radioactive dust from atomic explosions and
accidental discharges from nuclear reactors are very dangerous
sources of air pollution.
Natural causes: the natural sources which cause air pollution
including organic compounds from vegetation, ground also, salt
spray from ocean, cosmic dust and evolution of nitrogen sulphide
from natural source. These natural sources are beyond the
control of man.

COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR

Clean dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen and 20.94% oxygen. The
remaining 0.97% contains the gases mixture of carbon dioxide,
helium, argon, neon, krypton, nitrous oxide etc. including very small
amounts of some other organic and inorganic gases whose content
varies with the time and place.
Classification and sources of air pollutants

1. Categories of air pollution: Air pollution exists in three

distinct categories.
1) Personal air pollution
2) Occupational air pollution
3) Community air pollution
1) Personal air pollution: this represents the exposure of
individuals to the dust, fumes and gases. The common example of
this is when a person indulges in smoking of cigarette, cigar or pipe
2) Occupational air pollution: this represents the exposure of
individual to the aerosols, vapors and gases in harmful
concentrations, in their working and occupational environment.
3) Community air pollution: it represents the pollution from various
sources and factors which cause adverse social, economic and health
effects. Apart from affecting individuals the community air pollution
exerts a significant impact on mans total environment including
plants, animals, property and weather.

2. Sources of air pollution: there are two main sources of air

pollution
1) Natural sources
2) Man made source or anthropogenic air pollution sources.
(i) Natural air pollution sources:
sources consist of the following:

the natural air pollution

a) Wind blow dust 2) salt particles from sea water 3) dust of

meteoric region 4) micro organism like (bacteria, spores, pollen) 5)
gases and odours from swamps & marshes 6) fog 7) volcanic ash and
gases ( hydrogen fluoride & hydrogen sulphide ) 8) oxides of nitrogen
from electric storm.
(ii) Manmade sources:

The table shows the main source of air pollution due to mans
activities.
AEROS
OLS

CLASS

GASES AND VAPOURS

COMBUSTION PROCESS

Dust,
SO2 , NO2 , CO2 organic
fume , vapors, odours
(domestic gas burning, thermal
smoke
power plants, automobiles, aero
planes,
railways,
refuse
incineration)
CHEMICAL PROCESS

Dust , Process dependent

fume,
(paper mills, cement plants,
(SO2,CO2,NH3,NO2
mist
fertilizers, other chemical plants)
organic vapors, odours)
PETOLEUM OPERATIONS

Dust,
mist

METALLURGICAL PROCESS

Dust , SO2,CO,fluorides,organic
fume
vapors)

(Aluminum
industries,
steel
plants/ mills, smelter, non ferrous
industries)

SO@,NH3,CO,H2S,hydroc
arbons

FOOD & FOOD OPERATIONS

Dust,
mist

AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES

Dust
mist

, Organic
phosphates,
chlorinated hydrocarbons,
arsenic, lead.

ENERGY dust

Fluorides iodine-131 &a

argon
41,
radioactive
gases ( Sr.90, Cs-137,C14 etc)

a) Crop spraying
b) Field burning
NEUCLEAR
PROGRAMMES
a) Fuel preparation
b) Ore preparation
c) Nuclear
explosion/testing
MINERAL PROCESSING

Odorous materials

device
Dust

, Process dependants

fumes

(SO2,CI,fluorides,organic
vapors)

3. Classification of the pollutants: Air Pollution can be

classified under three heads:
a) Natural contaminants : natural fog, pollen grains, bacteria ,
product of volcanic eruptions)
b) Aerosols (particulates): dust, smoke, mist, fog, fume
c) Other contaminants: gases vapors and compounds.
4. Primary and secondary pollutants:
Are those which are emitted directly from the identifiable
source. The atmosphere contains hundreds of air pollutants from
natural or anthropogenic sources. Some important primary pollutants
are:
1) Particulate matter: a) coarse particles (>100 ) b) fine
aerosols of metals,
carbon, tar, resin, pollen, bacteria.
2) Sulphur oxides and compounds
3) Nitrogen oxides
4) Carbon monoxides
5) Hydrocarbons
6) Halogen compounds
7) Organic compounds
8) Radioactive compounds
9) Photochemical oxidents.
b) Secondary pollutants

Are those which are formed in the atmosphere as result of

incineration between two or more primary pollutants or by reaction
with normal atmospheric constituents, with or without
photocavitation. These are therefore chemical substances which are
often more harmful than organic basic chemicals that produce them.
1) Sulphuric acid H2SO4 or acid mist
2) Ozone O3
3) Formaldehyde
4) Peroxy-acetyl-nitrate (PAN)
5) Photochemical smog.
5. Stationary and mobile sources of air pollution:
a) stationary sources are asphaltic plants,boilers, heating
installations,cement and steel plants,fertilizers plants, mineral and
acid plants,paper pulp plants, power plants,incinerators and sewage
treatment plants
b) mobile sources are automobiles moving on the roads emitting
highly toxic gases
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION:
A)EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON ANIMALS:
The effects of air pollution on animals takes in two steps:
a) Accumulation of air pollution in vagitation, plants and forage
b) Subsequent poisoning of the animals when they eat the
contaminated vegetation
Important contaminants that affects the live stock:
a) Fluorine
b) Arsenic
c) Lead
These pollutants originate either from the industries situated
nearby, or from dusting and spraying. Out of the
contaminants,fluorine contamination is most prominent since

cattele and sheep are found more susceptible to it. Symtoms of

advanced fluorosis includes lack of apetite ,general ill health due
to malnutrition,lowered fertility, reduced milk production and
growth retardation. Arsenic in dusts or sprays on plants can
cause to the poisoning of cattle leading to salivation, thirst,
vomiting, uneasiness, feeble and irregular pulse and respiration.
Lead contamination of atmosphere takes place on account of
various industries such as smellers, coke ovens, and other coal
based industries. Prostration, staggering inability to rise are the
prominent symptoms of lead poisoning. There is a complete loss
of apetite , paralysis of digestive tract and diarrhea.
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH:
The inhalation of the polluted air has makes adverse effect on
the health of human beings. These adverse effects may be
devided into two classes viz, acute effets and chronic effects.
The acute effects are reveled immidietly after short term
exposure to the air pollutants of high concentrations. While
chronic effects become evidently only after continuous exposure
to low level air pollution. Following is the list of health hazards
caused by air pollution.
1) Ear nose and throat irritation
2) Irritation of respiratory tract
3) Odour nusance due to hydrogen sulphide, ammonia,
mecaptants, etc. even at low concentrations.
4) Chronic pulmonary diseases such as bronchitis, asthama, etc.,
are aggravated by high concentration of sulpher dioxide
SO2,nitrogen dioxide NO2,particulate matter and
photochemical smog.
5) Pollens causes asthma
6) Carcinogens causes cancer
7) Dust particles cause respiratory diseases, silicosis is caused by
silica dust of cement factories, and asbestosis is caused by
asbestos plant.
8) Lead poisoning is caused by entry lead into lungs
9) Hydrogen fluoride causes bone fluorosis and mottling teath.

10) Carbon monoxide CO may causes death by asphyxiation. It

also increases
Stress on persons suffering from the cardiovascular and
pulmonary
diseases.
11) Air pollution is general cause in mortality rate and morbidity
rate
12) Radioactive radiations may cause cancer, shortening of life
spans, genetic
defects.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON VEGITATION
AIR POLLUTION HAS LONG TERM AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON
PLANTS:
The most oblivious damage caused by air pollutants to plants
and vegetation occur is the leaf structure. The stomata of the leaves
get clogged thereby reducing the intake of co2 and thus affecting the
photosynthesis. The adverse effects range from reduction in growth
rate to death of plants.
METHODS TO CONTROL THE AIR POLLUTION
Following are the methods to control the air pollution
1) Setting chamber
2) Cyclone separator
3) Bag filters
1) SETTING CHAMBER TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION:
Gravitational setting chambers are generally used to collect
the large particles of size greater than 50microns. A stream of
dust laden gas is passed into the setting chamber where the
velocity of the gas suddenly reduced. As a result the dust
particles settle down and collected through a hopper at the
bottom. There are various types of settling chambers. Horizontal
setting chamber is most commonly used. To increase the
efficiency one can install the series of setting chamber into
parallel.

2) CYCLONE SEPARATOR TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION:

Cyclone separators utilize centrifugal force to separate the
particulate matters from the carrier gas. The particle laden gas
receives a rotating motion as it enters the cyclone cylinders. A
centrifugal force is developed due to the vortex formed which
throws the particles towards the wall. These particles get
collected in the conical bottom of cyclone cylinder. The spinning
gas streams spirals downwards to the bottom of the cone. At this
point the flow reverses to form an inner vortex and finally leaves
the cylinder through the outlet pipe situated at the top. High
efficiency cyclones are designed. A series of cyclones called the
multicyclones used in the industries to increase the efficiency of
collection.
3) BAG FILTERS TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION:
Bag filters are the devices by which the gas is purified
through various filtering cloths (cotton, wool, chemical fibers,
fiber glass etc.) or fabric filter (filters made of granular materials
like ceramics porous plastics etc.). A typical bag house contains
a tubular bag or an envelope mounted in such a manner that the
particle laden gas passing through the filters bags gets
deposited on the inside surface of the bags which are dusted by
shaking in intervals. The dust is collected in the hopper at the
bottom. The collection of the dust particles or the surface of
filters takes place due to several physical phenomenons. They
are inertial impaction (suspended particles in a stream flow lend
to retain the direction when the direction of gas flow changes),
direct interception (for particles having low inertia, the collection
mechanism is interception) and diffusion (particles in semi
micron range do not move by stream flow but more by diffusion
where particles in zigzag Brownian motion which causes them to
impinge and adhere to the surface of fabrics).
Bag filters have high efficiency but the filters are required
to be clean and changed in regular intervals. Many filters made
up of clothes and plastics cannot work at high temperatures.
These filters are normally more expensive and require frequent

maintenance. Jet type of bag filters is the most common bag

filter in use.
diagrams

WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES OF STORAGE:

The structures built up for the storage of water which can be
used in future are known as hydraulic structures of storage. Following
are the type of structures used for the storage of water:
1) Dams
2) Bunds
3) Reservoirs
4) Storage Tanks
DAMS: A dam is a barrier constructed across a river or a natural
stream to create a reservoir for impounding water or to facilitate
diversion of water from the river or to retain debris flowing in the river
along with water. The excess water is released in the river and useful
water is transferred through canals. Dams may be classified in
different ways on the basis of their function, hydraulic design, and
material of construction, structural design and size:
A) Classification based on function:
a) Storage or Impounding Dam
B) Detention Dam
C) Detention Dam
D) Diversion Dam
E) Coffer dam
B) Classification Based On the Hydraulic Design
a) Over Flow or over fall Dam
B) Non Over Flow Dam

C) Classification Based On Structural Behavior

A) Gravity Dam
B) Earth Dam
C) Arch Dam
Gravity dam: In the construction of a gravity dam the rigid materials
such as concrete is mainly used to resist the force exerted upon it by
its own weight and the water stored behind the dam on upstream
side. Gravity dams are relatively more strong and stable then other
type of dams because the concrete is used as a major construction
material. If the reservoir gets over flooded the overflow spillway crest
is provided. The construction of the dam can be done to the suitable
heights as there is no limitation or restriction for height. Maintenance
cost is very less for gravity dams. These dams gives enough warning
times before the complete failure. Life of gravity dams is more (up to
100 yrs) as compared to other dams.

Components forces in gravity dam

Plan of dam

Earth/Embankment dam: The main construction material for these

types of dam is clays, gravel, sand, silt. It resists the forces exerted
upon it mainly by its shear strength. These dams are relatively less
strong and stable. Earth dams cannot be used as a overflow dams.
The height of these dams is restricted to its stability of slopes. Earth
dams require frequent maintenance. These dams generally fails
suddenly without showing any signs of failure. Life of these dams is
less.
An embankment dam is a massive artificial water barrier. It is typically
created by the emplacement and compaction of a complex semiplastic mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay and/or rock.
It has a semi-permanent waterproof natural covering for its surface,
and a dense, waterproof core. This makes such a dam impervious to
surface or seepage erosion. The force of the impoundment creates a
downward thrust upon the mass of the dam, greatly increasing the
weight of the dam on its foundation. This added force effectively seals
and makes waterproof the underlying foundation of the dam, at the
interface between the dam and its stream bed. Such a dam is
composed of fragmented independent material particles. The friction
and interaction of particles binds the particles together into a stable
mass rather than by the use of a cementing substance

Typical Section of an Earthen Dam

Types of an earthen dam:

1.
2.
3.

Rock fill type earthen dam.

Concrete face earthen dams.
Earth fills dams.

Rock fills dams:

A rock fill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An
impervious membrane is placed on the rock fill on the upstream side
to reduce the seepage through the dam. The membrane is usually
made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete. In early rock fill dams,
steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they are
obsolete. A dry rubble cushion
is placed between the rock fill and the membrane for the distribution
of water load and for providing a support to the membrane.
Sometimes, the rock fill dams have an impervious earth core in the
middle to check the seepage instead of an impervious upstream
membrane. The earth core is placed against a dumped rock fill. It is
necessary to provide adequate filters between the earth core and the
rock fill on the upstream and downstream sides of the core so that the
soil particles are not carried by water and piping does not occur. The
side slopes of rock fill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of
rock, which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or 1.3:1). Rock fill dams require
foundation stronger than those for earth dams. However, the

foundation requirements are usually less stringent than those for

gravity dams. Rock fill dams are quite economical when a large
quantity of rock is easily available near the site.

Concrete face earthen dams.

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with

concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete
slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure
without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is
flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earthfill dams.
Earth dams:
An earth dam is made of earth (or soil). It resists the forces
exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the
weight of the earth dam also helps in resisting the forces, the
structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely different from that of a
gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having
flat slopes at flanks (abutments). The foundation requirements are
less stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence they can be built
at the sites where the foundations are less strong. They can be built

on all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam will

depend upon the strength of the foundation.

SPILLWAYS
INTRODUCTION
Spillways are provided for storage and detention dams to release
surplus floodwater, which can not be contained in the allotted storage
space. In diversion works, like weirs and barrages, spillways bypass
the flow exceeding that which is released in to the system like
irrigation canals, power canals, feeder canals, link canals etc.
Ordinarily, the excess flow is drawn from the top of the pool created
by the dam
and conveyed through an artificial waterway i.e. spillway, back into
the same river or to some other drainage Channel.
TYPES OF SPILLWAYS
Spillways may be broadly categorized as service spillway and
emergency type spillway. The service spillways are those which are in
constant use in every flood when the reservoir level exceeds the crest
level of the spillway. An emergency spillway, also known as auxiliary
spillway, is one which is rarely used and come into operation during
extraordinary flood when the actual flood discharge exceeds the
design capacity of the service spillway. Various types of service
spillways in common
use are briefly described below:
Vertical Drop type Spillway
A vertical drop or free over fall type spillway is one in which the flow
drops freely from the acres of the dam. This type is suited in a thin
arch or a deck overflow type dam. Flows may be freely discharging, or
they may be supported along a narrow section of the crest.
Occasionally, the crest is extended in the form of an overhanging lip
to direct small discharges away from the face of the overflow section.
In free over fall spillways, the underside of the nappe is ventilated
sufficiently to prevent a pulsating, fluctuating jet. Where no artificial
protection is provided at the base of the over fall, scour will occur in
most streambeds and will form a deep plunge pool. The volume and
depth of the hole are related to the range of discharges, the height of
the drop, and the depth of tailwater. The erosion-resistant properties
of the streambed material including bedrock have little influence on
the size of the hole, the only effect being the time necessary to scour

the hole to its full depth. Such spillway can be provided only in case of
low height dams on hard bed. In high dams these are not to
be adopted, as it will subject the foundation to heavy scour and cause
vibration
leading to failure of the dam.
Ogee (overflow) Spillways
The ogee spillway as shown in Fig.3 (a) and Fig.3 (b) has a control
weir, which is ogee or S-shaped in profile. Ordinarily, the upper curve
of the ogee spillway is made to conform closely to the profile of the
lower nappe of a ventilated sheet falling from a sharp-crested weir.
Flow over the crest is made to adhere to the face of the profile by
preventing access of air to the under side of the sheet. For discharges
at designed head, the flow glides over the crest with no interference
from the boundary
surface and attains near-maximum discharge efficiency. The profile
below the upper curve of the ogee is continued tangent along a slope
to support the sheet on the face of the overflow and flow onto the
apron of a stilling basin or into the spillway discharge channel. This
type of spillway is commonly used in high dams and it is suitable to
handle large flood flow s.
.

Chute (Open Channel or Trough) Spillways

A spillway, whose discharge is conveyed from the reservoir to the
downstream river level through an open channel, placed either along
a dam abutment or through a saddle, might be called a chute, open
channel, or trough type spillway. These designations can apply
regardless of the control device used to regulate the flow. Thus, a

spillway having a chute-type discharge channel, though controlled by

an
overflow crest, a gated orifice, a side channels crest, or some other
control device might still be called a chute spillway. However, the
name is most often applied when the spillway control is placed normal
or nearly normal to the axis of an open channel, and where the
streamlines of flow both above and below the control crest follow the
direction of the channel axis. The chute spillway has been used with
earthfill dams more often than has any other type. Chute spillways
ordinarily consist of an entrance
channel, a control structure, a discharge channel, a terminal
structure, and an outlet
channel.

Conduit and Tunnel Spillways

Where a closed channel is used to convey the discharge around or
under a dam, the spillway is often called a tunnel or conduit spillway,
as appropriate. The closed channel may take the form of a vertical or
inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel through earth or rock, or a conduit
constructed in open cut and backfilled with earth materials.Most
forms of control structures, including overflow crests, vertical or
inclined orifice entrances, drop inlet entrances, and side channel
crests, can be used with conduit and
tunnel spillways. Tunnel spillways may present advantages for dam
sited in narrow canyons with steep abutments or at sites where there

is danger to open channels from snow or rockslides. Conduit spillways

may be appropriate at dam sites in wide valleys, where the
abutments rise gradually and are at a considerable distance from the
stream channel. Use of a conduit will permit the spillway to be located
under the dam near the streambed.
Drop Inlet (Shaft or Morning Glory) Spillways
A drop inlet or shaft spillway, as the name implies, is one in which the
water enters over a horizontally positioned lip, drops through a
vertical or sloping shaft, and then flows to the downstream river
channel through a horizontal or near horizontal conduit or tunnel. The
structure may be considered as being made up of three elements;
namely, an overflow control weir, a vertical transition, and a closed
discharge channel. Where the inlet is funnel-shaped, this type of
structure is often called a morning glory or glory hole spillway.
Fig.5 illustrates a typical drop inlet spillway.
Showing Drop Inlet or Shaft Spillway
Discharge characteristics of the drop inlet spillway may vary with the
range of head. The control will shift according to the relative
discharge capacities of the weir, the transition, and the conduit or
tunnel. For example, as the heads increase on a glory hole spillway,
the control will shift from weir flow over the crest to orifice flow in the
transition and then to full pipe flow in the downstream portion. A drop
inlet spillway can be used advantageously at dam sites in narrow
canyons where the abutments rise steeply or where a diversion tunnel
or conduit is available for use as the downstream leg. Another
advantage of this type of spillway is that near maximum capacity is
attained at relatively low heads; This characteristic makes the
spillway ideal for use where the maximum spillway outflow is to be
limited. This characteristic also may be considered disadvantageous,
in that there is little increase in capacity beyond the designed heads,
should a flood occur. This would not be a disadvantage if this type of
spillway were used as a service spillway in conjunction with an
auxiliary or emergency spillway.
Culvert Spillway
A culvert spillway is a special adaptation of the conduit or tunnel
spillway. It is distinguished from the drop inlet and other conduit types
in that its inlet opening is placed either vertically or inclined upstream
or downstream, and its profile grade is made uniform or near uniform
and of any slopes. The spillway inlet opening might be sharp edged or
rounded, and the approach to the conduit might have flared or

tapered sidewalls with a level or sloping floor. If it is desired that the

conduit flow partly full
for all conditions of discharges, special precautions are taken to
prevent the conduit from flowing full. Culvert spillways should not be
used for high-head installations where large negative pressures can
develop.
Siphon Spillways
A siphon spillway is a closed conduit system formed in the shap of an
inverted U, positioned so that the inside of the bend of the upper
passageway is at normal reservoir storage level. The initial discharges
of the spillway as the reservoir level rises above normal are similar to
flow over a weir. Siphon action takes place after the air in the bend
over the crest has been exhausted. Continuous flow is maintained by
the suction effect due to the gravity pull of the water in the lower leg
of the siphon.
Siphon spillway is composed of five component parts.. These include
an inlet, an upper leg, a throat or control section, a lower leg, and an
outlet. A siphon-breaker air vent is also provided to control the siphon
action of the spillway so that it will cease operation when the
reservoir water surface is drawn down to normal level. Otherwise the
siphon would continue to operate until air entered the inlet. The inlet
is generally placed well below the normal reservoir water surface to
prevent entrance of ice and
drift and to avoid the formation of vortices and draw downs, which
might break the siphon action. The upper leg is formed as a bending
convergent transition to join the inlet to a vertical throat section. The
throat or control section is generally rectangular in cross section and
is located at the crest of the upper bend of the siphon. The upper
bend then continues to join a vertical or inclined tube, which forms
the lower leg of the siphon. Fig.6 shows typical siphon spillway with
different parts.

Siphon spillway indicating various parts

The principal advantage of a siphon spillway is its ability to pass fullcapacity discharges with narrow limits of headwater rise. A further
advantage is its positive and automatic operation without mechanical
devices or moving parts. In addition to its higher cost, as compared
with other types, the siphon spillway has a number of
disadvantages, including the following:
(a) The inability of the siphon spillway to pass ice and debris.
(b) The possibility of clogging the siphon passageways and siphon
breaker vents with debris or leaves.
(c) The possibility of water freezing in the inlet legs and air vents
before the reservoir rises to the crest level of the spillway, thus
preventing flow through the siphon.
(d) The occurrence of sudden surges and stoppages of outflow as a
result of the erratic make-and-break action of the siphon, thus causing
radical fluctuations in the downstream river stage.
(e) The release of outflows in excess of reservoir inflows whenever the
siphon operates, if a single siphon is used. Closer regulation which will
more nearly balance outflow and inflow can be obtained by providing
a series of smaller siphons, with their siphon breaker vents set to
prime at gradually increasing reservoir heads.
(f) The more substantial foundation required resisting vibration
disturbances, which are more pronounced than in other types of
control structures.

Side Channel Spillway

In a side channel spillway, the waterfalls from the reservoir over a
service spillway like ogee type spillway into a narrow channel
excavated from the side hills towards the abutment of the dam. The
flow in the side channel is at right angle to the direction of the
incoming flow from the reservoir. The side channel is provided with a
control section at its end to ensure that the flow in the side channel is
at sub-critical stage and there is thorough mixing of the incoming
super critical jet in the side channel trough portion. The water from
the side channel usually enters a chute type spillway after the control
section. Fig.7 illustrates a typical side channel type of spillway
commonly used for earthen and rock fill type dams

(a) Plan and (b) Section of Side Channel Spillway

Stepped Spillway
In a stepped spillway, water falls over a series of steps from
crest to the toe of the dam. It has the advantage over other
spillways in that it acts also as an energy dissipator as the
water comes down from the reservoir level to the tail water
level. It is not suitable for high dams with large overflow
since the nappe flow changes to skimming flow with very

little dissipation of energy and the steps are subjected to

cavitation damage.
Selection of Spillway Size and Type
In determining the best combination of storage and spillway
capacity to accommodate the selected inflow design flood, all
pertinent factors of hydrology, hydraulics, design, cost, and
damage should be considered. In this connection and when
applicable, consideration should be given to such factors as
(a) the characteristics of the flood hydrographic; (b) the
damages which would result if such a flood occurred without
the dam; (c) the damages which would result if such a flood
occurred with the dam in place; (d) the damages which would
occur if the dam or spillway were breached; (e) effects of
various dam and spillway combinations on the probable
increase or decrease of damages above or below the dam (as
indicated by reservoir back-water curves and tailwater
curves); (f) relative costs of increasing the capacity of
spillway ; and (g) use of combined outlet facilities to serve
more than one function, such as control of releases and
control or passage of floods. Service outlet releases may be
permitted in passing part of the inflow design flood unless
such outlets are considered to be unavailable in time of flood.
Conveyance system
CANALS: The irrigation water is conveyed from the reservoir
to form through an open channel of trapezoidal shape known
as canal. The canal may be excavated or constructed in the
embankment.
Types of canals:
1)According to their alignment :
a) Contour canal: the canal generally follow a falling
contour except for necessary longitudinal slope.
Main canal is run as counter canal in the head
reach. It can irrigate one side that is lower side.

b)Ridge canal: the canal is laid along a natural water

shed is known as a ridge canal. These canals are
usually takes off from the contour canals. It irrigates
on both sides. Cross drainage works can be avoided
and hence it is economical.
c) In this alignment the canal is aligned across
contours. No cross drainage works required. These
canals have steep bed slope and hence the lining is
necessary.
2)Their origin and capacity:
a) Main canal: main canal starts directly from the weir
head works. No direct irrigation is usually carried
from the main canal.
b)Branch canal: when main canal reaches the area
where irrigation is to be done it is divided into the
branches joining to the different parts of the area.
The branch canal ends into a distributor.
c) Major distributor: these are the smaller channels
taking off from the branch canal or sometimes from
the main canals. The capacity of distributary canal
varies from 0.3 to 6 m3/sec.
d)Minor distributor: these are small channels of
capacity less than 3.3 m3/sec. taking off from the
branch distributor they supply the water to water
course for irrigation.
e) Water course or field canals: from these canals
water enters into the field of cultivators. These are
small canals having capacity less than 0.05m3/sec.
3)Shape of canal:
Canals generally constructed in following three
shapes:
a) Rectangular canal
b)Triangular canal
c) Trapezoidal canal
a) Rectangular section: rectangular channel will be
most economical when:-

1)Width of the bed is equal to the twice of

depth of section.
2)Hydraulic mean depth is half of the depth of
flow.

Rectangular canal

b)Trapezoidal section: the required condition of

for the trapezoidal section to be more
economical, which can be expressed as half of
the top width must be equal to the one of the
sloping side of channel.
c) Triangular section: the most efficient triangular
section is half of a square with diagonal
horizontal hydraulic mean depth.