Writing about HIV and AIDS for young people: Lutz van

Dijk's novel, Stronger than the Storm.

Lutz van Dijk's Stronger than the Storm (2000) (1), subtitled"a novel for young adults about HIV and
AIDS in South Africa",is a realistic story about the gang rape of a 14-year-old girl in thetownship of
Guguletu near Cape Town, the rape survivor's subsequentcontraction of HIV/AIDS and the
attempted resolution of the traumaticeffects of both the rape act and the contraction of the disease.
Theauthor assumes a particular approach to conflict resolution, one thatclosely reflects and is
influenced by the process of bearing witness tohistorical oppression and violence, and forgiveness,
in contemporarySouth Africa (e.g. the Truth and Reconciliation Commission [TRC]hearings). The
author's project is also premised on the notion thatliterature (i.e. storytelling) is an effective means
of breaking thesilence about violent invasions of a person's life (the'unspeakable'): this bringing to
consciousness of new ways ofseeing can influence and change the behaviour of both oppressor
andvictim and by extension the impressions, perceptions and behaviour ofyoung readers. Changes in
consciousness and behaviour could potentiallycause a transcendence of the historical relationship of
oppressed andoppressor, rape survivor and rapist, such that they are able to accepteach other, even
be reconciled with one another. This assumption aboutthe effects of storytelling is an extension of
the belief that ideas canhave (and often do have) a material impact, and that we are not
merelyvictims of our circumstances.
Thus the novel tells a story about empathy with people living withHIV/AIDS as well as the
transcendence and resolution of the feelingsengendered through rape--and by implication, through
the whole complexbehaviour pattern of gender based violence, The book's storytellingapproach to
the 'unspeakable horror' of contracting HIV andliving with AIDS reaches its limitations when it deals
with the act ofrape only in a cursory manner. Consequently, the novel plays down theemotional and
physical impact of the traumatic experience of rape. Theresolution offered by the novel to the
trauma of rape comes across toomuch like the proverbial 'happy ending'.
This article introduces the background to Stronger than the Storm, analyses the novel in terms of
the issues raised in connection with the question of HIV/AIDS and interrogates the portrayal of
the protagonist's resolution of her relation to the perpetrators. In the book this resolution is
presented as an encounter, through dialogue within the context of Ubuntu (2), between the rape
survivor and the perpetrators of the crime.
Background to the novel
Sexual abuse of children in South Africa has increased at an alarming rate over recent years. In the
period January to September 2001, there were 15 650 rapes of children reported to the South
African Police Services. Of these, 5 859 were against children between the ages of 0 to 11 years
and 9791 against children between the ages of 11 to 17 years whilst many more offences go
unreported (Keke, 2002:16). South Africa also has a very high incidence of HIV/AIDS infection.
According to a recent survey conducted by the Department of Health (2002) on the national HIV
prevalence of women attending public antenatal clinics, the HIV prevalence among South African
teenagers in 2001 was estimated at 15.4 %, a slight decline from the two previous years: in 1999 it
was 16.5 % and in 2000 16.1%. While there is a variation of the infection rate between the different
age groups (women between the ages of 15 and 49 were tested) and the different provinces, with
the Western Cape as the lowest and KwaZulu-Natal as the highest, the report concludes that on a
national level there is still in increase in the HIV prevalence rate over the last 3 years that has now
reached an estimated 24.8 % as opposed to the 1999 figure of 22.4 %. Based on these findings, it

is estimated that by 2001 approximately 4.74 million people in South Africa had become infected
with the HIV virus. South Africa is therefore a country where both the incidence of sexual violence
against children and HIV infection is high.
Against the background of these alarming figures, the idea forwriting a novel about HIV and AIDS
arose after Dutch-German author ofyouth literature Lutz van Dijk and Karin Chubb, head of
ForeignLanguages at the University of the Western Cape had attended the youthhearings of the TRC
in Cape Town in 1997 where the issue of HIV and AIDSin young people was just one of the many
traumas that were raised (3).Alerted by the fact that young people in South Africa had a need
tovoice their concerns and fears in this regard and aware that a newapproach to AIDS education had
to be developed that would also rely onold traditions of storytelling and include new developments in
youthliterature, Chubb decided to research the availability of South Africanyouth fiction dealing with
AIDS. Only three books had been published onthis subject by 1998. (4) While Chubb (1999:7)
acknowledges them assubstantial contributions to exploring the themes of "human rightseducation
and AIDS awareness" in a youth context, she neverthelessfound it unbelievable that, with a country
in the grips of an AIDS crisis of cataclysmic proportions, and with a huge increase in the infection
rates among the young, this reality is almost ignored by our writers and storytellers. It is even more
astonishing that there are no books at all which are specifically aimed at a young black South
African readership. (Chubb, 1999: 8)
Having identified a gap in the book market Chubb and van Dijk embarked on a joint book project,
namely to create a story that would reflect the "daily life experiences of black youth" and could also
be used as an educational tool (Chubb and van Dijk, 2001a). The novel, based on facts and real life
stories, is clearly well researched and the style approaches the documentary despite the statement,
which prefaces the book: "All characters in this novel are fictitious. However, places like the
township Guguletu do not only exist in South Africa". The novel thus claims to be exemplary
and 'true', not only within a South African context. Indeed Lutz van Dijk would like his writing to be
as authentic as possible to the point where factual material related in his novels can be
corroborated by contemporaries or evidenced by the described settings. That is why he and Karin
Chubb went to Cape Town townships to meet with youth and adults who were asked to give their
input towards their book project "to make it really their own story." During the consultation process
it became clear that although most young people had a general knowledge of the dangers of
possible HIV infection,
the real problem lay in changing behaviour and communicating with peers. Some were tired of
hearing endless and repetitive details of the disease that appeared to have no concrete connection
to their personal experiences and conflicts. Because knowledge did not lead to any change of
behaviour, infection rates did not change either. (Chubb and van Dijk, 2001)
Lutz van Dijk's aim was thus to write a story that truly reflected the experiences of township people,
a story "that spoke with their voices" (Chubb and van Dijk, 2001). After the first draft was
completed, members of the community were asked to comment on whether the story was a 'true'
reflection of their life, whether it was exciting as far as challenges and conflicts were concerned
and whether it inspired readers to talk about and exchange stories, including personal stories.
The whole process of conceptualisation of the book thus clearly shows that Stronger than the Storm
falls into a category of youth literature that is specifically produced for pedagogical and didactic
purposes as van Dijk's close cooperation with Chubb, who translated the book into English and
wrote the accompanying Teacher Guide (2001) demonstrates. Van Dijk believes that the message
about the death threat of HIV/AIDS is not heard by youngsters when related through facts
and figures whereas literature offers a more effective communication medium: "Stories keep pride

and traditions alive in diverse communities. They confirm common experiences. That makes it easier
to talk to one another--even about upsetting issues such as HIV/AIDS. This makes the narration of
stories a must in classrooms." (Van Dijk quoted in Friis and Swanepoel, 2001). This opinion was
shared by Phumla Satyo, chief subject advisor for English at the Western Cape
Education Department, who arranged workshops on the novel for future integration into the
English Curriculum for 90 teachers from more than 60 schools, with similar workshops planned in
other South African provinces (Friis and Swanepoel, 2001). In the meantime more than 400 South
African schools have prescribed the book.
Critics, both in Germany and in South Africa, have praised the pedagogical message in Stronger
than the Storm for which van Dijk received the Gustav-Heinemann-Peace Prize in 2001 and hailed
the novel as a significant contribution in the campaign towards raising awareness on HIV and AIDS.
(5) The jury awarding the prize, for example, regarded the book as
a suspense story, strong and unsentimental; it is a book that brings close the reality in South
Africa, that unequivocally takes the side of the young girl who is the victim of superstition and
violence. It is a book that argues against the isolation of people infected by HIV, it is an appeal for
tolerance, courage, and justice. (Pressemeldungen, 2001) (6)
Similarly South African critic Nawaal Deane writes in the Mail & Guardian that "the novel works as
a brilliant social guide for all learners on HIV/AIDS issues. [...] It is a message of hope to all South
Africans that, through acceptance and love, we can weather the AIDS storm and see yet another
spring" (Deane, 2001).
While a multi-pronged approach in combating the spread of the HIV virus is necessary and it has
been acknowledged by the South African government that "we must treat the epidemic as a national
emergency and engage all organs of society in the struggle against it" (Asmal quoted in Jewkes,
2000), it is clear that the HIV crisis in South Africa does not only call for interventions aimed at
preventing the disease, but also for mature and empathetic responses to people who
have contracted the virus. As the above outline shows, educators and critics share the view of the
authors of the novel and teacher guide, namely that literary texts "provoke a different relationship
with their young readers than do straightforward pamphlets on prevention" (Walsh, Mitchell and
Smith, 2002:106). More than enough statistical information is available on the disease resulting in
messages of "fear, of death, of denial" but not "enough about caring, about the feelings of those
affected, about loneliness, about relationships and about love". As Chubb elaborates: "Literature
and art--storytelling in its many forms--are the means through which we develop the capacity to
empathise" (Chubb, 2002:86).
Writing about HIV and AIDS
Stronger than the Storm, written from the perspective of 15-year-old Thinasonke, who is looking
back at events in her life during the past year, is divided into ten chapters. In both the German
and English editions, the chapter headings appear in both the language of the text and in isiXhosa.
This emphasises the African cultural context of the story and prepares the introduction of the
concept of Ubuntu later in the novel. Thinasonke's story starts with the description of an almost
idyllic scene at the seaside. She and her boyfriend Thabang enjoy the wild nature around them,
each other, their affection and their kissing. Thinasonke's happiness turns to reflection on how her
life has changed in the past year. Only a few months ago she had been convinced that nobody
would ever kiss her again. Thabang picks up on her serious mood and asks her to share her
thoughts with him. Because "she trust him so completely", she decides to tell him about the
circumstances of her birth, reflecting "it is wonderful to be able to talk about absolutely everything

with him. It is a bit like therapy, good therapy. So I tell him this story as well, the way it all started"
(7) Although it is not clear to the reader what exactly Thinasonke refers to, as the nature of her
trauma or the fact that she is HIV positive has not yet been revealed, the discerning young
reader can guess this as a result of the subtitle of the book. However, what is made clear to the
reader throughout the book is that instead of keeping personal trauma locked within oneself and
being haunted by them, sharing one's story through telling it to a trusted person or by writing
it down can contribute towards understanding a set of traumatic events and alleviate feelings of
isolation and despair, thus providing a means of overcoming them:
Now that I have told Thabang the story, I want to write it all down. To begin with, only for myself.
It is a little bit like the boulder by the sea. Being able to throw off that weight not only makes you
light and free. If you do it the right way, it can perhaps even make you stronger (ST, 20).
Therefore the overarching message at the beginning and end of the book is unequivocal: one can
have a fulfilling life when living with HIV, if one has the support and trust of friends and family and
if one is able to voice one's story in an environment and with people who are non-threatening,
accepting, empathetic and loving. Furthermore, living with HIV, confronting the disease and all the
ramifications in terms of interpersonal relationships and one's standing within the community,
through sharing one's story or writing it down, can lead to personal growth and make you stronger.
The second paragraph of the novel juxtaposes the improved weather conditions with
Thinasonke's process of healing: "After the bitterly cold weather of the last few days, spring arrived
today in a burst of warmth and sunshine. And Thabang is still with me. We have survived, we have
overcome all of it, and absolutely nothing was in vain" (ST, 1).
Thinasonke's story is thus about a learning process, her own as well as of the people she has contact
with. At the same time the reader is invited to participate in this learning process, not only in the
sense of being confronted with facts as well as misconceptions about HIV and AIDS but also in
terms of the attitudes, prejudices, rejections, fears, myths that circulate about the disease within
the family, among friends, within the school and the community at large as well as ways
to overcome or rise above such enormous stumbling blocks. Interwoven into Thinasonke's story are
the stories of her mother, her brother Mangaliso, her friend Thabang and on a less pronounced level
the stories of her school friends, her teacher and even her rapists, thereby providing a family and
community backdrop that allow for the representation of social conditions that make township
youth particularly vulnerable to HIV infection despite the available knowledge: "It is true that
anyone can get AIDS and half of the new infections are in our age group. But in our communities
nobody wants to talk about it--it's a bigger taboo than even among Whites" (ST, 46).
The topic of HIV and AIDS in the book is introduced through Thabang's mother who is struck down
by a mysterious illness: "Nobody seems to know exactly what the problem is. Sometimes she has a
cold, then she had debilitating diarrhoea for weeks on end" (ST, 25). Because of her illness Thabang
has not been able to attend school for more than a year, as there is no one else to look after her and
his 5-year old brother Thobile. Thabang who learns only shortly before her death that she has AIDS,
disappears together with his younger brother after the funeral. Through pure coincidence
Thinasonke recognises him as one of the many street children when on an excursion with her
school in Cape Town. When she confronts him to find out what happened, Thabang explains that he
left his home because he had feared for his life. Neighbours had threatened him for not having kept
the nature of his mother's illness a secret, thereby having brought "shame not only to the family but
to the neighbours in the whole street". To them "Ugawulayo--AIDS" is an "evil disease", that
"cannot be controlled" and "a punishment for your sins" (ST 62). He speculates that his mother had
contracted the virus from an older man with whom she had a relationship for a while despite the
fact that he had physically abused her and the children since he had provided them with money

and occasionally food.

Through Thabang's story van Dijk highlights not only the abject poverty of many South Africans but
also the breakdown of the nuclear family, caused by the prolonged absence of fathers often due
to migrant labour (8), child labour, alcoholism, physical abuse, and HIV/AIDS, often resulting in
children becoming the head of the household. Ironically, however, the nuclear family is still the only
one that is recognised by South African Common Law and Statute although attempts are made to
redefine family to include the extended family and other family forms. (9) Furthermore, as
Thabang's example shows, the death of the primary care giver as a result of HIV/AIDS has
severe social, emotional and economic consequences: he loses his home, is ostracised by the
community, has to take care of his younger brother, is forced to earn his living and find shelter as
one of the street children. As a result he suffers from exhaustion and stress, from insecurity and
stigmatisation, with the hope for an education completely gone. Thabang's story ends well:
Thinasonke is able to persuade her mother to provide shelter for him and his brother and the school
in Guguletu is prepared to take him on despite his inability to pay school fees. However, the plight
of the other street children brings into focus the impact of HIV/AIDS on children, as most of them
are AIDS orphans (10) as well as the dangers they face in their daily life. They are particularly
vulnerable to child rape; they do not have any access to food beyond the scraps they might find in
dustbins or to money beyond what they receive from begging. They also earn a living by
delivering drugs for drug dealers often addicted to drugs themselves, or they prostitute themselves,
thereby risking HIV infection (see ST, 64).
Apart from the very real daily economic and social problems that children face as a result of the
death of a parent from HIV/AIDS, stigmatisation linked to the disease is perhaps one of the
most difficult ones to overcome, especially in view of the fact that life in the township is hard
enough as it is: "Life in Guguletu. There is always more than enough of what you don't want: dust
and strife, hunger and heat, stink and garbage. Never that which you do need: trust and friends,
enough food and drink, paid work, treatment for the sick" (ST 23). That is perhaps the reason why
Thinasonke's mother, a domestic worker, sole income earner and pillar of the family, is unable or
unwilling to provide the necessary emotional or practical support to her daughter immediately after
her rape. Neither does she report it to the police nor does she have her treated. Instead the mother
passes the rape off as a violent assault to the police and the community. She calls for a sangoma
(traditional healer) to look after her daughter who is prepared to keep silent in order to
preserve "the family honour" (ST, 35). When her biggest fear of a possible pregnancy is alleviated
she tells Thinasonke "the worst was over" (ST 43). It is not ignorance of a possible HIV
infection that prevents the mother from supporting her daughter through her emotional trauma
since she acknowledges the disease when hearing of the death of Thabang's mother (cf. ST 41), but
a deep rooted fear of being ostracised by the community. Even after her daughter's HIV status is
confirmed, the mother does not change her attitude: "You are not pregnant, therefore you also do
not have AIDS! ... I will pay the sangoma to deny all the rumours and to make sure that there is
no shame on our family" (ST, 100).
As a result of her mother's lack of support after her rape ordeal, Thinasonke is left alone with her
fears of having contracted the virus; a possibility that occurs to her only after Thabang tells her
of his mother's illness. When she is back at school, she rejoins the drama group. Under the
guidance of teacher Miss Delphine, the students workshop a contemporary and provocative new
play about HIV, the use of condoms and attitudes of people in South Africa towards the disease.
Her teacher's enlightened attitude, her determination to proceed with the project over parents'
protest and vigilante action against her, give Thinasonke the courage to speak of her rape for the
first time.

Miss Delphine also helps Thinasonke to take an AIDS test, supporting her during the three month
waiting period for the test results. Thinasonke who had taken the test primarily to be reassured
and "to forget it all" (ST 75), realises when receiving news of the results that "now there would be
no forgetting. I would always be reminded. There would be no place I could call home. I would
be ostracised, would have no family, no friends" (ST 75). However, as Thinasonke later finds out, it
is only her mother who never acknowledges her HIV status, while her friends, her brother and the
children in her drama group provide moral support and empathy and share stories of their own
with her.
Such overwhelming support by friends and by schoolmates is probably more of an idealistic
scenario rather than a reflection of similar situations in current South Africa. (11) Probably equally
rare are interventions by and the support of teachers such as Miss Delphine. Educators are mostly
overworked, underpaid and reluctant to engage with the issues raised by gender based violence,
often driven by denial or fear. (12) Nevertheless, the school is a site where one of the
most significant interventions for HIV risk reduction as well as the integration of gender equality
can be made. As shown in the novel, Learners are encouraged to participate in drama, to develop
learning and counselling skills, to explore sexuality and to use condoms. (13) This has been
recognised by the Education Department through the introduction of the Life Skills component of
Curriculum 2005. The need for developing a school environment that is safe for children and allows
them the opportunity to voice their questions and fears, provides support and encourages nonblaming attitudes towards people living with HIV/AIDS as is the case in Thinasonke's school, has
been recognised by the development of various action programmes, mainly by nongovernmental organisations. (14)
Ubuntu and the question of rape
When Thabang learns of Thinasonke's HIV status and realises that she must have been raped in the
incident that he had believed to be merely an attack, he is utterly outraged. Immediately he decides
to take revenge on the gang that raped her. Eventually he tracks down the three teenage boys and
traps them one evening in their hideout where he ties them up with the intention of castrating them.
Thinasonke, having known of his plans and terrified for his safety, follows him, only to
stumble upon him in the dark on his way back, bleeding heavily from a wound in his arm. He
confesses that he had not been able to commit the violent act after all. Mangaliso, Thinasonke's
older brother who had followed and overheard their conversation persuades them to go back to the
hideout to find a resolution for all of them.
The ensuing scene, the meeting between the three of them and Thinasonke's rapists, part of the
chapter entitled 'Ubuntu/Being human', is to my mind the most unconvincing part of Stronger than
the Storm: Thinasonke apparently heals her emotional wounds simply through dialogue with those
who inflicted them on her. Following Mangaliso's direction they form a circle "with
the perpetrators. 'Before the sun rises we have to have looked into each others' souls to find out
how we can leave this place'" (ST 91). All of them fall into a strange trancelike state and
Thinasonke falls asleep. When she awakens at dawn, Mangaliso explains that the tradition of
Ubuntu has helped him to look deep into the hearts of the rapists, concluding "we can only become
human if we look for humanity in others, for as long as it takes to find it [...]. I am what I am
through you. Nkulu, Vuyo and Zweli have done terrible things. Their evil power became so great
that it also turned Thabang blind with hatred" (ST 91). Thinasonke protests that Thabang had a
right to feel hatred and asks whether Mangaliso wants her to forget what happened. He advises her
that she need not forget anything but that "we should learn to be strong enough to cope with our
own problems. To do it with dignity and honesty, not to perpetuate our problems by burdening
others with them and so creating more and more unhappiness" (ST 92). One of the rapists, Zweli,

who is slightly older than Thina, then tells her that he is infected with HIV. A sangoma had told him
that having sex with a virgin would cure him although he had not really believed that. He
acknowledges that he has committed a terrible deed and asks for her forgiveness. This confession
starts Thinasonke's emotional healing process:
I can also not say that I suddenly found anything likable about Zweli. It was something else that I
felt clearly, although everything in me wanted to resist: this guy was speaking the truth, as fully
and honestly, as he was able. He exposed his own truth in all its ugliness and guilt. That he asked
for my forgiveness could not give my health back to me, but it could restore my dignity to a
significant degree. I could not be clever with words as Mangaliso or even Zweli could. But it felt
good, what was happening here, it released me from an evil which I could not name more precisely
at that time. Then I realised that Thabang, too, was set free from his hatred (ST 92).
This scene shows Thinasonke simply forgiving the perpetrators of hot traumatic rape and HIV
status, through her first encounter and dialogue with them. Embracing the spirit of Ubuntu, she
accepts her traumatic violation as well as her disease. The TRC hearings were also conducted in
the spirit of Ubuntu, postulating an extended notion of telling the truth, embracing notions of truth
such as 'personal' or 'narrative' truth, 'social' or 'dialogue' truth and 'healing' or 'restorative' truth.
While the novel depersonalises the oppression of and violence meted out to Thinasonke, the TRC
restricted its conception of gross human rights violations to people and events, ignoring the
systemic character of apartheid. As Christoph Marx argues: "This personalisation of the TRC
process shifted the problem from the roots and causes of apartheid to 'ethics'; analysing
was substituted by moralising" (Marx, 2002:51). Reconciliation of victims with their tormentors was
possible, so the argument went, through Ubuntu, namely a special, specifically African form of
community orientation, in which forgiveness is embedded. The TRC perspective ignored the power
structures underlying apartheid South Africa.
The consequence of the community orientation of Ubuntu as portrayed in the novel means the
slighting of personal interest in favour of the needs of the larger community. Furthermore, the
concept of Ubuntu as used in the novel mystifies the economic and social power
structures underpinning gender violence. It is precisely the depersonalisation of her experience
that does not ring true in Thinasonke's encounter with her rapists. At this point, she has had no
opportunity to come to terms with the trauma of her rape. That she is ready to confront her rapists,
let alone forgive them and that her confidence is as if magically restored, runs contrary to all
accounts of rape survivors. (15) Mangaliso's attitude towards Thinasonke therefore comes across as
moralistic, even patronising as it denies her experience of rape and precludes her right to establish
her own meaning of the event. The apparently 'easy' resolution of Thinasonke's plight could thus
suggest to the mind of a young reader that rape and gender-based violence is low on the agenda of
social priorities. It does not force rapists and perpetrators of gender violence to publicly account
for their behaviour. The absence of a political and social view of gender violence reinforces this
lack of a public programme of action to deal with the scourge of rape.
Notwithstanding these limitations, the multiple use of direct speech in the novel, the narrative
perspective, the setting, the selection of topics, the choice of characters and the many
reflections by Thinasonke on her emotions and her emotional development make Stronger than the
Storm not only a work of fiction but a document of current debates and developments especially
with regard to the social status of HIV and AIDS in South Africa.
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Deane, Nawaal. 2001. Courage out in the Cold. The Teacher. Mail & Guardian, Johannesburg, April
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(1) The novel was simultaneously published in its original German version entitled Township Blues
(2000)
(2) Ubuntu is the short form of the isiXhosa proverb: Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, which means 'A
human being is a human being only through his/her relationship to other human beings'.
(3) See Chubb and van Dijk, Between Anger and Hope, 2001b
(4) Chubb's (1999:3) research focused on available South African fiction, that uses a South African
setting, deals with AIDS and portrays characters in the age group of the intended readers.
She discovered a sum total of three books: Diane Hofmeyer's Blue Train to the Moon (1993), Barrie
Hough's In full Flight (1996) and Robin Malan's The Sound of New Wings (1998).
(5) The Gustav-Heinemann-Friedenspreis, one of the most important prizes for children and youth
literature, is awarded by the provincial government of Nordrhein-Westfalen for fiction or non-fiction
that promotes human rights issues and conflict resolution.
(6) Here and throughout the article all translations are my own.
(7) Van Dijk, Stronger than the Storm, 2000:5. All subsequent quotes refer to this edition, cited in
parenthesis as ST and page number.
(8) Thabang's father is reportedly living in Johannesburg working for a large company, but out of
touch with his family who had last seen him shortly after Thobile's birth.
(9) See Morei, 2002:7 and 9.

(10) Giese (2002:15) reports that South Africa currently has 600 000 orphans, that is children under
the age of 15 years who have lost a mother to AIDS. This figure is expected to peak at between 2
and 3 million children by 2015.
(11) See, for example Giese (2001:3), who outlines a different scenario of problems by children
affected by HIV/AIDS.
(12) See, for example, Khoza, V. (2002:75) who reports that educators "often claim to be unaware of
any problem deny that violence occurs or try to minimise its extent, or blame the girls".
(13) On the interventions that have already been made at schools and could be introduced in the
future, see Morrell, Moletsane, Karim, Epstein and Unterhalter (2002).
(14) The Teenagers Action Programme (TAP), for example aims, among other things, to increase
young adults' knowledge about their own sexual development, challenge and correct myths that
exist around the aetiology/causes of HIV/AIDS and to confront prejudices. See Khoza, T. 2002
(15) See, for example Hlophe, 2002:34 and van Niekerk, 2002. On the genealogy of trauma, see
Leys, 2000.