CHAPTER 7 OUTLINE LINK

Research Techniques and Information LiteracyOutline

I.
A.
B.

I
A.

What is information literacy?

Research involves more than simply locating library materials.
Information involves using technology to:
1. Strategically locate information.
2. Evaluate the types and quality of information.
3. Use discovered information appropriately.
Research is an essential process of locating and gathering information to solve a problem or answer
a question.
Research helps to solve a problem or answer a question by:
1. Extending the communicators range of knowledge.
2. Bolstering the communicators credibility.
3. Providing information to the audience, helping them formulate informed answers to their
questions.
When researching, the communicator will find primary and secondary sources.
1. Primary sources are firsthand accounts directly relaying information one seeks.
2. Secondary sources analyze, interpret, or evaluate objects or events.
Books can be effectively used as research sources.
1. Libraries are excellent free sources of books.
2. Google Books searches full text versions of books, but may exclude some content of works
under copyright.
3. Books may contain essays on several viewpoints.
4. Information in books tends to be less current than periodicals.
Periodicals can be effectively used as research sources.
1. Periodicals include magazines, newspapers and scholarly journals that are published at
regular intervals.
2. There are advantages and limitations to using periodicals as research.
a. Advantages to periodicals
i.
Sources are often highly credible and authoritative.
ii.
Many full text versions of articles are available in online databases.
iii.
Databases allow for precise searches.
iv.
Articles can be downloaded, e-mailed, or printed.
v.
Peer-reviewed (refereed) articles have been read and critiqued by experts
familiar with the topic area.
vi.
Peer-reviewed articles tend to have high quality, researched-based
information.
a Limitations: Peer-reviewed articles often use technical jargon and may be quite long.
The Internet can also be used as an effective source for research.
1. The Public Web is searchable information using search engines and Web directories.
2. Deep Web content contains valuable scholarly information located on networks or in
databases that Internet search engines cannot locate.
3. Most of the information for college level assignments are found in the Deep Web.
Blogs can be used as information sources.
1. Blogs (short for weblogs) contains chronologically dated commentaries about a topic,
essentially an ongoing series of editorials or reports online.
2. Authors can use a blog to generate content quickly.

3.

I.

Blogs often contain inaccurate information because they are posted before content can be
verified.
4. Blogs rarely have an editor.
Social media can be a source for information.
1. Social media resources allow users to quickly post, edit, and comment on Web-based
content.
2. Social media allows access to content not available on other outlets.
3. Social media allows sharing of resources on assignments.
4. With social media, it is important to verify that the content is authentic.
There are limitations to the public web for academic research.
1. Editors rarely screen and fact checkers rarely exist.
2. Information is sometimes inaccurate.
3. Content can change rapidly.
4. It is also important to check information with multiple sources.
Personal interviews can be used for research as well.
1. Advantages
a. Interviewers can control the questions so the desired information is gathered.
b. Interviews can reveal information not found in printed sources.
1 Limitations
a. The person interviewed may recall information inaccurately or have a distorted
perspective.
b. Information could be outdated.
c. Steps for a good interview
i.
Plan the questions.
ii.
Make an appointment for the interview.
iii.
Set a time limit for the interview.
iv.
Record the interview.
v.
Offer the interview source the opportunity to verify the information you are
reporting.
Recommendations for sources of information
A. Use many different types of sources.
B. Compare content between sources.
C. Peer-reviewed material is likely to have more quality, credibility, and reliability.
D. Avoid sources with unclear sources or sponsors.
E. A source having a name or title doesnt automatically make the source credible.
F. Get the full text of articles, not just the summary, abstract, or review.
Research Strategies
A. Before beginning:
1. List information already known about the topic.
2. Circle key concepts like names, dates, places, and different viewpoints.
3. Write down questions needing to be answered.
A Strategies for expanding and finding information in search engines
1. Broaden searches with synonyms.
2. Target searches with Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT, etc.).
3. Extend searches with truncation: variant endings or spellings of words.
A Internet searches
1. Choose the best search engine for your topic
2. Note biases and limitations of search enginesespecially Google.

a. Results are largely driven by commercial potential.

b. Results can be manipulated to favor certain sources.
1 Read through the help pages of the search engine being used.
A Research and support for specific assignments
1. Products or services
a. Broaden searches with synonyms.
b. Use relatively unbiased publications such as Consumer
Reports and Consumers Digest.
c. Find information on the standards of a good product or service.
d. Investigate the competition.
e. Find organizations who endorse the product or service.
f. Find financial information about the organization.
g. Find testimony about the service or the usage of the product.
1 Controversial issues
a.Use truncated words such as advantage*, attitude*, and benefit*
(text has many examples).
b.Some databases specialize in showing pros and cons of arguments.
Evaluating and citing sources
A. ABCs of source quality: when determining quality look at the authority, bias, and currency.
1.Authority: whether the sources education or experience is adequate and related to
the subject
a.Check the header and footer of a web page for a link to information about
the author or sponsor.
b.Scan the beginning and end of an article to find a description of the authors
credentials.
c.Search the library catalog or a periodical index to locate other books or
articles by the same author.
2.Bias: whether the source has prejudicial opinions or information tainted by personal
interests
a.Find sources as objective as possible.
b.Look for footnotes or references documenting the information in the source.
c.Read the About Us or the About this Site web page information.
d.Skim the text of a source to decide if the author is attempting to sell a
product or make a false claim.
e.Look for descriptions or reviews acknowledging pros and cons of a product,
service, or opinion.
3.Currency: the recency of the information
a.Seek copyright date or date of creation and date of updates.
b.Carefully look for when different portions of web pages were updated.
c.Confirm currency by checking secondary sources.
B.Common styles of citing sources in written work include:

1.Modern Language Association (MLA)

2.American Psychological Association (APA)
3.Chicago style
4.Scientific
C.Oral citations are required whenever research is used in presentations.
1.Using someones ideas without citing during a speech is plagiarism.
2.An oral citation minimally requires: name of source, credentials of source, and date.
D.Research integrity
1.Plagiarism is defined as taking credit for someone elses words or creative works as
if they were your own.
2.How to honestly cite sources:
a.Choose to quote an authors exact words when the phrasing is unique or
strengthens your argument.
b.Provide a citation for the source immediately before or after the quotation.
c.Verbally clarify when quoting someone else directly.
d.Paraphrase an authors words by stating his or her ideas in your own words
with your own phrasing; dont simply repeat what the source said.
e.Compare your paraphrased remarks with the authors exact words to make
sure you have not copied from the author.
f.Provide an oral citation for the paraphrased ideas.

CHAPTER 8 OUTLINE LINK

Supporting Your Ideas Outline
I.

II.

III.

Supporting materials are any resources that can render a presentations content more precise,
more authoritative, or more believable.
A.
Each type of supporting material has its strengths and limitations.
B.
Use a wide variety of supporting materials for maximum effectiveness.
Facts are verifiable information about states of affairs.
A.
Facts state something is (or was) the case and others could agree to it being correct.
B.
Advantage: facts can be proven conclusively. With documentation, facts have high
authority and can carry a high presumption of truth.
C.
Limitations
1.
Purely factual presentations rarely generate intense interest or commitment.
2.
Facts are sometimes difficult to customize to audiences and situations.
3.
Facts may be based on a persons perspective.
Statistics are any information presented in a numerical form.
A.
Advantages
1.
Very precise and audience usually accepts the statistics
2.
More credible than speaking in generalities
B.
The interpretations of the numbers, not simply the numbers themselves, have impact.

C.

IV.

V.

There are several types of average.

1.
Median: the number halfway between the lowest and highest value in a
distribution of numbers
2.
Mode: the most frequently occurring number in a series
3.
Mean: sum of all values divided by the number of entries
D.
Dangers and disadvantages of statistics
1.
Numbers can be altered to manipulate statistics.
2.
Surveys must be constructed carefully to have valid information.
3.
False precision refers to information presented with statistical exactness when
the data actually cannot be measured so precisely.
E.
How to use statistics wisely
1.
Avoid information overload by limiting the amount of statistics presented at one
time.
2.
Use analogies to help the audience visualize numbers.
3.
Give life to statistics by embedding them in stories or examples.
4.
Use presentation aids to help listeners keep track of numbers.
F.
Things to consider when using statistics:
1.
What was the source?
2.
How might the number have been obtained?
3.
Is the type of measurement appropriate?
4.
How do these statistics compare with others?
5.
Do other measurements yield the same statistics?
6.
What might explain discrepancies between different statistics?
7.
Do the interpretations fit the statistical data?
8.
What special interests might have manipulated the statistics to support a
particular view?
9.
How do the definitions of terms affect the results?
Examples are specific instances of an idea.
A.
Examples make concepts concrete and show practical illustrations clarifying content.
B.
Two types of examples can furnish supporting materials.
1.
Actual examples are true instances of a point.
2.
Hypothetical examples provide what if scenarios; they should be realistic to
be effective.
C.
Examples carry enormous force in presentations.
1.
Some research argues examples are more powerful than statistics when in
conflict.
2.
Disadvantages of examples
a.
Unrepresentative examples do not describe typical cases and may
mislead the audience.
b.
An example cannot prove a point alone because an example of the
opposite viewpoint almost always exists.
Testimony refers to the words of other people validating a point.
A.
Lay testimony comes from ordinary people who have some direct experience relevant to
the topic.
1.
Main advantage: person tends to be non-technical and has an ability to relate
and connect to ordinary people
2.
Main disadvantage: cannot relay insight beyond direct experience

B.

VI.

Expert testimony comes from people who have identifiable credentials in the field being
discussed.
1.
Main advantage: experts can speak authoritatively on matters beyond their
personal experience
2.
Main disadvantage: experts may be unable to translate their technical knowledge
into terms non-experts can understand.
3.
Five ways to judge whether an expert is truly expert in an area:
a.
Is the expert recognized by the relevant community of experts in that
field?
b.
Does the expert use techniques employed by respected authorities?
c.
What are the experts qualifications?
d.
How well does the expert know the literature in the field?
e.
How clearly does the expert explain the method and the conclusion?
4.
The audience must be given a reason to believe the source has credentials and
is trustworthy.
5.
Expert and lay testimony are complementary; use both types to give full support.
C.
Celebrity testimony consists of the support of well-known but minimally qualified sources.
1.
Celebrity testimony is not very credible.
2.
Some celebrities do have credentials on certain topics.
Narratives are structured stories.
A.
Narratives bring life to ideas and events, describing them in a context that includes
character, action, and setting.
B.
Stories must have coherence and fidelity.
1.
A coherent narrative has clearly defined characters, logical plot progressions,
and consistency.
2.
A narrative has fidelity if it connects to the values of the audience.
C.
Strategies for good narratives:
1.
Clearly distinguish factual from fictional narratives.
2.
Make stories vivid by including dialogue and specific descriptions.
3.
Keep the plot organized.
4.
Give the characters distinct identities.
5.
Have a moral to the story.
D.
Narratives that have a deep effect on audiences possess the following features:
1.
Narrative understanding: the storyline is not too difficult to follow.
2.
Attentional focus: the audience minimizes awareness of events beyond the story.
3.
Emotional engagement: the story arouses emotions consistent with its content.
4.
Narrative presence: the audience feels they are part of the story.
E.
Main advantage of narratives: stories make ideas concrete, realistic, and immediate to the
audience
F.
Disadvantages of narratives:
1.
Stories alone do not prove a point.
2.
Stories may not resonate with the audience.
3.
Stories tell only one perspective.
4.
Equally convincing stories supporting the opposite viewpoints exist.

CHAPTER 9 OUTLINE LINK

Organization and Outlining Outline

I.

Construction of the introduction

A.
All the components of the introduction combine to perform two main functions:
1.
Motivate the audience to listen and care.
2.
Orient the audience.
B.
Attention-getter: your method for generating the audiences interest
1.
Purpose is to tell the audience why they should listen to the presentation
2.
Direct question: asking a question for the audience to respond to
a.
Effective if the audience is willing and able to participate and give a
response
b.
The speaker may notify an audience member beforehand that he or she
will be called on.
c.
Question only those audience members who feel entirely comfortable
with responding openly.
d.
Pause long enough after asking to allow for a genuine answer.
e.
Most effective questions allow for open-ended responses with
somewhat limited response options.
3.
Rhetorical question: doesnt require a direct answer, but allows audience to think
deeper on a topic
a.
Ask when you want the listeners to think about an idea, but not provide
an audible or visible answer.
b.
The technique is overused.
c.
Follow the rhetorical question with a brief pause.
4.
Narrative: a story
a.
Narrative is a good technique to gather interest.
b.
A good story
i.
Has a logical plot progression.
ii.
Connects with the audience's values and beliefs.
c.
For an attention-getter, narratives need to be brief and relevant to the
purpose.
5.
Analogy: comparing one thing to something else more familiar to the audience.
a.
Analogies can increase the audiences comfort level by connecting the
unknown to the known.
b.
Analogies are effective only if similar objects or ideas are compared.
6.
Quotations can serve as effective attention-getters.
a.
A properly chosen quote can add legitimacy to the topic.
b.
A pithy quote can explain complex ideas eloquently.
7.
Challenge expectations: stimulate the audience with unexpected actions,
approaches, or novel information.
a.
Information has to be interesting, unusual, and unknown to the
audience.
b.
If the material is too challenging or unexpected, then the audience may
have negative perceptions of the speaker.
c.
Determine beforehand the audiences tolerance for uncertainty and
novelty.
8.
Audience participation gets the audience involved in a presentation.

a.

II.

Many audience members learn by doing (see textbook discussion of

kinesthetic learners in Chapter 11).
b.
Participation can be either a physical involvement or a mental
involvement through visualization.
9.
Objects and audiovisual materials
a.
If using a video or object, be sure to recognize and speak about the
material.
b.
Experiment with supplementary materials during practice sessions.
c.
Master technology beforehand.
C.
Establish common ground: connect to audience by emphasizing things to share with them
1.
Common ground can be established based on shared background, attitudes, or
culture.
2.
Common ground reduces the perceived distance between you and the audience,
making them more receptive to the message.
3.
Consider the relevance the topic will have with the audience.
4.
Answer the question: Why should this audience care?
D.
Establish credibility, defined as the communicators believability as a source.
1.
Point to research or personal experiences.
2.
Establishing credibility impresses audiences and gives the speaker added
confidence.
E.
State the thesis.
1.
The purpose explains the effect a speaker wants to have on the audience.
2.
The thesis statement explains the essence of what one will say, providing focus
for the presentation.
3.
The topic describes the subject matter the speaker has chosen.
4.
The thesis and the purpose should be the central focus of all the information in
the outline.
5.
The thesis statement should:
a.
Be a brief, single sentence.
b.
Make a definite statement.
c.
Outline the content in the presentation.
d.
Not be the first sentence of the introduction.
6.
Preview main points by briefly mentioning the main points to be covered and the
order the points will be covered.
Body-building: organizational patterns
A.
Consider yourself, your audience, and your occasion.
B.
Spatial patterns arrange content according to physical layout.
1.
Spatial patterns require a definite order following a physical arrangement.
2.
Spatial sequences must proceed sequentially, such as:
a.
Top to bottom
b.
Bottom to top
c.
Clockwise or counterclockwise
C.
Chronological patterns organize by a time sequence.
1.
Chronological patterns can proceed in several manners.
a.
The chronology can move from past to present.
b.
The chronology can move from present to past.
c.
The chronology can move from the middle, go backwards in a
flashback, and then proceed to the end.

2.
3.

D.

E.

F.

G.

Chronological patterns work well for processes.

Historical approaches can help clarify complex topics.
Comparison and contrast patterns relate one thing to something else based on similarities
or differences.
1.
Comparison patterns structure on the basis of similarities.
2.
Contrast patterns structure on the basis of differences.
3.
Comparison-contrast combines both patterns.
4.
Comparisons or contrasts can group ideas in two ways:
a.
Clustering similarities and differences
b.
Clustering by topic
5.
Comparisons and contrasts work best for topics involving two related ideas or
things.
Causal patterns focus on reasons why things occur and the results.
1.
Causal patterns can take two forms.
a.
Some causal patterns move from cause to effect.
b.
Some causal patterns move from effect to cause.
2.
A common causal pattern in situations such as medical diagnosis is to use a vivid
description of the symptoms and work towards the reasons for the symptoms.
FProblem-solution patterns first point out a defect, difficulty, or threat, and then offer ways
to improve the situation.
1.
1. Problem-solution patterns can work well for controversial issues.
2.
2. Problem-solution patterns often maintain interest well, since audiences seek
solutions after recognizing a problem.
3.
3. Problem-solution patterns stand the best chance of success if speakers
follow certain practices.
a.
The audience must recognize the problem as significant and relevant to
them.
b.
The solutions must be effective and practical.
Monroes motivated sequence offers a systematic pattern to motivate the audience to do
something.
1.
The attention step involves the audience in the topic, creating a rationale for the
audience to listen.
2.
The need step shows the audience they are lacking something (information,
solutions) and creates a sense of urgency in the audience.
3.
The satisfaction step shows the audience has the ability to overcome the
problem.
4.
The visualization step shows how the audience would feel or benefit when the
problem is resolved.
a.
Effective visualization relies on several conditions.
i.
Using concrete, vivid language makes satisfaction seem
intensely desirable.
ii.
Employing visual aids, if practical, makes the recommended
action more immediate.
iii.
The speaker must create the perception that satisfaction is
obtainable.
b.
Speakers can use visualization to build the audiences emotional
intensity.
c.
Describe the positive outcomes of following the recommendations.

d.

H.

I.

J.

Describe the negative outcomes of taking a different course of action.

5.
The action step shows the audience exactly what to do.
Hierarchical patterns organize ideas based on topic importance or rank order. Examples
include:
1.
Largest to smallest
2.
Quality (best to worst, worst to best)
3.
Price (highest to lowest, lowest to highest)
The journalists pattern covers standard questions a reporter might ask: who, what, when,
where, why, and how.
1.
The journalists pattern can be effective with topics unfamiliar to the audience.
2.
The journalists pattern is especially useful with informative presentations.
3.
Each journalists question offers more areas to probe in depth.
a.
Who invites questions such as:
i.
What are a persons physical characteristics?
ii.
What is the persons or groups personality?
iii.
What personal background might prove relevant?
iv.
What possessions does the person have?
b.
What invites questions such as:
i.
What is the physical description of an object?
ii.
What is the objects function?
iii.
How does the object resemble and differ from other
comparable things?
iv.
What is the objects estimated value?
c.
When invites questions such as:
i.
What other events occurred at similar times?
ii.
Does an event recur?
iii.
What is the past history?
iv.
What are the future plans?
d.
Where invites questions such as:
i.
What are the boundaries?
ii.
What are the differences and similarities compared to other
places?
iii.
How do people react to a place?
e.
Why invites questions such as:
i.
What are the reasons things turned out one way instead of
another?
ii.
What are the accidental or intentional causes and effects?
f.
How invites questions such as:
i.
What are the definitions of goals?
ii.
What measures determine success?
iii.
What is the nature of the process?
iv.
What preparations are needed for results?
4.
Speakers can expand the scope of the questions to stimulate creativity and
generate more content for the presentation.
Topical patterns sort ideas according to categories naturally occurring within the topic.
1.
Topical organization must be based on logic; a reason must determine why topics
are organized in a certain way.

2.

III.

IV.

Examples of topical patterns include alphabetical order or organizing by structure

and function.
Basic organizational strategies
A.
The primacy-recency principle holds that items presented first (primacy) and last (recency)
in a sequence carry the most weight with audiences.
1.
Primacy stresses the first items in a sequence.
a.
Try placing the most significant information at the beginning due to
peoples short attention span.
b.
If time is a factor, then put the most important information first to ensure
the ability to cover the information.
2.
Recency stresses the last items in a sequence.
a.
People more clearly remember the last thing said to them.
b.
Save the most dramatic or impactful information to place last.
B.
The familiarity-acceptance principle holds that audiences will be more receptive to what
they know (familiarity) or agree with (acceptance).
1.
Familiarity recommends starting with material falling within the audiences range
of understanding and support.
2.
Acceptance notes that if an idea is connected to information the audience
already believes, then a proposed change is not perceived as threatening.
C.
Several considerations affect selection and prioritization of content.
1.
The magic seven principle notes that people tend to process on average seven
pieces (between five and nine) of information at a time.
2.
A five minute presentation containing more than about three points will seem
rushed.
3.
Choose depth of information rather than breadth of information. Cover fewer
points in more detail rather than several unexplained points.
D.
Speakers can prioritize information and indicate important points.
1.
Time expenditure: the more time spent on a topic, the more the listener believes
that topic is important.
2.
Placement: important information is placed at the beginning or at the end.
3.
Vocally: pausing slightly before and after a point to draw attention to the
information; slowing the rate and enunciating more during important points.
4.
Nonverbally: moving slightly or manipulating eye contact during, before, or after
key points.
E.
The principles of proximity, similarity, and closure can affect a presentations structure.
1.
The principle of proximity notes that things physically close to each other appear
grouped together; related ideas can be clustered together in a presentation.
2.
The principle of similarity notes that things resembling each other seem to belong
together; similarity can be used with visual aids or vocal techniques.
3.
The principle of closure requires a satisfactory ending.
a.
Audiences often crave closure on topics.
b.
Example: if you identify a problem, provide a solution.
Crafting the conclusion
A.
Saying a single phrase conclusion such as Im done shows the audience a lack of
preparation.
B.
Repeating main points is not enough; a conclusion must contain several elements.
C.
The summary provides concise key words or phrases of the main points in order.
D.
The payoff states the benefits of listening to the presentation.

E.

V.

VI.

A call to action (more common in persuasive presentations) states what the audience is
supposed to do on their own after the speech.
F.
Effective closure requires tying up loose ends, resolving problems and conflicts, and
settling any uncertainties the presentation revealed.
1.
Attention-getting devices can restore audience interest.
2.
Connecting with the introduction can create a sense of unity in the presentation.
Transitions: connecting the parts
A.
Transitions are devices signifying the relationship between ideas in a presentation.
B.
Transitions serve as connections between main ideas.
C.
Signposting lets the audience know where the presenter is in the presentation.
1.
Internal previews alert the audience to what will come next.
2.
Internal summaries signify the close of a preceding line of thought.
An outline provides a written structural plan for the presentation by showing the relationship
between ideas.
A.
Speakers can develop an outline in many ways.
1.
Outline first: complete the outline before proceeding to other preparation stages.
2.
Back and forth: prepare an outline for some parts of a structured presentation.
For the other parts, write down the ideas and outline them later.
3.
Outline after drafting: write the presentation first, and then create the outline.
4.
Piecemeal outline: think of ideas and write down the ideas. Write each idea on a
different sheet. When completed with the brainstorming, organize the pieces of paper.
B.
Continue to add, delete, and change pieces of the outline throughout the rest of the
preparation process.
C.
Structuring an outline becomes easier with the standard tools of outlining.
1.
A standard form of indexing assigns Roman numerals to the main idea (the
outline of this chapter is in this index form).
2.
Headings are the labels for each idea briefly clarifying the content to be
discussed (not word-for-word scripts of the presentation).
3.
The principle of subordination observes that main points should be more abstract
and the subpoints should be more specific and concrete.
4.
The principle of coordination notes that headings at each level of generality
should share the same level of symbol throughout the outline.
5.
With parallel construction, several heading share similar phrasing to show their
unity.
D.
The draft outline provides a basic plan for the presentation.
1.
Always begin with the topic and thesis statement as the core components of the
outline; every item on the outline should relate to the thesis.
2.
The outline should answer questions about the speaker.
a.
Which areas of the topic do I feel most confident discussing?
b.
Which points do I know the most about?
c.
What areas can connect with my special knowledge, background, or
experiences?
E.
The outline should answer questions about the audience.
1.
What does the audience want or need to know about the topic?
2.
Where does the audience stand on the topic? What is their position?
3.
How can I connect the topic to them? (Why should they care?)
B.
The outline should answer questions about the occasion.
1.
What points can I cover in the time allowed?

2.
3.

C.
D.
E.

F.

B.

What points will enable me to research reliable information?

What points are compatible with the assignment guidelines?
Throughout the process, speakers will write multiple draft outlines, each getting more
developed.
The draft outline should contain phrases that will eventually develop into full points.
The main points should state the substance of the idea.
1.
Dont write short notes you will forget later.
2.
The outline should make sense to someone who hasnt prepared the outline or
heard the presentation.
The formal outline adds components to the draft outline.
1.
Brief transitional phrases connect the sections of the presentation and the main
ideas.
2.
The formal outline includes a complete list of references in a consistent citation
style.
3.
The formal outline lists headings as complete sentences.
4.
The formal outline includes notations of where outside sources will be cited in the
presentation.
5.
Although more extensive than the draft outline, the formal outline is still not a
word-for-word script.
The keyword outline is the version that speakers can use during the presentation itself.
1.
The keyword outline contains the structure of the presentation, but only the text
necessary to help deliver the content.
2.
Identify the most vital phrases in the formal outline, and place the phrases in the
structure of the presentation.
3.
The keyword outline should not have too many words, since excessive content
can lead to reading and reduce eye contact.

CHAPTER 10 OUTLINE LINK

Presentation Aids Outline
I.

Presentation aids are all the resources allowing the audience to experience the message through
their senses.
A.
To decide whether to use a presentation aid, consider:
1.
What (if any) components of my presentation would become clearer with a
presentation aid?
2.
How would I need to adapt my delivery and content to include a presentation
aid?
3.
How would a presentation aid affect my confidence level?
4.
Do I have sufficient time to prepare an effective presentation aid?
B.
Presentation aids offer many advantages.
1.
Presentation aids increase the amount of recall, since 90% of information stored
in the brain is received visually.
2.
Presentation aids extend duration of recall.
a.
Extended recall works for simple and complex facts.
b.
Extended recall is achieved through redundancy of the medium:
repeating a message in more than one medium to increase comprehension.

c.

II.

Adding presentation aids can appeal to a wider variety of audiences

than verbal messages alone.
3.
Presentation aids convey messages quicker (up to 40% faster) than traditional
text; audiences can process visual information faster than the spoken word.
4.
Presentation aids simplify complex ideas, since some ideas are difficult to explain
with just words.
5.
Presentation aids can increase persuasiveness, even when the speaker is
perceived negatively.
6.
Presentation aids improve perceptions of speaker quality.
a.
Audiences perceive speakers with presentation aids as organized and
professional.
b.
A typical presenter using presentation support has nothing to lose and
can be as effective as a better presenter using no visuals. The better a
presenter is, however, the more one needs to use high quality visual support.
C.
Presentation aids also have limitations.
1.
Speakers can become too reliant on presentation aids.
a.
Over-reliance on presentation aids can result in less speaking.
b.
When showing an aid for a long time, the audience may focus more on
the aid than on presenter.
2.
Presentation aids add complexity to a presentation.
a.
It takes time to create, practice, and implement a presentation aid as
part of a speech.
b.
Presentation aids can cause stress to create.
c.
Malfunctioning technology can threaten some presentation aids.
3.
Presentation aids can restrict eye contact.
a.
Lack of eye contact doesnt allow for feedback.
b.
Without maintaining sufficient eye contact, a speaker can lose attention
and eye contact from the audience.
c.
Speakers must talk directly to the audience, not to the presentation aid.
4.
Presentation aids should assist a presentation, not dominate it.
IMany types of presentation aids are available to speakers.
A.
People and animals offer risky options.
1.
People and animals have some advantages.
a.
A speaker who acts as the presentation aid can control her or his own
actions and gestures.
b.
Living things may fit well with some topics, such as demonstrations.
c.
Living beings can engage the audience on all sensory levels.
2.
People and animals have limitations.
a.
People may have stage freight, preventing their full participation as
presentation aids.
b.
Pranksters can undermine a presentation.
c.
Animals are unpredictable.
a.
Some people have fears about animals.
b.
Some people have allergies to animals.
c.
Animals will take care of their excretory needs, sometimes
during the presentation.
3.
Practice with the people and animals to reduce unforeseen problems.

4.
B.

C.

B.

C.

Volunteers from the audience may know something more than you about the
topic, so pre-screen volunteers and use the volunteer from the audience cautiously.
Objects, models, and replicas offer options.
1.
Objects, models, and replicas are effective because they are tangible.
2.
Objects are actual items or things being talked about.
3.
Models are representations of objects, scaled larger or smaller to make them
easier to observe.
4.
Replicas are copies of an original object.
5.
Objects, models, and replicas have advantages.
a.
Using concrete objects can help people learn because they are so vivid.
b.
Objects are preferable in some cases because they are the real thing.
c.
Models or replicas can fill in for originals that are too difficult to obtain
and display.
6.
Using objects, models, and replicas becomes easier by knowing their limitations
and hints about their use.
a.
Be able to carry the object with normal effort.
b.
Objects must be able to function properly.
c.
Objects must be large enough for the entire audience to see.
d.
Use an appropriate scale of the object to avoid a distorted perspective.
e.
Use the most realistic replica to give a clear sense of the object.
Photographs and maps offer options.
1.
Photographs and maps have advantages.
a.
Photographs and maps work well for showing developments over time.
b.
Photographs and maps are generally easy to use.
c.
Photographs and maps can show physical features very precisely.
2.
Photographs and maps have limitations.
a.
They can provide unnecessary details.
a.
Crop photos and simplify maps to eliminate irrelevant details.
b.
Cut the photographers caption, if necessary.
b.
They may require additional details.
a.
Provide labels or signifiers relevant to the presentation.
b.
Editing takes time, so photographs and maps require early
preparation.
c.
Photographs and maps may need resizing.
Drawings and clipart offer options.
1.
Drawings and clipart have advantages.
a.
They work when neat and relevant to the presentation.
b.
They are easy to find or manufacture.
2.
Drawings and clipart have limitations.
a.
Effective drawings require talent.
b.
Try tracing an image first, and then fill in the details.
c.
Much common clipart is overused and can lose effect.
Lists and tables offer options.
1.
Lists provide an orderly sequence of items.
2.
Tables place information in neat, uniform spatial arrangements.
3.
Lists and tables have advantages.
a.
They are easy to create.
b.
They serve as good organizational tools.

c.

D.

Long lists work best when each item is revealed individually.

4.
Lists and tables have limitations.
a.
They work best as reminders of presentation content rather than true
enhancements.
b.
They are perceived as unimaginative.
c.
They often provide too much information, so several shorter lists often
work better than long sequences of information.
Charts and graphs offer a wide array of possibilities.
1.
They convey a lot of information in an economical fashion.
2.
They rely on images rather than text to convey information.
3.
Many types of charts and graphs are available.
a.
Line graphs appear as a series of linear points connected by lines
defined by two axes.
a.
Line graphs easily show if something is increasing or
decreasing in quantity over time.
b.
Values should appear clearly enough for viewers to understand
the quantities quickly.
b.
Bar graphs are good for comparing two or more quantities over time.
a.
Each item or group should have a different color or design in
order to distinguish the data sets.
b.
The legend explains how to decode the information in a graph
or chart.
c.
A truncated scale distorts information by leaving out very high
or very low values.
d.
Three-dimensional bars can make interpreting information
difficult, since they make it unclear where a figure begins or ends.
e.
Red/green color combinations make interpretation difficult for
colorblind people.
c.
Pictographs display data as graphics.
a.
Pictographs can dramatize comparison and contrast.
b.
The audience can remember visual data easily.
c.
Pictographs have scaling issues, since complex figures may
obscure actual quantities.
d.
Pie charts show relationships between parts of a whole.
a.
Pie charts generally appear as an oval or circle with each
slice representing an amount of the whole.
b.
Pie charts can be clear and easy to read.
c.
Too many slices can reduce visibility of each slice.
d.
Larger pieces can obscure the smaller pieces.
e.
Flow charts display organizational structures or the sequence of a
process.
a.
Flow charts appear as geometric shapes connected to each
other by lines or arrows.
b.
Flow charts can show relationships, but not quantity.
c.
The more complex the relationships, the more complex the
chart.
d.
Flow charts can take up a lot of space.
e.
Simplifying a flow chart can lead to loss of information.

E.

F.

Posters are large pieces of cardboard, poster board, or similar material used for displaying
text or pictures.
1.
Posters have advantages.
a.
They are simple and inexpensive to prepare.
b.
Speakers can display several types of presentation aids on a single
poster.
c.
Posters are portable.
2.
Posters have limitations.
a.
Some presentation spaces dont have easels, so presenters need to
find other ways of displaying the poster.
b.
Dont roll posters up to take to class; instead, consider using foamcore
or cardboard.
c.
Sloppily prepared posters damage a presentation; dont handwrite on
the poster.
3.
Some hints can improve use of posters.
a.
Take appropriate measures to protect the poster from weather and
wear, especially en route to the presentation.
b.
Water (rain) can ruin posters; purchase or borrow a carrying case.
c.
Several smaller posters can be easier to use in the presentation than
one large poster.
Flip charts, chalkboards, and marker boards offer versatile, low-tech options.
1.
Flip charts are tablets of large sheets of paper able to be placed on easels for
display.
a.
Flip charts are often available where more advanced technology isnt
accessible.
b.
These aids have advantages.
a.
They can be used to acquire audience input.
b.
Flip charts allow the ability to include prepared visuals while
having blank sheets for audience input as needed.
c.
Speakers are able to revise the information on flip charts and
erasable boards.
d.
Flip charts and boards can be used to draw various types of
presentation aids: charts, lists, etc.
c.
These aids have limitations.
a.
When writing, the presenters back is turned to the audience.
b.
Presenters perceive using the boards is easy and dont plan,
resulting in sloppiness or disorganization.
c.
Flip charts and boards have limited durability; once erased, the
information is gone.
d.
Audience members may want to take notes instead of focusing
on the flip charts.
e.
Drawing and text need to be large enough for all to see.
2.
Some hints can improve flip chart and board usage.
a.
Extra effort is needed to use good eye contact.
b.
Use only key concepts, words, or drawings to improve understanding.
c.
Flip charts need ample paper.
d.
Markers bleed through pages.

e.

G.

H.

I.

Attach flags to the pages in case you need to return to the page later in
the presentation.
f.
Make sure only your own work is visible and legible.
Handouts offer some options.
1.
Handouts have advantages.
a.
They are very durable.
b.
They are tangible and last after the presentation.
c.
They allow the audience to not take notes.
2.
Handouts have many limitations.
a.
Misspelled words can harm the efficacy of handouts, since the
misspelling remains observable long after the presentation.
b.
Providing the handout at wrong time can be a distraction.
a.
If handed out before the presentation, then audience members
will read ahead.
b.
Have a cover sheet to prevent the audience from looking
ahead.
c.
If handed out after the presentation, then the audience may not
be able to make connections between the handout and the
presentation.
d.
If distributing a handout later, mention during the presentation
that a handout of the information will be available afterwards.
3.
Some hints can make handouts more effective.
a.
Coordinate handouts with other visual aids, since handout do not
actually enhance the presentation itself.
b.
Limit text to brief notes so the audience will not focus on reading the
handout instead of listening to the speaker.
Overhead projectors and document cameras offer options.
1.
Overhead projection has advantages.
a.
It allows the creation of many visuals quickly.
b.
Overhead projection of some sort is usually available.
2.
Overhead projection has limitations.
a.
Projected items could be scratched, torn, smudged, etc.
b.
Keep individual sheets of paper between transparencies.
c.
Add notations to the side or each sleeve of the transparency.
d.
Number documents to preserve their order in case they get jumbled.
e.
It requires practice to adjust font, margins, color, etc. for maximum
visibility and impact.
3.
Some hints can improve the use of overhead projection.
a.
Consider the proper level of lighting in the room for both the audience
and the presenter.
b.
Plan to have reserve bulbs or equipment in case bulbs burn out.
c.
Show only the information needed at that time of the presentation; cover
points lower on the document/transparency with a blank piece of paper.
d.
Keep notes brief.
e.
Consider asking someone to handle the physical change of projected
content.
Presentation software is the most versatile of all the presentation aids.
1.
Digitized presentation aids are easily portable, transferable, and reproducible.

2.
3.

ii.

Presentation software generates professional-looking materials.

Presentation software has limitations.
a.
Since it requires specific projection technology, have a backup plan in
case of technology breakdowns.
b.
Presenters tend to read directly off the slides.
4.
Each slide needs to have value.
a.
Include only enough information for the audience to process in a few
seconds.
b.
Having unnecessary graphs, charts, sounds, or pictures reduces a
presentations effectiveness.
5.
Some hints can improve the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint.
a.
Use the technology only after you feel comfortable with the program.
b.
A typical PowerPoint presentation includes:
a.
An opening slide containing the speakers name and the
presentation title
b.
iA preview slide orienting the audience to the main points
c.
Content slides clarifying and supporting all main points
d.
A closing slide including a final thought to establish closure
c.
Maximize visibility of text and graphics by using high contrast between
text and background, simple fonts, and limiting content of each slide.
J.
Video and audio allow presentations to come to life.
1.
Video and audio have advantages.
a.
They help maintain audience interest.
b.
They help connect to audience, especially when it makes unfamiliar
content more immediately present.
2.
Video and audio have limitations.
a.
They have a tendency to become the presentation.
b.
Starting and stopping the video can be time-consuming.
c.
Clips longer than about 30 seconds make fitting the rest of the speech
in the time limits difficult.
d.
If the technology fails, then you may not have a presentation.
e.
Poor quality videos and sounds may stem from technical glitches.
3.
Some hints can improve the use of audio and video.
a.
Use available multimedia on websites, which still requires certain
software but can save having to locate or cue clips.
b.
Have the clips preloaded on the computer or player so they do not
interrupt the flow of the presentation.
Planning, designing, and displaying presentation aids pave the way to success.
A.
First decide which components of the speech would significantly improve with
presentational aids.
B.
Dont use presentation aids simply for the sake of using them.
C.
Proper display and use of presentation aids take account of several factors.
1.
Display the aid only when using it.
2.
The speaker can control exposure to a presentation aid.
a.
For posters, either cover the poster or have it turned away from the
audience until you are ready to use it. Then return the poster to the concealed
position when you are finished using it.

b.

D.

E.

For PowerPoint presentations, blacken the screen by pressing <B> or

go to a white screen by pressing <W>. Pressing any key then returns you to
the presentation.
c.
For audio and video, have the media cued to the exact point needed.
Turn off the main equipment switch or use mute if the material will not be used
again.
d.
Overheads require visuals to be ready and the machine pre-focused.
e.
Conceal objects, whenever they are not being discussed.
Color and arrangement affect the impact presentation aids will have.
1.
Use contrasting colors to maximize visibility and signify different content.
2.
Warm colors (red, yellow, orange) provoke anxiety.
3.
Cool colors (blue, green, purple) create a more calming effect.
4.
Saturation describes the intensity of color; the deeper the saturation, the more
the color will stand out.
5.
Wear neutral colored clothing to avoid distracting the audience during a
presentation.
6.
Blue on a black background makes edges look fuzzy.
7.
Be aware of colorblindness. Avoid the combinations of:
a.
Red/green
b.
Brown/green
c.
Purple/blue
8.
Limit the amount of lines and words per line on visuals to six or seven.
9.
Color images are more persuasive than black and white images.
10.
Image-enhanced graphics are effective only when used selectively and carefully.
11.
Images need to be relevant to content.
Size of visuals affects comprehension.
1.
People underestimate the size needed on visual aids.
2.
Test the size needed for visuals in the room before the presentation.
3.
Enlarge pictures from texts, since they almost never are visible beyond a few feet
away.
4.
Simplify overly complex maps.
5.
Minimum font sizes for flip charts and posters are:
a.
Title: 3 inches high
b.
Subtitles: 2 inches high
c.
Other text: 1.5 inches high
6.
Minimum font sizes for computer-generated text are:
a.
Transparencies
b.
Title: 36 pt.
c.
Subtitles: 24 pt.
d.
Other text: 18 pt.
7.
Minimum font sizes for slides are:
a.
Title: 24 pt.
b.
Subtitles: 18 pt.
c.
Other text: 14 pt.
8.
Minimum font sizes for handouts are:
a.
Title: 18 pt.
b.
Subtitles: 14 pt.
c.
Other text: 12 pt.

F.

G.

H.

Preparing to use presentation aids makes their employment in a presentation smoother.

1.
Practice with the aids.
2.
Make an inventory of everything needed for proper use of the presentation aid.
a.
Include consideration of electric outlets, remote controls, projectors,
format of videos, etc.
b.
Make sure all needed technology is available.
3.
Have a plan B if the presentation aid fails.
Managing presentation aids during the presentation is crucial.
1.
Presentation aids need to be incorporated directly into the presentation itself.
2.
Guide the audience through the material.
3.
Make aids as professional looking as possible.
Speakers should adapt to special needs of audience members.
1.
Visually challenged audience members can benefit from Braille supplements or
audio transcripts.
2.
Deaf and hard of hearing audience members can benefit from a sign language
interpreter or written transcripts.
3.
Audience members with mobility limitations may require more space for
wheelchairs, walkers, or other assistance equipment

CHAPTER 11 OUTLINE LINK

Speakers, Speeches, and Audiences Outline
I.

Source credibility deals with the characteristics determining how much we believe a speaker.
A.
Credibility operates on two levels.
1.
Speakers are sources.
2.
The references a speaker uses are sources.
B.
Credibility is a matter of degree; sources are not simply credible or non-credible.
C.
Credibility is context-specific.
1.
Credibility depends on the speakers knowledge of the content.
2.
Credibility depends on the perception of the audience.
D.
Credibility is a receiver-based construct; the degree of credibility is in the eyes of the
audience.
E.
Credibility is multi-dimensional (the four Cs of source credibility).
1.
Aristotle initially developed the concept of ethos, which modern researchers have
refined.
2.
Competence refers to the perceived knowledge a source has on a topic.
Competence can be established through:
a.
Education (formal degrees)
b.
Training (learning from a mentor)
c.
Personal experience and achievements (experience at a task)
d.
Intelligence (intellectual achievements)
e.
Presentation skills (ability to speak well)
f.
Prestige (rank, power, or position)
3.
Character refers to honesty and trustworthiness. Character can be established
through:
a.
Reputation

b.
c.

II.

Consistency
Objectivity (appearing free from bias)
4.
Caring refers to goodwill toward the audience, which relies on three factors:
a.
Responsiveness - reacting quickly and appropriately to the audience
b.
Understanding - recognizing the needs, feelings, and thoughts of others
c.
Empathy - the ability to take the perspective of others and see things on
their terms
5.
Connection, a dimension added by later researchers, refers to the audiences
ability to identify with the source.
a.
Identification describes the feeling that the audience shares a bond with
the source.
b.
Identification can be based on:
i.
Similarity: people tend to like others similar to them
ii.
Attractiveness (physical and emotional appeal)
F.
Speakers should check their own credibility and the credibility of other sources.
1.
Several questions can check the level of competence.
a.
Is the source an expert in the subject matter?
b.
What qualifies the source as an expert?
c.
How logical are the sources claims?
d.
What level of experience does the source bring to this topic?
e.
What signs of thorough (or sloppy) preparation can you identify?
f.
How confident does the source appear?
2.
Several questions can check the level of character.
a.
What is the sources track record for honesty and dependability?
b.
How do other sources rate this source?
c.
How unbiased is the source?
3.
Several questions can check the level of caring.
a.
Does the source show consideration for others?
b.
Does the source put its own self-interest aside for the sake of more
thorough coverage?
c.
How quickly does the source correct errors or respond to feedback?
4.
Several questions can check the level of connection.
a.
What relationship does the source have to the audience?
b.
What concerns does the source share with the audience?
c.
Does the audience view the source as desirable?
G.
Some hints can assist speakers in maximizing their credibility.
1.
Cite a credible source early.
2.
Cite high quality sources.
3.
Avoid using a high-pitch voice, tag questions, and fillers.
4.
Use a clear organizational pattern.
5.
Understand and adapt to cultural preferences.
Analyzing and adapting to the audience are necessary for an effective presentation.
A.
Demographic information classifies people into categories based on characteristics.
1.
Demographic analysis often risks overattribution, the tendency to explain all of
someones behaviors and orientations as resulting from a few characteristics.
2.
To avoid overattribution, confirm the audience members share the similarities
revealed by demographic analysis (e.g., will all males or females react the same way
because of their gender?).

B.

C.

D.

E.

Topic-specific information includes the audiences:

1.
Level of interest about the topic area
2.
Understanding of key terms related to the topic
3.
Knowledge of recent developments regarding the topic
4.
Priorities regarding the topic
5.
Personal connections to the topic
6.
Familiarity with relevant sources of news about the topic
Attitudes, beliefs, and values can affect an audiences reactions to speakers and topics.
1.
Attitudinal information includes feelings people have about specific issues,
people, or things.
a.
Attitudes have a valence (either positive or negative).
b.
Attitudes have a degree of intensity (how much positive or negative
valence).
2.
Beliefs refer to general principles underlying attitudes, and they imply a level of
commitment.
3.
Values refer to priorities people hold strongly and usually accept as self-evident.
4.
Generally, attitudes are the easiest to alter, beliefs require significant effort to
change, and values are the most resistant to change.
How can speakers collect data about the audience?
1.
Direct observation can provide data.
a.
Direct observation is risky and often yields inaccurate generalizations.
b.
A more accurate approach is to observe how the audience acts and
reacts.
i.
What styles of presentation appear most favorable to the
audience?
ii.
What generates the most enthusiasm?
iii.
If the audience formally introduced themselves, then what did
they discuss?
iv.
What topics does the audience discuss before and after
events?
v.
What does the audience do before and after presentations?
2.
Surveys can provide data.
a.
Surveys allow information to be gathered directly from the audience.
b.
Properly constructed surveys have distinct and precise options for
responses.
c.
People may lie or distort information on surveys.
d.
Gather data from several sources to improve accuracy.
How should speakers use the information they obtain to adapt to the audience?
1.
Audience segmentation clusters people who have similar characteristics,
viewpoints, backgrounds, or experiences so the speaker can appeal to various
portions of the audience during the presentation.
2.
Maslows hierarchy of needs identifies essential requirements for psychological
well-being and personal growth.
a.
Physiological needs include basics for physical survival: food, water,
shelter, sleep, and health.
b.
Safety needs include freedom from harm, security of property, stability,
and predictability.

c.

III.

Love and belonging needs include friendship, family, acceptance, and

affiliation.
d.
Esteem needs refer to ones status in a community and include respect,
recognition, status, and reputation.
e.
Self-actualization needs include personal growth, creativity, maximized
potential, and self-improvement.
f.
Self-transcendence needs refer to the quest for spirituality, flow, and
peak experience.
g.
The hierarchy of needs provides an important resource for speakers.
i.
People dont consider something important if they dont need it,
so determine where your topic fits on the hierarchy of needs.
ii.
Show deficiency needs (the threat of unmet needs), and then
show how the content in the presentation fulfills the needs.
iii.
Show growth needs (needs that are desirable to fulfill), then
invite the audience to grow through your topic.
3.
Speakers can tap into universal values to appeal to diverse audiences.
a.
Universal values are the values nearly every culture endorses, so they
transcend audience demographics.
b.
Universal values include: pleasure, achievement, power, self-direction,
stimulation, maturity, benevolence, security, conformity, tradition, spirituality,
universalism.
Immediacy can connect speakers with the audience.
A.
Immediacy refers to behavior communicating approachability and closeness between
people.
1.
Immediacy shows and promotes positive feelings.
2.
Immediacy increases perceived credibility.
B.
Verbal immediacy includes use of personal examples, humor, addressing people by first
names, asking for other peoples viewpoints.
1.
Higher verbal immediacy has fewer filler words.
2.
Higher verbal immediacy has vivid examples and clarity of messages.
C.
Nonverbal behaviors can affect perceptions of immediacy.
1.
The immediacy principle states that people are drawn towards persons and
things they like, evaluate highly, and prefer; and they avoid or move away from things
they dislike, evaluate negatively, or do not prefer.
2.
Ways to increase nonverbal immediacy:
a.
Speakers can dress formally to seem more professional or increase
comfort to convey friendliness.
b.
Gestures and movement
i.
Reduce distance to achieve intimacy.
ii.
Maximize mobility and use gestures to enhance
expressiveness.
c.
Face and eyes
i.
Vary facial expressions to avoid appearing bored or uncaring.
ii.
React positively to the audience.
iii.
Direct eye contact to the audience.
d.
Variety in delivery
i.
Interact with the audience.
ii.
Tailor vocal qualities to the presentations content.

iii.

IV.

Use vivid language.

e.
Environment
i.
Select surroundings physically comfortable to the audience.
ii.
Adjust seating to accommodate the presentation format.
iii.
Maintain enough lighting for speaker visibility.
D.
Speakers can use media without harming immediacy as long as the presentation is not
dominated by the impersonal technology.
E.
Cultural influences can affect approaches to immediacy.
1.
Immediacy impact does not differ significantly between Caucasian, AfricanAmerican, Asian-American, and Hispanic groups.
2.
Asian cultures (e.g., China) may perceive too much openness as an ineffective
communication behavior.
Learning styles can influence the effectiveness of communication.
A.
Learning style refers to peoples preferred ways of receiving and processing information.
B.
Analytical and global learners approach communication differently.
1.
Analytical learners are concrete and precise; they learn best with written
communication and thrive on organization, sequencing, and detail.
2.
Global learners take a holistic approach; they communicate most effectively
nonverbally, learning through patterns and larger images.
C.
Learning modalities can shape reactions to presentations.
1.
Kinesthetic/tactual learning occurs though movement or touch.
a.
To help a kinesthetic learner:
i.
Include participatory activities.
ii.
Arrange the physical setting to promote comfort and enable
closeness.
b.
As a kinesthetic learner:
i.
Move as close as possible to speaker.
ii.
Interact with the speaker through nonverbal messages.
iii.
Take notes.
2.
Auditory learning occurs through sound.
a.
To help an auditory learner:
i.
Vary vocal delivery.
ii.
Use interesting oral cues.
b.
As an auditory learner:
i.
Record presentations if possible.
ii.
Read notes aloud.
3.
Visual learning occurs through sight.
a.
To help a visual learner:
i.
Provide outlines.
ii.
Use visual aids
iii.
Use technological aids.
iv.
Use gestures and facial expressions.
v.
Provide a brochure of information.
b.
As a visual learner:
i.
Take notes.
ii.
Use a highlighter.
iii.
Do your own follow-up research.
4.
Percentage of audiences in each category:

V.

a.
Kinesthetic = 15%
b.
Visual = 25-30%
c.
Auditory = 25-30%
d.
Mixed = 25-30%
Constructive feedback can fulfill three main functions: appreciation, coaching, and evaluation.
A.
Appreciation helps communicators feel valued through acknowledgement.
B.
Coaching establishes a basis for improvement.
1.
When utilizing feedback for the purposes of coaching, offer concrete
suggestions.
2.
When utilizing feedback for the purposes of coaching, justify your
recommendations.
3.
When utilizing feedback for the purposes of coaching, explain how your
recommendations would help.
C.
Evaluation: assess how well one is doing.
1.
When providing evaluative feedback, separate the performance from the person.
2.
Offer formative (while the presentation is developing) and summative (final
performance of entire presentation) evaluation.
3.
Evaluate specifics.
4.
Evaluate along finer dimensions than simply good or bad.

CHAPTER 12 OUTLINE LINK

Informative Presentations Outline
I.

II.

Informative speeches involve sharing knowledge.

A.
Informative speakers are impartial because they do not defend a particular viewpoint.
B.
Informative and persuasive presentations differ in several ways.
1.
Informative speeches educate; persuasive speeches advocate.
2.
Informative speeches minimize controversy; persuasive speeches embrace
controversy.
3.
Informative speakers perform the role of teachers; persuasive speakers perform
the role of salespeople.
4.
Informative speeches increase knowledge or skill; persuasive speeches influence
attitudes or behaviors.
C.
Informative presentations on controversial topics allow audiences to make their own
decisions.
D.
Informative speaking can perform a variety of functions.
1.
Invitation speeches teach new information without expecting a certain viewpoint.
2.
Translation speeches clarify specialized or technical information.
3.
Consciousness-raising speeches bring information about an issue to the public.
4.
Debunking speeches correct misinformation.
5.
Innovation speeches reveal new information taking the place of outdated
information.
6.
Speeches can offer options by clarifying available choices on an issue.
7.
Skill-building speeches show how to do something.
Speakers need to optimize the quality and quantity of information.

A.

III.

The criterion of novelty requires content to be unfamiliar to the audience. The audience
will less likely know:
1.
Very recent developments
2.
Information not included in the most popular sources
3.
Information from a different viewpoint
4.
Sources from languages or cultures other than their own
B.
The criterion of significance requires the speaker to prove information has some
significance beyond personal concern.
1.
Significance deals with breadth: the universal appeal of the information.
2.
Significance deals with depth: severity of the effects of the information.
C.
The criterion of relevance requires the information to have a personal connection with the
audience.
D.
The amount of information is governed by principles of information management.
1.
According to the magic seven principle, audiences recall most accurately
around seven or fewer items.
2.
According to the familiarity-acceptance principle, audiences are more receptive
to new information when associated with information already known.
3.
Clustering groups information according to logical connections among the items.
4.
If not balanced with other, more personalized information, statistics and facts can
create distance between speaker and audience.
5.
Informative speeches that cover a few main ideas thoroughly tend to be the most
effective.
a.
Speakers should decide on the necessary pieces of information the
audience must know (what must be included).
b.
Speakers should decide what items are sufficient for the audience to
know (what is suitable to omit).
Speakers can deliver several types of informative presentations.
A.
Speeches of definition clarify meanings of terms.
1.
Definition speeches answer: what is _____? or what are _____?
2.
Speakers can define terms and concepts in many ways.
a.
Classification places something within a group of similar things.
b.
Differentiation shows how something is dissimilar from something else.
c.
Synonyms and antonyms elaborate on terms and concepts similar to or
opposite from whatever the speakers is defining.
d.
Comparisons and contrasts look for resemblances and differences.
e.
Operational definitions state what something is by elaborating on the
process for creating or arriving at it.
3.
A definition must not contain the terms the speaker wants to define.
a.
A circular definition defines a term by using the same term.
b.
A definition has to be simpler than the term it defines.
B.
Speeches of demonstration are skill-building presentations equipping the audience with
knowledge of how to do something.
1.
Demonstrations focus on specific actions.
2.
Demonstrations introduce some special considerations.
a.
Demonstrations may take more time than other types of presentations.
b.
Demonstrations limit options for organizational structure, usually
employing a step-by-step chronological pattern.

c.

IV.

An overview helps the audience understand how the steps in a process

fit together as a whole before getting involved in the individual steps.
d.
Demonstrations achieve their greatest effect when the audience
participates.
C.
Speeches of description make a concept, object, person, event, action, or process seem
clearer and more immediately present to the audience.
1.
Descriptions depend heavily on the ability to use precise, vivid language making
the audience feel that whatever the speaker describes is present.
2.
Effective descriptions appeal to the five senses, especially with complicated
topics.
3.
The more the audience knows the topic, the deeper the descriptions will have to
be to find descriptions they have not already heard.
4.
If the presentation topic is about a person, consider a biographical profile.
a.
A biographical profile covers the highlights of someones life.
b.
Show the person in the profile as a unique individual.
c.
State direct quotations or specific details from/about the person.
D.
Speeches of explanation discuss why or how something occurs.
1.
Explanations are useful for clarifying complex processes.
2.
Explanations should offer concrete, specific examples.
E.
Speeches of narration tell an extended informative story.
1.
The content of the story needs to connect with the overall objective of the
presentation.
2.
Coherence describes the internal logic an audience can follow.
a.
Coherent narratives include plausible characters.
b.
Coherent narratives include a plot line with an orderly sequence.
c.
Coherent narratives include only characters and events contributing to
the outcome of the story.
3.
Fidelity describes the connection with values the audience holds dear.
4.
Narration allows the audience to imagine they are participating in the story.
Effective approaches to information can maximize the impact of an informative presentation.
A.
Information can connect with the audience via ethos, pathos, and logos.
1.
Ethos is communicator credibility through perceived competence, character, and
caring.
2.
Logos is the rational quality of information.
a.
Rational information is internally consistent (doesnt contradict itself).
b.
Rational information is consistent with what other reliable sources claim.
c.
Rational information can be supported with evidence (such as direct
observation, calculations, or tests).
3.
Pathos is feeling or sentiment (passion), which should complement logic.
B.
Learning theory affects the choice of the kind of information to use in a presentation.
1.
The cognitive domain is the intellectual realm of information; it focuses on
reasoning and evidence.
2.
The affective domain targets the audiences value system; it addresses their
willingness to connect and to get involved with information as something that matters
to them personally.
3.
The psychomotor domain involves learning by doing.
4.
Audiences learn in all three different ways, so information makes the biggest
impact when affecting all three domains.

C.

V.

Presentations need to differentiate three kinds of information.

1.
Reports communicate factual information; they can be proven true or false.
2.
Inferences provide statements about the unknown made on the basis of the
known.
a.
Inferences take the form of predictions or educated guesses based on
fact.
b.
The truth of inferences is measured by degree of probability.
3.
Judgments state a personal opinion or emotional reaction, usually carrying
approval or disapproval.
a.
Judgments are individual expressions.
b.
Opinions require some justification, so opinions have varying degrees of
support.
c.
People may phrase judgments to evade personal responsibility.
d.
Judgments dont have a truth value; people can agree or disagree to
varying degrees.
Inventional techniques can maximize the amount of useful information.
A.
Invention describes the process of discovering material suitable to include in
presentations.
B.
Speakers can use the journalists questions (see Chapter 9)who, what, when, where,
why, and howto generate content.
C.
The topical invention process developed by Aristotle provides a systematic method of
generating content.
1.
Definition
a.
Genus (category something fits)
b.
Species (differences from other members of the category)
c.
Division (parts of something)
2.
Comparison
a.
Similarity
b.
Difference
c.
Degree (magnitude of similarities and differences)
3.
Relationship
a.
Cause and effect
b.
Before and after
c.
Contraries (opposites of something)
d.
Contradictions (opposing viewpoints, denials)
4.
Circumstances
a.
Possible and impossible (practicality and realism)
b.
Past fact and future fact (predecessors and implications)
5.
Testimony
a.
Authorities (experts)
b.
Testimonials (first-hand information)
c.
Maxims (popular sayings, proverbs)
d.
Rumors
e.
Documents and laws
f.
Precedents (past examples of something)
6.
Specific topic formats include:
a.
Justice includes issues of fairness/unfairness and right/wrong.

b.
c.

Advantages and disadvantages encompasses issues of benefits and

harms.
Praise and blame deals with virtues and vices.