School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

AIM
The aim of this module is to achieve an understanding of the basic principles of
hydrology and the importance of hydrology in water resources assessment, design and
management.

HYDROLOGY
Hydrology is a multidisciplinary subject dealing with the occurrence, circulation and
the distribution of the water of the earth in the atmosphere, surface rivers, springs and
lakes; seas and oceans; and within the ground.
As will be shown later on, this water exists in a series of compartments that are linked
together in what is generally known as the Hydrological Cycle or Water Cycle.
Understanding hydrology inevitably therefore implies understanding the processes and
linkages in the hydrological cycle.

EXAMPLES OF DIRECT APPLICATION OF HYDROLOGY

Design of water supply schemes - estimation of amount of water that can be

reliably made available

Design of hydro-electric projects

Irrigation schemes

Flood protection/urban drainage

Navigation schemes

Bridge crossings and culverts

Water pollution control

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-1-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this module, the students should know and understand:

the different physical processes in the hydrological cycle and how they interact;
the concept of catchment and river basin;
how to calculate a catchment annual water balance;
contemporary institutional framework for managing the water cycle in the UK;
raw water sources and their treatment requirements to make them potable;
how to measure rainfall;
how to calculate catchment average rainfall;
how to measure river flow and analyse the data.

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrological cycle is a graphical illustration of the natural circulation of water
near the surface of the earth (see Fig. 1).

Precipitation
Rain
Hail
Snow
Dew
Snow

Glacier

Transpiration

EVAPORATION from
Vegetation soil
Lakes streams
And the sea

Surface water run-off

Percolation
Spring Lake

Sea
Swamp River

Ground
Water

Aquifer

Flow

The Hydrological Cycle

Fig. 1: The Hydrological Cycle

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-2-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

Essentially, the water can be considered to exist in three distinct compartments or subsystems. These compartments and the relevant processes affecting water circulation in
them are as follows:

Atmospheric Water Compartment

precipitation - e.g. rain, snow, sleet, dew. Precipitation is the main input to the
hydrological cycle system. Precipitation drives the entire system since without it, the
other processes cannot occur, in theory. Rain is the most common form of
precipitation, although snow can be as equally important in cold regions such as the
UK. The main difference between rain and snow is that water is immediately available
from the former whereas there is often a time-delay between snowfall and water
availability. Dew may be the significant form of water in arid environments.

evaporation and evapotranspiration (E & E) - the transfer of water from the liquid to
the gaseous state to form part of the atmosphere is known as evaporation. When this
water loss takes place from plants and the soil, the process is known as
evapotranspiration. While rainfall is the main input, E & E constitute the main output
of water from the earth surface.

Surface Water Compartment

infiltration - the gentle movement of water through the soil surface and into the
ground.

depression storage - the water collected in surface depressions and subsequently

evaporated or infiltrated.

interception - the water collected by the leaves of vegetation and subsequently

evaporated.

surface runoff - the balance from precipitation which runs off in rivers.

Sub-surface Water Compartment

percolation - the downward movement of water in the soil to replenish ground water
storage

interflow - the lateral movement of water in the soil which eventually emerges as
springs

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-3-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

groundwater flow - the water existing in aquifers and rocks that is contributed to by
percolating rainfall.

THE RIVER BASIN OR CATCHMENT

The catchment or river basin is the smallest hydrological unit representation
incorporating all of the compartments of the hydrological cycle.
More specifically, it is the area contributing water to a given point on a river or stream
and is separated from adjacent catchments by a divide, or ridge, that can be traced on
topographic maps (see Fig.2). Within this catchment, movement of water into the
atmospheric and subsurface compartments can also take place.

Catchment Outfall

Mainstream (River)

Catchment Area

Catchment Boundary

Fig.2 River Catchment

Indeed, each river catchment (or basin or watershed) is a kind of system, with its
distinct input and output and there exists a natural BALANCE between all these
inputs and outputs.
Table 1 shows estimated world water quantities and Table 2 presents the balance
between the various components of the hydrological cycle on a global scale.
It is important to note from Table 2 that a large proportion of available water is lost
annually through evaporation and this is a major problem for water resources
conservation and management.

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-4-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

Table 1: Estimated world water quantities (UNESCO, 1978)*

Item
Area (Mkm2)
Volume (km3) % of total
% of fresh total
Oceans
361.1
1,338,000,000 96.5
Fresh g.water
134.8
10,530,000
0.76
30.1
Saline g.water 134.8
12,870,000
0.93
Soil moisture
82.0
16,500
0.0012
0.005
Polar ice
16.0
24,023,500
1.7
68.6
Other ice &
0.3
340,600
0.025
1.0
snow
Fresh lakes
1.2
91,000
0.007
0.26
Saline lakes
0.8
85,400
0.006
Marshes
2.7
11,470
0.0008
0.03
Rivers
148.8
2,120
0.0002
0.006
Biological H2O 510.0
1,120
0.0001
0.003
Atmospheric
510.0
12,900
0.001
0.04
Total water
510.0
1,385,984,610 100
Total fresh
148.8
35,029,210
2.5
100
*UNESCO (1978): World water balance and water resources of the Earth, Studies &
reports in Hydrology, vol. 25, UNESCO, Paris.
Table 2: Global annual water balance (UNESCO, 1978)*
Unit
Ocean
Area
km2
361,300,000
3
Precipitation
km /yr
458,000
mm/yr
1270

Evaporation

km3/yr
mm/yr

505,000
1400

Land
148,800,000
119,000
800

72,000
484

Runoff to ocean
from:
Rivers
km3/yr
44,700
3
Groundwater
km /yr
2200
Total
km3
47,000
Total
mm/yr
316
*UNESCO (1978): World water balance and water resources of the Earth, Studies &
reports in Hydrology, vol. 25, UNESCO, Paris.

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-5-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

WATER BALANCE EQUATION

Whether it is the globe or a simple catchment, there is always a balance between all
the inputs and outputs of water. This balance is often represented by a water balance
equation written in the general form:

P = R + E +S
where
P = precipitation (in a given time), mm;
R = runoff in same period, mm;
E = evaporation volume in same period, mm;

S= change in volume of storage (in lakes, reservoirs or groundwater), mm.

Notes
i. All factors in the water balance equation must have the same unit for the equation
to be valid.

ii. The importance of S increases as the time period becomes shorter. For example
over an annual cycle, this term is very small that, for all practical purposes, it can
be ignored. This is obviously not case for monthly or shorter time scales.

iii. The water balance equation is very important in hydrology since, with it, one could
estimate with sufficient degree of accuracy, any element of the equation if
unavailable. One practical example is the estimation of runoff at ungauged sites
from concurrent precipitation and evaporation data.
iv. In hydrology, the sum total of E and S is termed the loss L, i.e.
L = E + S

v. Also, the ratio R/P is termed the Runoff Coefficient, often denoted by C. In

0 C 1

general
. The runoff coefficient is one simple way for
characterising losses in hydrology. As the loss increases, the runoff coefficient
tends towards zero; for very little loss, the runoff coefficient will tend towards one!

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-6-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

THE UK WATER INDUSTRY

England & Wales
The water industry in England & Wales has seen many changes in recent times. Some
notable events post 1973 are briefly discussed below

Water Act 1973:

This established 10 Regional Water Authorities for :
River Pollution Control
Land Drainage
Fisheries
Water Supply
Sewerage and Sewage Treatment
Water Conservation
Recreation & Amenity

Water Act 1989:

Privatised Water Service Companies
Water Only Companies
National Rivers Authority (NRA)
Provisions for Regulation of Water Industry

Water Resources Act 1991:

Environment Agency - formally came into being in 1996
Implementation of EU Water Directives

Water Resources Act 2003:

This is the current legislation guiding the protection and improvement of water
environment in England & Wales. Specifically, the Act reflects the requirements

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-7-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

of the EU Water Framework Directive to protect the ecology of each river

catchment.

Act makes it mandatory for water suppliers to have a 25-year water resources plan,
covering how they intend to provide sufficient water to meet their customers
needs.

Scotland
1967 Water (Scotland) Act:
13 source to Tap Regional Water Board
One Bulk Water Supply Board - The central Water Development Board
(CSWDB)

1975
Following Local Government re-organisation, the water supply and sewerage
functions were transferred to 9 REGIONAL and 3 ISLAND councils. The CSWDB
retained its traditional functions of bulk supply
7 River Purification Boards (RPBs)

1996
3 New Water Authorities : West, East and North of Scotland Water Authorities.
These three authorities were later merged in 2002 into a single entity known as
Scottish Water
Scottish Environment Protection Agency, SEPA came into being.

Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003:

This is the current legislation in Scotland similar to the Water Resources Act 2003
in England & Wales.

Act also reflects the provisions of the EU Water Framework Directive and
empowers Scottish ministers to introduce regulatory controls over activities in
order to protect and improve Scotlands water environment.

The necessary regulatory controls were passed as the Water Environment

(Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (or Controlled Activities

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-8-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

Regulations, CAR, for short). CAR came into force on 1 April 2006 and from this
date CAR authorisation is required for:
1. Discharges to all surface waters, including wetlands, and
groundwaters;
2. Disposal to land;
3. Abstractions from all surface and groundwaters;
4. Impoundments of rivers, lochs, wetlands, etc.,
5. Engineering works in inland waters and wetlands.

Northern Ireland
Water and Sewerage functions are carried out by the DEPARTMENT of
ENVIRONMENT (NI).

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-9-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

EU Water Directives- The Water Framework Directive (WFD)

The WFD incorporates the main requirements for water management in Europe into a
single, holistic system based on river basins.
Thus the WFD provides an umbrella to previously issued directives, e.g. the quality
of water intended for drinking directive; the fish and shell fish directive, which will all
be repealed. Some other existing directives are judged to contribute to achieving the
objectives of the WFD and these will be retained. Examples of the latter are the Urban
wastewater treatment directive and the Nitrates directive.

Objectives/Key guiding goal of the WFD

To achieve good status of both ground and surface waters; good meaning that the
water meets the standards (mostly chemical standards) established in existing water
directives and, additionally, new ecological quality standards.
Thus good is specified in terms of both chemical and ecological quality standards:

Good chemical status- means compliance with all the quality standards established
for chemical substances at the EU level.
Good ecological quality- means there is only a slight departure from the biological
community that would be expected in conditions of minimum anthropogenic (i.e.
human) impacts.

Provisions of the WFD

Formation of new or re-organised river basin district authorities, each with a
management plan for achieving the goals of the directive;
Emission standards to be set using a combination of fixed standards and river
quality objectives;
A new mechanism for controlling the discharge of dangerous substances;
Derogations from good status- chemical and ecological- will be allowed in
emergency situations, e.g. floods, droughts, accidents;
Basin authorities to designate vulnerable protection zones for specific purposes
(e.g. bathing, drinking water; protected natural areas); where necessary, more
stringent quality standards may be set for such zones;
All rivers must achieve good chemical and ecological status as a minimum;
Prohibits all direct discharges to groundwater aquifers. It also provides for regular
monitoring of groundwater level and quality in order to detect any unusual changes
in characteristics and also implement mitigating measures.

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-10-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

Implementation Timetable
15 years- 9 years to prepare management plans and a further 6 years to achieve
targets.

Where derogations/delays are granted, and additional deferment of up to two

periods of 6 years is allowed but such must be justified.

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-11-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

SOURCES AND TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS OF WATER

Two Main Sources
There are two main sources of raw water:

SURFACE WATER - streams; rivers; ponds; lakes and reservoirs

GROUND WATER - usually water held in aquifers within the earth crust.
In general, most water supply facilities use a combination of ground and surface
water, albeit in varying proportions. For example, in the UK, the national average
proportions are:
Groundwater (25%); Surface Water (75%).
However, Scotland tends to use a lower proportion of groundwater while England &
Wales may use a higher proportion of surface water in some areas.

Treatment Requirements

Groundwater: Relatively purer and hence only requires very minimal treatment,
usually disinfection

Surface Water: Surface water contains a large number of impurities which impart
colour, odour, taste, to the water as well as a variety of pathogenic disease-causing
organisms. Extensive treatment, involving physical, chemical and biological
processes, often required to remove the very many impurities in surface water before
it becomes potable.

WATER DEMAND AND DEMAND FORECASTING

Demand
Total UK Demand (Gross 20 x 109 litres/day) comprises:
DOMESTIC
COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL
AGRICULTURAL
LOSSES

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

(43 %)
(28 %)
(2 %)
(27 %)

-12-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

Typical Domestic per capita Demand: 140 litres/day comprising

TOILET FLUSHING
BATHING & SHOWERING
CLOTHES WASHING
DISH WASHERS

(32%)
(17%)
(12%
(1%)

Demand Forecasting
The objective of water demand forecasting is to obtain best estimates of future trends
in demand growth so that allowances could be made for this in the planning of water
supply facilities. Demand forecasting is an imprecise activity; as a result, most
forecasters prefer to err on the side of caution by over-designing for predicted
increases in demand, which often do not materialise.
Demand forecasting can be accomplished in two basic ways:

(Linear) Extrapolation based on past trend - this could be highly unreliable as

illustrated in Fig. 3, because past trend is often not a good indicator of future
demand patterns. Extrapolation does not take into account emerging environmental
factors such as climate change, for example.

Fig. 3: Illustration of significant error of demand forecasting by past trends

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-13-

School of the Built Environment - BEng/MEng Civil Engineering

Analytical techniques - involve relating water demand to those factors known to

influence it, e.g. price, living standards, environmental factors, etc., e.g.

D = a + b( p ) + c(lsi ) + d (T )

(1)

where D is the demand, p is price, lsi is a living standard index and T is temperature
(which is an indicator of environmental condition) and a, b, c and d are coefficients or
parameters of the model.
In eq. (1), D is the dependent variable and p, lsi and T are the independent (or
explanatory) variables. If sufficient data about the dependent and corresponding
independent variables are available, then the parameters can be determined by
regression analysis. However, some of the independent variables are difficult to
measure for current and future conditions, thus making the practical application of
analytical demand forecasting methods somewhat problematic.

A. J. Adeloye: Hydrology (Level 2) Lesson I

-14-