Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Enhancing pre-service teachers self-efcacy beliefs for

technology integration through lesson planning practice
Youngju Lee a, Jihyun Lee b, *
a
Department of Education, Korea National University of Education, San 7, Darak-ri, Gangnae-myeon, Cheongwon-gun, Chungbuk 363-791,
Republic of Korea
b
Department of Education, Chung-Ang University, 211 Heuksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 1 August 2013
Received in revised form
2 December 2013
Accepted 5 January 2014

The purpose of this study was to identify how pre-service teachers self-efcacy beliefs for technology
integration (SETI) can be improved during the coursework intervention, and which of the course factors
(instructional media development skills, knowledge on technology, and lesson planning practice) has the
highest impact on the SETI. This research also attempted to explore a more inclusive path of the direct
and indirect inuences between SETI and other non-course variables (computer use, teachers attitude
towards computers (TAC), changes in TAC). A total of 136 undergraduate students at a teacher education
university in Korea participated in the study. Our data analyses illustrated signicant increase of prospective teachers SETI after their completion of education technology course resulting mostly from
lesson planning practice. The hierarchical multiple regression revealed that the pre-service teachers with
higher positive attitudes toward computers and greater ability for lesson planning showed higher increase in their levels of SETI. The path analysis indicated that these two factors inuenced the SETI
directly, rather than indirectly. Lesson planning practice did not affect pre-service teachers attitudinal
growth. Implications on effectiveness of the lesson planning and attitudinal factors on SETI, and suggestions for teacher education course design are discussed.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Teachers self-efcacy beliefs for technology
integration
Lesson planning
Technology integration course design
Teachers attitude toward computer

1. Introduction
Teachers successful integration of technology in their classrooms has been the center of vigorous debates in the eld of teacher education. Researchers have investigated various factors that could affect teachers use of technology: resources such as relevant hardware or
software (e.g., Goktas, Yildirim, & Yildirim, 2008); environmental supports such as time, technical support, training, and school culture (e.g.,
Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010); teachers skills or knowledge such as computer skills (e.g., Ertmer, 1999), technological pedagogical
and content knowledge (e.g., Koehler, Mishra, Yahya, 2007); teaching experiences (e.g., Al-awidi & Alghazo, 2012); and teachers value
beliefs or attitudes such as self-efcacy (e.g., Anderson & Maninger, 2007).
In particular, research provides strong evidence that teachers self-efcacy beliefs toward (for) technology integration (SETI) is one of the
most signicant and determining factors of teachers actual use of technology in their classrooms (e.g. Abbitt, 2011; Al-awidi & Alghazo,
2012; Anderson, Groulx, & Maninger, 2011; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Sang, van Braak, & Tondeur, 2010; Teo, 2009; Wang, Ertmer,
& Newby, 2004). Pyschologist, Bandura (2006) has dened self-efcacy belifs as a judgment of capability to execute a given type of performances (p. 309). Generally, people with a strong sense of self-efcacy exert a high degree of effort to complete a task, and is likely to
persist in challenging difcult situations (Bandura, 1977). SETI does not focus on the knowledge or skills that teachers have about technology
integration, but on their beliefs or condence that they have about things they can do for technology integration (Al-awidi & Alghazo, 2012).
The higher SETI a teacher has, the more enthusiastically he/she is likely to use technology for student-centered teaching (Anderson et al.,

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 82 10 3861 3400.

E-mail addresses: agnes@knue.ac.kr (Y. Lee), leeji@cau.ac.kr, leeji@post.harvard.edu (J. Lee).
0360-1315/$ see front matter 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.01.001

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Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

2011). Especially for the pre-service teachers or novice teachers, SETI is known to have more direct impact on their actual practices
(Anderson & Maninger, 2007; Sang et al., 2010; Teo, 2009).
From the beginning phase of the ICT (Information and Communication Technology) integration initiative, teachers technical skills have
been considered as the key factor for the effective implementation of technology, and a majority of the related projects such as PT3 (Preparing
Tomorrows Teachers to use Technology) focused on developing the technological skills of pre-service teachers. Most researchers thus assume that teachers SETI is signicantly inuenced by their technological prociency because their frustration at the lack of such skills
obviously drop their competence in using technology integrated instructions (e.g., Abbitt & Klett, 2007; Anderson & Maninger, 2007).
Furthermore, teachers are expected to gain more and more advanced technology skills since pre-service teachers who graduate are digital
natives, and must move beyond being computer literate to technology competent (Smarkola, 2008, p. 1197). However, some contradictory
ndings have been raised: technology skills do not signicantly predict actual practice of using technology of both pre-service (Negishi, Elder,
Hamil, & Mzoughi, gishi, 2003) and in-service teachers (Becker, 2000) and technology skills indirectly affect the practice via SETI (Anderson &
Maninger, 2007). In all cases, although knowledge of technology is necessary, it is not enough (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010, p. 261).
Typically, teacher education institutes offer educational technology courses to help pre-service teachers learn how to employ technology
in their teaching. However, the design of the courses varies considerably. Some courses primarily focus on training pre-service teachers
technical skills, and other courses address general theories on teaching with technology. For instance, Abbitt and Klett (2007) ran four
different courses for technology integration. The courses were different by the instructional time (one credit vs. two credits) and the focus of
the activities (application of specic software vs. broad focus with regard to educational technology). The results of the study indicated that
the amount of instructional time did not inuence teachers SETI. Rather, the focus of the courses made a signicant difference in teachers
SETI; pre-service teachers in the more general approach showed higher scores in the rating of SETI than those enrolled in the course with a
focus on the use of specic software. However, this study was limited in identifying specic characteristics of the courses. Despite the
various design of the educational technology courses, studies on its effectiveness rarely discovered how different activities and designs of
the courses contributed to enhancing teachers SETI. Therefore, the previous research ndings cannot fully respond to the questions of how
to prepare prospective teachers in the specic design of teacher education courses (Ertmer, Conklin, & Lewandowski, 2003; Goktas, Yildirim,
& Yildirim, 2008; Wang et al., 2004).
The implications for designing educational technology courses for pre-service teachers can be gained from a research base called the
TPACK (Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge) framework (Koehler & Mishra, 2005; Koehler, Mishra, Yahya, 2007). This
framework proposes that the desirable use of technology in the classrooms requires a complex form of teacher knowledge that integrates
contents, pedagogy, and technology. Koehler and Mishra (2005) argued that the teacher educators can support teachers development of
their TPACK by providing a curricular system where an instructor considers all three types of knowledgedcontents, pedagogy, and technologyd in an integrated manner rather than collecting isolated courses with a focus of only one knowledge among the three. Experts
suggest that technology courses should not be isolated from curriculum and contents and they should be contextually situated in the schoolbased learning environment (Choy, Wong, & Gao, 2008; Hughes, 2005; Smarkola, 2008; Wentworth, Waddoups, Earle, 2004). Many researchers emphasize the importance of content-specic practice of using technology. Hughes (2005) writes the more content-specic the
example, the more likely the teacher will see value and learn it (p. 295). In response to this need, Koehler and Mishra (2005) proposed a
constructivist approach called, Learning technology by design where teachers learn effective technology integration as they participate in
authentic and situated pedagogical tasks. The design-based approach assumes that teachers take a more active role as instructional designers
who value technology as an effective instructional tool, rather than staying as a passive technology recipient (Koehler, Mishra, Hershey, &
Peruski, 2004). In this study, we believe that teachers lesson planning activities would provide prospective teachers with experiences of
pedagogical problem-solving where they need to connect their technology skills to their content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge.
Lastly, other than the coursework, one of the most signicant and long-lasting factors that could inuence SETI is teachers attitude
toward computer (TAC). Brinkerhoff (2006) proposes that fear or anxiety for the novice teachers and low value beliefs for expert teachers
can be serious detriments for teachers attempts to integrate technology into curricula. Pre-service teachers beliefs about the value of
classroom technology integration found to be the best predictor of teachers intentions to use technology in their future classrooms
(Anderson et al., 2011). There are a great number of research studies on the relationship between teachers attitude toward computer and
their intentions or actual behaviors of technology integration (e.g., Anderson et al., 2011; Wu, Chang, & Guo, 2008), it is rare to identify
previous studies investigating direct relationship between teachers attitude toward computer and their self-efcacy for technology integration. Abbit and Klett(2007)s research is noteworthy in this regard. Their research nding suggests that perceived comfort with computer
technology accounted for approximately 41% of the variance in teachers self-efcacy beliefs toward (for) technology integration.
1.1. Research Questions
Despite the abundant literature, factors that inuence pre-service teachers SETI remain largely unclear, especially when designing an
educational technology course for teacher preparation programs (Abbitt & Klett, 2007). This study tries to identify how pre-service teachers
SETI can be improved during the coursework intervention, and which of the course activitiesd1) instructional media development, 2)
lecture on technology integration, and 3) lesson planning practicedhas the highest impact on the SETI. In addition, this research attempts to
provide a more complete path of the direct and indirect inuences between the SETI and the other strong factors in order to nd implications for teacher education programs. The research questions that guide this study are the following:
1. Was there a change in teachers SETI after the course completion? If so, which course intervention factor for teachers (instructional
media development skills, knowledge on technology integration, and lesson planning skills) was important?
2. Considering teachers existing characteristics prior to the course (computer use, teachers attitude toward computer), which factor
inuences the improvement in the level of teachers SETI? What is the unique contribution of the coursework intervention variables to
the enhancement in the level of teachers SETI?
3. How does the strongest course factor affect SETI in relation to teachers attitude toward computer (TAC)? Does it inuence SETI directly
or indirectly via TAC? What are the relative inuences when comparing pre-course factors?

Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

123

2. Methods
2.1. Participants
A total of 136 undergraduate students at a teacher education university in South Korea participated in the study. The participants were
enrolled in a technology integration course as a part of teacher certicate program. The university offered 6 classes of the course and the
computer lab could accommodate no more than 25 students per class since the course required to use computers. The rst author of the
paper taught all 6 classes using the same textbook and materials in the classes.
Two thirds of the students were female (64%) and the rest 36% were male students. Their age ranged from 19 to 27 (M 20.34, SD 1.07).
The majority of the participants were freshmen (n 119, 88%), and 40% of the participants were majoring in elementary education. The next
large number of students (32%) was science education majors. The rest of the students were social studies education majors (12%), education
(7.6%), language education (4.6%), early childhood education (2.3%), and etc (art education, music education, and physical education, 1.5%).
2.2. Course intervention description
The rst author of the paper served as a lecturer. During the semester, the technology integration course provided several activities which
were intended to improve teachers self-efcacy in technology integration. First, the course lecture addressed theories in instructional
mediadhistory in instructional media, the ASSURE model (Heinich, Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino, 1996), principles of effective multimedia
design, and teaching strategies in the use of technology. The ASSURE model is a systematic approach for creating lessons that effectively
integrate the use of technology and media. The acronym ASSURE stands for 6 procedural components that assure successful technology
integration; 1) Analyze Learners, 2) State Standards and Objectives, 3) Select Strategies, Technology, Media, and Materials, 4) Utilize Technology, Media, and Materials, 5) Require Learner Participation, and 6) Evaluate and Revise. Second, the pre-service teachers were able to learn
how to use computer software for multimedia development (i.e., Photoshops, Audacity, and Window Movie Maker). The lecturer walked the
pre-service teachers through the major functions of the software. The pre-service teachers had an opportunity to practice developing
instructional media by themselves during the course. Lastly, the pre-service teachers were asked to create a lesson plan individually for
technology integration using the ASSURE model. They chose to teach the subjects they majored in (i.e., mathematics, science, and etc.) and set
the target audience for the classes they designed. While lesson planning, they referred to the national curriculum and teachers guidebooks
distributed by the educational districts for more specic contents. As they nished the rst draft of their lesson plans, the lecturer gave them
comments and feedback. Based on the feedback they received, pre-service teachers revised their lesson plans. The revision took place only once.
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Teachers self-efcacy beliefs for technology integration (SETI)
To assess participants condence in technology use in their teaching, we used the self-efcacy beliefs for technology integration scale
developed by Wang et al. (2004). The survey contained 16 statements rated on a ve-point Likert scale (5 strongly agree, 4 agree,
3 neither agree nor disagree, 2 disagree, 1 strongly disagree). Example items are as follows: I feel condent that I can successfully
teach relevant subject content with appropriate use of technology., I feel condent about selecting appropriate technology for instruction
based on curriculum standards., and I feel condent that I will be comfortable using technology in my teaching. The reliability of the
instrument was .86 and .89 for pre-survey and post-survey respectively.
2.3.2. Teachers attitudes toward computers (TAC)
We adopted a scale of teachers attitudes toward computers (TAC) developed by Agyei and Voogt (2011). We used 18 items composed of
four sub-scales, 1) anxiety (fear to use computers, 4 items), 2) enjoyment (the pleasure someone experiences when using computers, 4
items), 3) benets for student learning (perceived advantages of using computers in the class, 4 items), 4) instructional productivity (inuence of computer use on the instructional productivity, 6 items). All 18 items on the survey were written in statements on a ve-point
Likert scale (1 strongly disagree, 5 strongly agree). Four items for the anxiety sub-scale were reversely coded. The internal consistency
reliabilities were .76, and .88 for pre-survey and post-survey respectively.
2.3.3. Computer usage
Students were asked about how much time they usually spend on using computers a day and the purposes for the computer usage.
2.3.4. Lesson planning skills
We developed a rubric to evaluate the quality of the lesson plans for technology integrated classes that the students created using the
ASSURE model. Based on the 6 stages of the ASSURE model, we generated 8 evaluation items: 1) learner analysis, 2) objective statements, 3)
teaching strategies, 4) technology selection, 5) teacher activities prior to class implementation, 6) teacher activities during the class, 7)
student activities, and 8) student evaluation plans. The rubric also provided descriptions of quality for the 8 items in three levels; excellent,
fair, and poor. Each evaluation item was rated from 1 to 7. The maximum possible score for a lesson plan was 56 (7 points maximum  8
evaluation items).
2.3.5. Knowledge for effective technology integration
Students were evaluated on their conceptual understandings about successful technology integration as their mid-term exam during the
course. The exam reected the contents of the lecture of the coursedhistory of instructional media, the ASSURE model (Heinich, Molenda,
Russell, & Smaldino, 1996), principles of effective multimedia design, and teaching strategies in the use of technology. The exam contained
10 questions and some specic examples are as follows: Explain instructional affordances of video media, Explain the six steps of the
ASSURE model, and Give an example of using web 2.0 tools for instruction. The total score of the exam was 30.

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Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

2.3.6. Instructional media development skills

As part of the course requirement, students were asked to develop instructional media. During the course they had a chance to learn how
to use software to edit image, audio, video media and practice producing instructional media. Finally, students were asked to submit two
instructional media products (one in an image le format and the other in a video le format) for their course assignments. The scores for
the media product tasks were used to estimate students skills for instructional media development.
2.4. Data collection
In the beginning of the semester, we collected data for SETI (Self-Efcacy beliefs for Technology Integration) pre-test, TAC pre-test, and
computer usage. During the semester, as the course progressed, students submitted their lesson plans for technology integration,
instructional media products, and took a test intended to evaluate their conceptual knowledge for effective technology integration. At the
end of the semester, data for SETI post-test and TAC post-test were collected to examine changes in students attitude toward computer and
their self-efcacy beliefs for technology integration as a result of the course intervention.
2.5. Data analyses
We used a paired-sample t-test in order to investigate the effect of the course on pre-service teachers improvement in their self-efcacy
beliefs for technology integration. We also conducted a multiple regression to identify the critical factor of the three course intervention
activities (lesson planning, instructional media development, and conceptual knowledge for effective technology integration). Using a
hierarchical multiple regression, we inspected the unique contribution of the course intervention while considering students existing
characteristics (computer use and TAC) prior to their exposure to the course. Before conducting a regression analysis, we assessed underlying assumptions. First, the assumption of multicollinearity was checked by Variance Ination Factor (VIF) and Tolerance values. For all
ve independent variables, the VIF values were below 10 and the tolerance statistics were above .2, indicating collinearity was not a
problem. Second, the scatter plot of the values of the residuals against the values of the outcomes predicted showed a random pattern,
indicating the assumption of linearity and homoscedasticity was met. Third, we examined the histogram and normal probability plot to
assess the assumption of normality. The histogram was symmetrical and approximately bell-shaped. The PP plots suggested that the
residuals are normally distributed.
In order to explore the complex relationship of the direct and indirect effects among the strongly inuencing variables (initial TAC, TAC
growth, Computer Usage, Lesson Planning and SETI), we set up a research model. The proposed research model hypothesizes that Lesson
Planning affects SETI directly and indirectly via TAC growth, and the pre-course factors (initial TAC and Computer Usage) directly affect SETI.
A path analysis was conducted using AMOS 18.0 after the missing data (1 for SETI, 7 for pre-TAC, 1 for post-TAC, and 1 for technology skills,
.7%, 5.1%, .7%, and .7% respectively) were replaced by regression imputation provided by the software. Path estimates was calculated by
maximum likelihood estimation and bootstrap analysis considering the sample size and measurement errors of the variables.
3. Results
3.1. Effects of the course intervention
Research Question 1. Was there a change in teachers SETI after the course completion? If so, which course intervention factor for teachers
(instructional media development skills, knowledge on technology integration, and lesson planning skills) was important?
We conducted a paired-sample t-test to identify if there was a change in teachers self-efcacy levels for technology integration after the
pre-service teachers nished the course. We found a signicant increase in the mean score of teachers self-efcacy beliefs for technology
integration after the course (from M 47.27, SD 8.91, before the course to M 58.41, SD 7.19, after the course); t (130) 13.69, p < .001.
By running a regression analysis, we further investigated which course-relevant factors contributed the most to the increase in teachers
self-efcacy levels for technology integration. First, we examined the relationship between three course-related variables and the
dependent variables. As Table 1 shows, instructional media development skills and lesson planning skills variables were positively and
signicantly correlated with the teachers self-efcacy variable. The multiple regression model with three predictors produced R2 .12, F (3,
131) 6.11, p .001. However, as Table 2 indicates, lesson planning skills was the only signicant predictor for teachers self-efcacy for
technology integration. Its positive regression weights indicate that teachers with higher scores in lesson planning tasks are expected to
have higher levels of self-efcacy for technology integration, after controlling for the other variables in the model.
3.2. Effects of the course intervention with the consideration of pre-course factors
Research Question 2. Considering teachers existing characteristics prior to the course (computer use, teachers attitude toward computer),
which factor inuences the improvement in the level of teachers SETI? What is the unique contribution of the coursework intervention variables to
the enhancement in the level of teachers SETI?

Table 1
Descriptive statistics for course variables.
Variables

SD

Correlation with SETI

Instructional media development skills

Knowledge on technology integration
Lesson planning skills

20.31
20.96
28.66

3.82
6.57
5.64

.10
.29*
.33*

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

125

Table 2
Effects of course variables on SETI.
Variables

SE b

Sig.

Instructional media development skills

Knowledge on technology integration
Lesson planning skills
R2
Adjusted R2
F

.04
.15
.32

.17
.12
.13

.02
.14
.25
.12
.10
6.11**

.24
1.28
2.46

.81
.20
.02*

*p < .05, **p < .01.

We conducted a multiple regression analysis hierarchically entering computer use, teachers attitudes toward computers (TAC pre-test)
in the rst step (forced entry) and the remaining course intervention variables(lesson planning skills, Instructional media development
skills, knowledge on technology integration) in the second step (stepwise). As we included two independent variables onlydteachers use of
computer and attitudes toward computers in our rst regression model, 28% (R2 .28) of the variance in teachers self-efcacy for technology integration was explained by exposure to teachers existing characteristics prior to the start of the coursedtheir computer use and
attitudes towards computers, F (2, 124) 22.31, p < .001.
The second model accounted for 35.7% of the variance in teachers self-efcacy for technology integration and was a signicant t of the
data, F (3, 123) 22.31, p < .001. This variance is generally considered as a large effect size in educational research (Cohen, 1988). The
incremental R2 of the second model was .07 after the computer use and attitudes toward computers had already been used. That is, the
second regression model accounted for an extra 7% of the variance in teachers self-efcacy for technology integration over and beyond the
rst regression model. This unique contribution of the second model was statistically signicant, F Change (1, 123) 14.06, p < .001.
As shown in Table 3, the results of the regression indicated the two variablesdattitudes toward computers and lesson planning skills
signicantly predicted teachers self-efcacy for technology integration. It was found that teachers attitudes toward computers was the
strongest predictor of teachers self-efcacy for technology integration b 9.04, b .47, t 6.00, p < .001. The standardized beta value
indicates that as teachers attitudes toward computers increase by one standard deviation, teachers self-efcacy in technology integration
increases by .47 standard deviations when the effects of other variables are held constant. The next important predictor was found to be
teachers lesson planning skills, b .34, b .27, t 3.75, p < .001. In short, teachers who possessed positive attitudes toward computers and
great ability for lesson planning were more likely to show high self-efcacy for technology integration.
However, the contribution of teachers computer use to the improvement in teachers self-efcacy for technology integration was not
statistically signicant, t .74, p > .05. In addition, instructional media development skills factor was not found to predict teachers selfefcacy for technology integration (if entered b .13, t 1.41, p > .05). Teachers knowledge on technology integration did not signicantly predict teachers self-efcacy for technology integration, either (if entered b .02, t .24, p > .05).
3.3. The direct or indirect effect of the lesson planning on SETI considering TAC
Research Question 3. How does the strongest course factor affect SETI in relation to teachers attitude toward computer (TAC)? Does it inuence
SETI directly or indirectly via TAC? What are the relative inuences when comparing pre-course factors?
As a preliminary exploration of relationships among the variables, the bivariate correlation analysis was conducted resulting in Table 4.
The results suggest that all four variables in the model Lesson Planning skills, TAC_d, TAC_i, and Computer Use are signicantly related to
SETI. The pre-course factorsTAC_i and Computer Usehave signicant interrelationship, and the attitudinal factorsthe initial TAC (TAC_i)
and the difference between pre-TAC and post-TAC (TAC_d) are negatively correlated. The representative course factor Lesson Planning skills
is not signicantly related to the attitudinal variables, i.e., both TAC_i and TAC_d, and Computer Use.
As shown in Fig. 1, TAC_i and Computer Use are exogenous variables hypothesized to affect SETI directly; Lesson Planning skills is an
endogenous variable hypothesized to affect SETI directly or indirectly via TAC_d; and TAC_d is both an endogenous mediating variable
hypothesized to be affected by Lesson Planning skills or an exogenous variable hypothesized to directly affect SETI. As indicated in Table 5,

Table 3
Summary of the hierarchical multiple regression predicting SETI.
Predictors
Model 1
Computer use
TAC pre-test
R2
Adjusted R2
F
Model 2
Computer use
TAC pre-test
Lesson planning skills
R2
Adjusted R2
F
*p < .05, **p < .01.
DR2 .07, p < .05.

SE b

Sig.

.36
9.71
.28
.27
23.91**

.65
1.57

.05
.51

.56
6.17

.57
.00**

.46
9.04
.34
.35
.34
22.31**

.62
1.51
.09

.06
.47
.27

.74
6.00
3.75

.45
.00**
.00**

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Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

Table 4
Correlation coefcients for the pairs of variables.
SETI
SETI
Lesson Planning Skills
TAC_d
TAC_i
Computer Use

.334**
.274**
.535**
.212**

Lesson Planning skills

TAC_d

TAC_i

Computer Use

.035
.116
.016

195*
.099

.370**

*p < .05, **p < .01, two-tailed. TAC_i denotes the scores of TAC pre-test. TAC_d denotes the difference between the TAC pre-test and the TAC post-test.

most of the direct effectsd i.e. the inuences unmediated by other variablesd of independent variables (Lesson Planning Skills, TAC_i, and
TAC_d) on SETI were signicant. However, the direct effect of Computer Use on SETI was not statistically signicant. The indirect effectsd i.e.
the inuences mediated by other variablesdof Lesson Planning Skills via intervening TAC_d on SETI was not signicant because lesson
planning skills did not affect teachers attitudinal growth. These variables explained 49% of the variance of SETI, among which TAC_i is the
highest predictor (b .57) followed by TAC_d (b .38) and Lesson Planning Skills (b .26) with its indirect inuences (b .02). The estimated
standardized path coefcients are presented in Fig. 1.
The overall model t was assessed using the t indices of c2, c2/df, RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), NFI (Normed
Fit Index), CFI (Comparative Fit Index), and TLI (Turker Lewis Index). The Chi-square (c2 3.58, df 3) was not statistically signicant
(p .310), which shows a good t between the causal model and the observed data (Kline, 2011). The c2/df is 1. 19, which is a good t (Kline,
2011). The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was .038, which indicates a good t (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The indices
of Normed Fit Index (NFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and TuckerLevis Index (TLI) are .971, .995, and .983 respectively, meaning a good t
(Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2011). All of the t values suggest an obviously good t, and imply a sound validation of the hypothetical model
Table 6.
4. Discussions
Despite diverse research studies, factors that inuence pre-service teachers self-efcacy for technology integration (SETI) still remain
ambiguous, especially when designing educational technology courses for teacher preparation programs. This study reports the ndings on
the pre-service teachers SETI while an educational technology course featuring three distinct course activities were offered 1) instructional media development, 2) lecture on technology integration, and 3) lesson planning practice. Our main purpose was to identify how preservice teachers SETI can be improved during the course intervention, and which specic course variable has the highest impact on the SETI.
We also attempted to explore a more inclusive path of the direct and indirect inuences between the SETI and the other non-course related
variables in order to nd implications for designing teacher education courses.
Our data analysis results implied that the course that we offered was effective since the teachers self-efcacy beliefs toward (for)
technology integration signicantly increased after their completion of the course mostly due to the lesson planning factor. The hierarchical
multiple regression also revealed that the initial teachers attitude toward computer as a pre-course factor and the lesson planning skills as a
course factor explained a signicant amount of variance in teachers self-efcacy beliefs toward (for) technology integration (34%). In other
words, the pre-service teachers with higher positive attitudes toward computers and greater ability in lesson planning showed higher selfefcacy beliefs for technology integration. As we considered the growth of teachers attitude toward computer in the model, 49% of variance
in teachers self-efcacy beliefs toward (for) technology integration was explained. Moreover, teachers attitudes toward computers and
their lesson planning skills directly inuenced their self-efcacy beliefs for technology integration. The interpretations and implications that
emerged during the study are discussed and the future study recommendations and limitations of the study are presented below.
The ndings obtained from all three research questions of the study consistently showed the positive impact of pre-service teachers
lesson planning activities on the increase of their self-efcacy levels for technology integration. Despite the strenuous efforts in teacher
education programs for effective technology implementations in classes, research revealed concerns about unsuccessful practice of teacher
education programs for technology integration. Traditionally, teacher training courses for technology use mainly dealt with mastering
technical skills of using computer software and neglected how to link these technology skills to curriculum and teaching methodology
(Ertmer et al., 2003; Koehler, Mishra, & Yahya, 2007). As a result, teaches still do not feel condent about how to apply technology prociency that they had learned in their technology courses to their own teaching to support students meaningful learning (Ertmer &
Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Goktas et al., 2008).

Fig. 1. Standardized path coefcients of the research model (***p < .001).

Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

127

Table 5
Standardized direct, indirect and total effects.
Dependent variable

Independent variable

SETI

Lesson Planning Skills

TAC_d
TAC_i
Computer Use
Lesson Planning Skills

TAC_d

Direct effect
**

.26
.38**
.57**
.05
.06

Indirect effect

Total effect

R2

.02

.28
.38
.57
.05
.06

.49

00

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Koehler et al. (2007) advocated teachers understanding of the complex interplay between technology, content, and pedagogy (i.e.,
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, TPACK) for effective teaching with technology. The TPACK framework can illuminate the
issues of implementing technology in teacher education programs. In order to enact this integrated approach, researchers have proposed
providing teachers with authentic and classroom-situated experiences in their training that include microteaching, modeling, collaboration
with peers, and instructional designing (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Kay, 2006; Koehler et al., 2007; Tondeur et al., 2012). In this
study, we offered pre-service teachers chances for learning technology by designing and developing lesson plans using the ASSURE model.
Through the lesson planning activities, the pre-service teachers were able to play an active role as designers of technology, relating technology to pedagogy and content.
In addition, we identied the inuential effects of the attitudinal variablesdteachers attitude toward computers (TAC) prior to the
course, the growth in teachers TAC at the completion of the course) on teachers self-efcacy beliefs, which conrmed previous literature.
Teachers attitude toward computers has been documented by many studies to be a crucial factor that inuences teachers intention, and
actual practices of technology integration (e.g., Anderson et al., 2011; Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Glazewski, Newby, & Ertmer, 2010; Wu et al.,
2008). Teachers with a positive attitude toward computers tend to successfully integrate technology in their classroom, and such attitudinal
or affective factors are more critical than the external factors such as resources, administrative support, training and experiences (Ertmer
et al., 2003). This fact was also veried in our study by the insignicant path coefcient from time that pre-service teachers usually spend on
using computers (computer use variable) to teachers self-efcacy beliefs toward (for) technology integration (SETI variable). We presume
that the highest predictive power of the teachers attitude toward computers on teachers self-efcacy beliefs may be due to the scope of the
instrument we used in this study. Agyei and Voogt (2011) measure covered a broader scope of attitudes, namely, both the value-related
attitude such as benets for student learning and inuence on the instructional productivity and affective attitude such as comfort and
enjoyment.
Initially, we hypothesized that lesson planning practice would exert inuence on teachers self-efcacy beliefs for technology integration
both directly and indirectly inuencing teachers attitudinal growth on computers. With regard to the indirect effect, we presumed that
teachers lesson planning practice would make an impact on teachers self-efcacy beliefs for technology integration via teachers growth in
their attitudes toward computers. However, unlike our expectations, the lesson planning practice did not make a signicant effect on
changes in teachers attitudes toward computers and the indirect effect was not proven by the data analysis. This result can be interpreted in
the following two ways. First, since the majority of the participants in this study were freshmen (88%), the task of lesson planning which
required them to integrate technology, contents, and pedagogy would have been a demanding challenge, which might have hindered them
from feeling comfortable with computers. They also might have perceived less learning benets or instructional productivity of computers.
This interpretation can be supported by previous studies documenting signicant difference in attitudes toward computers among different
groups of people in their age (Pamuk & Peker, 2009; Taghavi, 2006). Another possibility might be that lesson planning practice might not be
sufcient enough to have an impact on pre-service teachers attitudinal change on computers. Although lesson planning is a good starting
activity that can bridge the gap between theory and practice, it is more or less distant from the real teaching practices. Micro-teaching, on
the other hand, engages student teachers in an actual teaching practice at least for a short period of time, and eld experiences even allow
them to intimately interact with learners in a real situation.
This study has some limitations that can suggest future research recommendations. As mentioned above, the instrument that measured
teachers attitudes toward computer covers four sub-areas dcomfort, enjoyment, learning benet, and instructional productivity. Among
the four, the rst two relates to affective attitude toward computers per se whereas the last two concerns with pedagogical value beliefs
toward teaching and learning with computers. If the former and the latter can be investigated separately, it could produce different results.
Another limitation can be the sample size of this study which was 136 participants. Structural equation modeling or path analysis usually
requires a large sample size (n > 200) to avoid unstable estimates in case of small samples (Klein, 2011). The sample size of this study falls in
the medium size (100 < n < 200), which may entail the issue of not having complete stable power.
This study investigated specic effects of three different activities in the educational technology course and explored the course effects in
relation to the pre-course learner variables (computer use, and attitudes towards computers). We believe that the ndings of the study
would contribute to the on-going discussions on how to effectively design teacher preparation courses for technology integration.

Table 6
Summary of model t indices.
Fit Index

Cutoff criteria

Research model

c2
c2/df

Not signicant at p < .05 (good t)

<3.0 (good t), <5.0 (acceptable t),
<.03 (excellent t), <.06 (good t),
>.95 (very good t), >.90 (acceptable t)
>.95 (very good t), >.90 (acceptable t)
>.95 (very good t), >.90 (acceptable t)

3.58 (df 3), p .310

1.19
.038
.971
.995
.983

RMSEA
NFI
CFI
TLI

128

Y. Lee, J. Lee / Computers & Education 73 (2014) 121128

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