AbrahamLincoln(February12,1809April15,1865)wasthe16thPresidentofthe

UnitedStates,servingfromMarch1861untilhisassassinationinApril1865.Lincolnled
theUnitedStatesthroughitsCivilWaritsbloodiestwaranditsgreatestmoral,
constitutionalandpoliticalcrisis.Indoingso,hepreservedtheUnion,abolishedslavery,
strengthenedthefederalgovernment,andmodernizedtheeconomy.
BorninHodgenville,Kentucky,LincolngrewuponthewesternfrontierinKentuckyand
Indiana.Largelyselfeducated,hebecamealawyerinIllinois,aWhigPartyleader,anda
memberoftheIllinoisHouseofRepresentatives,whereheservedfrom1834to1846.
ElectedtotheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesin1846,Lincolnpromotedrapid
modernizationoftheeconomythroughbanks,tariffs,andrailroads.Becausehehad
originallyagreednottorunforasecondterminCongress,andbecausehisoppositionto
theMexicanAmericanWarwasunpopularamongIllinoisvoters,Lincolnreturnedto
Springfieldandresumedhissuccessfullawpractice.Reenteringpoliticsin1854,hebecame
aleaderinbuildingthenewRepublicanParty,whichhadastatewidemajorityinIllinois.In
1858,whiletakingpartinaseriesofhighlypublicizeddebateswithhisopponentandrival,
DemocratStephenA.Douglas,Lincolnspokeoutagainsttheexpansionofslavery,butlost
theU.S.SenateracetoDouglas.
In1860LincolnsecuredtheRepublicanPartypresidentialnominationasamoderatefroma
swingstate.WithverylittlesupportintheslaveholdingstatesoftheSouth,hesweptthe
Northandwaselectedpresidentin1860.Hiselectionpromptedsevensouthernslavestates
toformtheConfederateStatesofAmericabeforehewasswornintooffice.Nocompromise
orreconciliationwasfoundregardingslaveryandsecession.
AftertheConfederatesattackedFortSumteronApril12,1861,theNorthenthusiastically
ralliedbehindtheUnion.Lincolnconcentratedonthemilitaryandpoliticaldimensionsof
thewar.Hisprimarygoalwastoreunitethenation.Hesuspendedhabeascorpus,leadingto
thecontroversialexparteMerrymandecision.LincolnavertedpotentialBritish
interventioninthewarbydefusingtheTrentAffairinlate1861.Hiscomplexmoves
towardendingslaverycenteredontheEmancipationProclamationof1863.Lincolnused
theU.S.Armytoprotectescapedslaves,encouragedtheborderstatestooutlawslavery,
andhelpedpushthroughCongresstheThirteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStates
Constitution,whichpermanentlyoutlawedslavery.Lincolncloselysupervisedthewar
effort,especiallytheselectionoftopgenerals,includinghismostsuccessfulgeneral,
UlyssesS.Grant.HealsomademajordecisionsonUnionwarstrategy;forexample:a
navalblockadethatshutdowntheSouth'snormaltrade;movestotakecontrolofKentucky
andTennessee;andusinggunboatstogaincontrolofthesouthernriversystem.Lincoln
triedrepeatedlytocapturetheConfederatecapitalatRichmond;eachtimeageneralfailed,
Lincolnsubstitutedanother,untilfinallyGrantsucceededin1865.
Anexceptionallyastutepoliticiandeeplyinvolvedwithpowerissuesineachstate,Lincoln
reachedoutto"WarDemocrats"(thosewhosupportedtheNorthagainsttheSouth),and
managedhisownreelectioncampaigninthe1864presidentialelection.Astheleaderof
themoderatefactionoftheRepublicanParty,LincolnconfrontedRadicalRepublicans,
whodemandedharshertreatmentoftheSouth,WarDemocrats,whocalledformore
compromise,antiwarDemocrats(calledCopperheads),whodespisedhim,and
irreconcilablesecessionists,whoplottedhisassassination.Politically,Lincolnfoughtback

bypittinghisopponentsagainsteachother,byappealingtotheAmericanpeoplewithhis
powersoforatory,andbycarefullyplannedpoliticalpatronage.[3]HisGettysburgAddress
of1863becameaniconicendorsementoftheprinciplesofnationalism,republicanism,
equalrights,liberty,anddemocracy.LincolnheldamoderateviewofReconstruction,
seekingtoreunitethenationspeedilythroughapolicyofgenerousreconciliationintheface
oflingeringandbitterdivisiveness.SixdaysafterthesurrenderofConfederate
commandinggeneralRobertE.Lee,LincolnwasassassinatedbyJohnWilkesBooth,a
Confederatesympathizer.
Lincolnhasbeenconsistentlyrankedbothbyscholarsandthepublicasoneofthethree
greatestU.S.presidents.

AbrahamLincoln,aselftaughtIllinoislawyerandlegislatorwithareputationasan
eloquentopponentofslavery,shockedmanywhenheovercameseveralmoreprominent
contenderstowintheRepublicanPartysnominationforpresidentin1860.Hiselection
thatNovemberpushedseveralSouthernstatestosecedebythetimeofhisinaugurationin
March1861,andtheCivilWarbeganbarelyamonthlater.Contrarytoexpectations,
Lincolnprovedtobeashrewdmilitarystrategistandasavvyleaderduringwhatbecame
thecostliestconflicteverfoughtonAmericansoil.HisEmancipationProclamation,issued
in1863,freedallslavesintherebelliousstatesandpavedthewayforslaveryseventual
abolition,whilehisGettysburgAddresslaterthatyearstandsasoneofthemostfamousand
influentialpiecesoforatoryinAmericanhistory.InApril1865,withtheUniononthe
brinkofvictory,AbrahamLincolnwasshotandkilledbytheConfederatesympathizer
JohnWilkesBooth;hisuntimelydeathmadehimamartyrtothecauseoflibertyand
Union.OvertheyearsLincolnsmythicstaturehasonlygrown,andheiswidelyregarded
asoneofthegreatestpresidentsinthenationshistory.
ABRAHAMLINCOLNSEARLYLIFE
LincolnwasbornonFebruary12,1809,inaoneroomlogcabininHardinCounty,
Kentucky;hisfamilymovedtosouthernIndianain1816.Lincolnsformalschoolingwas
limitedtothreebriefperiodsinlocalschools,ashehadtoworkconstantlytosupporthis
family.In1830,hisfamilymovedtoMaconCountyinsouthernIllinois,andLincolngota
jobworkingonariverflatboathaulingfreightdowntheMississippiRivertoNewOrleans.
AftersettlinginthetownofNewSalem,Illinois,whereheworkedasashopkeeperanda
postmaster,LincolnbecameinvolvedinlocalpoliticsasasupporteroftheWhigParty,
winningelectiontotheIllinoisstatelegislaturein1834.LikehisWhigheroes,HenryClay
andDanielWebster,Lincolnopposedthespreadofslaverytotheterritories,andhada
grandvisionoftheexpandingUnitedStates,withafocusoncommerceandcitiesrather
thanagriculture.

DidYouKnow?
ThewaryearsweredifficultforAbrahamLincolnandhisfamily.Afterhisyoungson
Williediedoftyphoidfeverin1862,theemotionallyfragileMaryLincoln,widely
unpopularforherfrivolityandspendthriftways,heldseancesintheWhiteHouseinthe
hopesofcommunicatingwithhim,earningherevenmorederision.
Lincolntaughthimselflaw,passingthebarexaminationin1836.Thefollowingyear,he
movedtothenewlynamedstatecapitalofSpringfield.Forthenextfewyears,heworked
thereasalawyer,earningareputationasHonestAbeandservingclientsrangingfrom
individualresidentsofsmalltownstonationalrailroadlines.HemetMaryTodd,awellto
doKentuckybellewithmanysuitors(includingLincolnsfuturepoliticalrival,Stephen
Douglas),andtheymarriedin1842.
LINCOLNSROADTOTHEWHITEHOUSE
LincolnwonelectiontotheU.S.HouseofRepresentativesin1846andbeganservinghis
termthefollowingyear.Asacongressman,LincolnwasunpopularwithIllinoisvotersfor
hisstrongstanceagainsttheU.S.warwithMexico.Promisingnottoseekreelection,he
returnedtoSpringfieldin1849.Eventsconspiredtopushhimbackintonationalpolitics,
however:Douglas,aleadingDemocratinCongress,hadpushedthroughthepassageofthe
KansasNebraskaAct(1854),whichdeclaredthatthevotersofeachterritory,ratherthan
thefederalgovernment,hadtherighttodecidewhethertheterritoryshouldbeslaveorfree.
OnOctober16,1854,LincolnwentbeforealargecrowdinPeoriatodebatethemeritsof
theKansasNebraskaActwithDouglas,denouncingslaveryanditsextensionandcalling
theinstitutionaviolationofthemostbasictenetsoftheDeclarationofIndependence.
WiththeWhigPartyinruins,LincolnjoinedthenewRepublicanPartyformedlargelyin
oppositiontoslaverysextensionintotheterritoriesin1858andranfortheSenateagain
thatyear(hehadcampaignedunsuccessfullyfortheseatin1855aswell).InJune,Lincoln
deliveredhisnowfamoushousedividedspeech,inwhichhequotedfromtheGospelsto
illustratehisbeliefthatthisgovernmentcannotendure,permanently,halfslaveandhalf
free.LincolnthensquaredoffagainstDouglasinaseriesoffamousdebates;thoughhe
losttheelection,Lincolnsperformancemadehisreputationnationally.Hisprofilerose
evenhigherinearly1860,afterhedeliveredanotherrousingspeechatNewYorkCitys
CooperUnion.ThatMay,RepublicanschoseLincolnastheircandidateforpresident,
passingoverSenatorWilliamH.SewardofNewYorkandotherpowerfulcontendersin
favoroftherangyIllinoislawyerwithonlyoneundistinguishedcongressionaltermunder
hisbelt.
AWARTIMEPRESIDENT
Inthegeneralelection,LincolnagainfacedDouglas,whorepresentedthenorthern
Democrats;southernDemocratshadnominatedJohnC.BreckenridgeofKentucky,while
JohnBellranforthebrandnewConstitutionalUnionParty.WithBreckenridgeandBell
splittingthevoteintheSouth,LincolnwonmostoftheNorthandcarriedtheElectoral
College.Afteryearsofsectionaltensions,theelectionofanantislaverynorthernerasthe

16thpresidentoftheUnitedStatesdrovemanysouthernersoverthebrink,andbythetime
LincolnwasinauguratedinMarch1861sevensouthernstateshadsecededfromtheUnion
andformedtheConfederateStatesofAmerica.AfterLincolnorderedafleetofUnionships
tosupplySouthCarolinasFortSumterinApril,theConfederatesfiredonboththefortand
theUnionfleet,beginningtheCivilWar.HopesforaquickUnionvictoryweredashedby
defeatintheBattleofBullRun(Manassas),andLincolncalledfor500,000moretroopsas
bothsidessettledinforalongconflict.
WhiletheConfederateleaderJeffersonDaviswasaWestPointgraduate,MexicanWar
heroandformersecretaryofwar,Lincolnhadonlyabriefandundistinguishedperiodof
serviceintheBlackHawkWar(1832)tohiscredit.Hesurprisedmanybyprovingtobea
morethancapablewartimeleader,learningquicklyaboutstrategyandtacticsintheearly
yearsoftheCivilWar,andaboutchoosingtheablestcommanders.GeneralGeorge
McClellan,thoughbelovedbyhistroops,continuallyfrustratedLincolnwithhisreluctance
toadvance,andwhenMcClellanfailedtopursueRobertE.LeesretreatingConfederate
ArmyintheaftermathoftheUnionvictoryatAntietaminSeptember1862,Lincoln
removedhimfromcommand.Duringthewar,Lincolndrewcriticismforsuspendingsome
civilliberties,includingtherightofhabeascorpus,butheconsideredsuchmeasures
necessarytowinthewar.
EMANCIPATIONPROCLAMATIONANDGETTYSBURGADDRESS
ShortlyaftertheBattleofAntietam(Sharpsburg),Lincolnissuedapreliminary
EmancipationProclamation,whichtookeffectonJanuary1,1863,andfreedallofthe
slavesintherebelliousstatesbutleftthoseintheborderstates(loyaltotheUnion)in
bondage.ThoughLincolnoncemaintainedthathisparamountobjectinthisstruggleisto
savetheUnion,andisnoteithertosaveordestroyslavery,henonethelesscametoregard
emancipationasoneofhisgreatestachievements,andwouldargueforthepassageofa
constitutionalamendmentoutlawingslavery(eventuallypassedasthe13thAmendment
afterhisdeathin1865).
TwoimportantUnionvictoriesinJuly1863atVicksburg,Mississippi,andGettysburg,
Pennsylvaniafinallyturnedthetideofthewar.GeneralGeorgeMeademissedthe
opportunitytodeliverafinalblowagainstLeesarmyatGettysburg,andLincolnwould
turnbyearly1864tothevictoratVicksburg,UlyssesS.Grant,assupremecommanderof
theUnionforces.InNovember1863,Lincolndeliveredabriefspeech(just272words)at
thededicationceremonyforthenewnationalcemeteryatGettysburg.Publishedwidely,the
GettysburgAddresseloquentlyexpressedthewarspurpose,harkingbacktotheFounding
Fathers,theDeclarationofIndependenceandthepursuitofhumanequality.Itbecamethe
mostfamousspeechofLincolnspresidency,andoneofthemostwidelyquotedspeeches
inhistory.
VICTORYANDDEATH
In1864,LincolnfacedatoughreelectionbattleagainsttheDemocraticnominee,the
formerUnionGeneralGeorgeMcClellan,butUnionvictoriesinbattle(especiallyWilliam
T.ShermanscaptureofAtlantainSeptember)swungmanyvotesthepresidentsway.In
hissecondinauguraladdress,deliveredonMarch4,1865,Lincolnaddressedtheneedto
reconstructtheSouthandrebuildtheUnion:Withmalicetowardnone;withcharityfor

all.
AsShermanmarchedtriumphantlynorthwardthroughtheCarolinas,Leesurrenderedto
GrantatAppomattoxCourtHouseonApril9.Unionvictorywasnear,andLincolngavea
speechontheWhiteHouselawnonApril11,urginghisaudiencetowelcomethesouthern
statesbackintothefold.Tragically,Lincolnwouldnotlivetohelpcarryouthisvisionof
Reconstruction.OnthenightofApril14,theactorandConfederatesympathizerJohn
WilkesBoothslippedintothepresidentsboxatFordsTheatreinWashingtonandshot
himpointblankinthebackofthehead.Lincolnwascarriedtoaboardinghouseacrossthe
streetfromthetheater,butheneverregainedconsciousness,anddiedintheearlymorning
hoursofApril15.

Synopsis
AbrahamLincolnisregardedasoneofAmerica'sgreatestheroesduetobothhisincredible
impactonthenationandhisuniqueappeal.Hisisaremarkablestoryoftherisefrom
humblebeginningstoachievethehighestofficeintheland;then,asuddenandtragicdeath
atatimewhenhiscountryneededhimmosttocompletethegreattaskremainingbeforethe
nation.Lincoln'sdistinctivelyhumanandhumanepersonalityandhistoricalroleassavior
oftheUnionandemancipatoroftheslavescreatesalegacythatendures.Hiseloquenceof
democracyandhisinsistencethattheUnionwasworthsavingembodytheidealsofself
governmentthatallnationsstrivetoachieve.
LawCareer
InMarch,1830,thefamilyagainmigrated,thistimetoMaconCounty,Illinois.Whenhis
fathermovedthefamilyagaintoColesCounty,22yearoldAbrahamLincolnstruckouton
thisown,makingalivinginmanuallabor.Atsixfeetfourinchestall,Lincolnwas
rawbonedandlanky,butmuscularandphysicallystrong.Hespokewithabackwoods
twangandwalkedwithalongstridinggait.Hewasknownforhisskillinwieldinganax
andearlyonmadealivingsplittingwoodforfireandrailfencing.YoungLincoln
eventuallymigratedtothesmallcommunityofNewSalem,Illinois,whereoveraperiodof
yearsheworkedasashopkeeper,postmaster,andeventuallygeneralstoreowner.Itwas
herethatLincoln,workingwiththepublic,acquiredsocialskillsandhonedstorytelling
talentthatmadehimpopularwiththelocals.WhentheBlackHawkWarbrokeoutin1832
betweentheUnitedStatesandNativeAmericans,thevolunteersintheareaelectedLincoln
tobetheircaptain.Hesawnocombatduringthistime,savefor"agoodmanybloody
struggleswiththemosquitoes,"butwasabletomakeseveralimportantpolitical
connections.
AftertheBlackHawkWar,AbrahamLincolnbeganhispoliticalcareerandwaselectedto
theIllinoisstatelegislature,in1834,asamemberoftheWhigParty.Hesupportedthe
Whigpoliticsofgovernmentsponsoredinfrastructureandprotectivetariffs.Thispolitical
understandingledhimtoformulatehisearlyviewsonslavery,notsomuchasamoral
wrong,butasanimpedimenttoeconomicdevelopment.Itwasaroundthistimethathe
decidedtobecomealawyer,teachinghimselfthelawbyreadingWilliamBlackstone's

CommentariesontheLawsofEngland.Afterbeingadmittedtothebarin1837,hemoved
toSpringfield,Illinois,andbegantopracticeintheJohnT.Stuartlawfirm.
ItwassoonafterthisthathepurportedlymetandbecameromanticallyinvolvedwithAnne
Rutledge.Beforetheyhadachancetobeengaged,awaveoftyphoidfevercameoverNew
SalemandAnnediedatage22.HerdeathwassaidtohaveleftLincolnseverelydepressed.
However,severalhistoriansdisagreeontheextentofLincolnsrelationshipwithRutledge
andhislevelofsorrowatherdeathmaybemorethemakingsoflegend.
In1844,AbrahamLincolnpartneredwithWilliamHerndoninthepracticeoflaw.Though
thetwohaddifferentjurisprudentstyles,theydevelopedacloseprofessionalandpersonal
relationship.Lincolnmadeagoodlivinginhisearlyyearsasalawyer,butfoundthat
Springfieldalonedidn'tofferenoughwork,sotosupplementhisincome,hefollowedthe
courtasitmadeitsroundsonthecircuittothevariouscountyseatsinIllinois.
EnteringPolitics
AbrahamLincolnservedasingletermintheU.S.HouseofRepresentativesfrom1847to
1849.Hisforayintonationalpoliticsseemedtobeasunremarkableasitwasbrief.Hewas
theloneWhigfromthestateofIllinois,showingpartyloyalty,butfindingfewpolitical
allies.HeusedhisterminofficetospeakoutagainsttheMexicanAmericanWarand
supportedZacharyTaylorforpresidentin1848.Hiscriticismofthewarmadehim
unpopularbackhomeandhedecidednottorunforsecondterm,butinsteadreturned
Springfieldtopracticelaw.
Bythe1850s,therailroadindustrywasmovingwestandIllinoisfounditselfbecominga
majorhubforvariouscompanies.AbrahamLincolnservedasalobbyistfortheIllinois
CentralRailroadasitscompanyattorney.Successinseveralcourtcasesbroughtother
businessclientsaswellbanks,insurancecompaniesandmanufacturingfirms.Lincoln
alsodidsomecriminaltrials.Inonecase,awitnessclaimedthathecouldidentifyLincoln's
clientwhowasaccusedofmurder,becauseoftheintenselightfromafullmoon.Lincoln
referredtoanalmanacandprovedthatthenightinquestionhadbeentoodarkforthe
witnesstoseeanythingclearly.Hisclientwasacquitted.
AboutayearafterthedeathofAnneRutledge,LincolncourtedMaryOwens.Thetwosaw
eachotherforafewmonthsandmarriagewasconsidered.Butintime,Lincolncalledoff
thematch.In1840,LincolnbecameengagedtoMaryTodd,ahighspirited,welleducated
womanfromadistinguishedKentuckyfamily.Inthebeginning,manyofthecouple's
friendsandfamilycouldn'tunderstandMarysattraction,andattimesLincolnquestionedit
himself.However,in1841,theengagementwassuddenlybrokenoff,mostlikelyat
Lincoln'sinitiative.Theymetlateratasocialfunctionandeventuallymarriedon
November4,1842.Thecouplehadfourchildren,ofwhichonlyone,Robert,survivedto
adulthood.
ElectedPresident
In1854,CongresspassedtheKansasNebraskaAct,whichrepealedtheMissouri
Compromise,andallowedindividualstatesandterritoriestodecideforthemselveswhether
toallowslavery.ThelawprovokedviolentoppositioninKansasandIllinois,anditgave
risetotheRepublicanParty.ThisawakenedAbrahamLincoln'spoliticalzealonceagain,

andhisviewsonslaverymovedmoretowardmoralindignation.Lincolnjoinedthe
RepublicanPartyin1856.
In1857,theSupremeCourtissueditscontroversialdecisionScottv.Sanford,declaring
AfricanAmericanswerenotcitizensandhadnoinherentrights.ThoughAbrahamLincoln
feltAfricanAmericanswerenotequaltowhites,hebelievedtheAmerica'sfounders
intendedthatallmenwerecreatedwithcertaininalienablerights.Lincolndecidedto
challengesittingU.S.SenatorStephenDouglasforhisseat.Inhisnominationacceptance
speech,hecriticizedDouglas,theSupremeCourt,andPresidentBuchananforpromoting
slaveryanddeclared"ahousedividedcannotstand."
The1858SenatecampaignfeaturedsevendebatesheldindifferentcitiesacrossIllinois.
Thetwocandidatesdidn'tdisappointthepublic,givingstirringdebatesonissuesranging
fromstates'rightstowesternexpansion,butthecentralissuewasslavery.Newspapers
intenselycoveredthedebates,oftentimeswithpartisancommentary.Intheend,thestate
legislatureelectedDouglas,buttheexposurevaultedLincolnintonationalpolitics.
In1860,politicaloperativesinIllinoisorganizedacampaigntosupportAbrahamLincoln
forthepresidency.OnMay18,attheRepublicanNationalConventioninChicago,Lincoln
surpassedbetterknowncandidatessuchasWilliamSewardofNewYorkandSalmonP.
ChaseofOhio.Lincoln'snominationwasdueinparttohismoderateviewsonslavery,his
supportforimprovingthenationalinfrastructure,andtheprotectivetariff.Inthegeneral
election,Lincolnfacedhisfriendandrival,StephanDouglas,thistimebestinghimina
fourwayracethatincludedJohnC.BreckinridgeoftheNorthernDemocratsandJohnBell
oftheConstitutionParty.Lincolnreceivednotquite40percentofthepopularvote,but
carried180of303Electoralvotes.
AbrahamLincolnselectedastrongcabinetcomposedofmanyofhispoliticalrivals,
includingWilliamSeward,SalmonP.Chase,EdwardBatesandEdwinStanton.Formed
outtheadage"Holdyourfriendscloseandyourenemiescloser,"Lincoln'sCabinetbecame
oneofhisstrongestassetsinhisfirstterminofficeandhewouldneedthem.Beforehis
inaugurationinMarch,1861,sevenSouthernstateshadsecededfromtheUnionandby
ApriltheU.S.militaryinstallationFortSumterwasundersiegeinCharlestonHarbor,
SouthCarolina.IntheearlymorninghoursofApril12,1861,thegunsstationedtoprotect
theharborblazedtowardthefortsignalingthestartofAmericascostliestandmostdeadly
war.
CivilWar
AbrahamLincolnrespondedtothecrisiswieldingpowersasnootherpresidentbeforehim.
Hedistributed$2millionfromtheTreasuryforwarmaterialwithoutanappropriationfrom
Congress;hecalledfor75,000volunteersintomilitaryservicewithoutadeclarationofwar;
andhesuspendedthewritofhabeascorpus,arrestingandimprisoningsuspected
Confederatesympathizerswithoutawarrant.Crushingtherebellionwouldbedifficult
underanycircumstances,buttheCivilWar,withitsprecedingdecadesofwhitehot
partisanpolitics,wasespeciallyonerous.Fromalldirections,Lincolnfaceddisparagement
anddefiance.Hewasoftenatoddswithhisgenerals,hisCabinet,hispartyandamajority
oftheAmericanpeople.
TheUnionArmy'sfirstyearandahalfofbattlefielddefeatsmadeitespeciallydifficultto

keepmoraleupandsupportstrongforareunificationthenation.Withthehopeful,butby
nomeansconclusiveUnionvictoryatAntietamonSeptember22,1862,Lincolnfelt
confidentenoughtoreshapethecauseofthewarfromsavingtheuniontoabolishing
slavery.HeissuedtheEmancipationProclamationonJanuary1,1863,whichstatedthatall
individualswhowereheldasslavesinrebelliousstates"henceforwardshallbefree."The
actionwasmoresymbolicthaneffectivebecausetheNorthdidntcontrolanystatesin
rebellionandtheproclamationdidntapplytoBorderStates.

Gradually,thewareffortimprovedfortheNorth,thoughmorebyattritionthanbybrilliant
militaryvictories.Butby1864,theConfederatearmieshadeludedmajordefeatand
Lincolnwasconvincedhe'dbeaonetermpresident.Hisnemesis,GeorgeB.McClellan,
theformercommanderoftheArmyofthePotomac,challengedhimforthepresidency,but
thecontestwasn'tevenclose.Lincolnreceived55percentofthepopularvoteand212of
243Electoralvotes.OnApril9,1865,GeneralRobertE.Lee,commanderoftheArmyof
Virginia,surrenderedhisforcestoUnionGeneralUlyssesS.Grantandthewarforall
intentsandpurposeswasover.
Assassination
Reconstructionbeganduringthewarasearlyas1863inareasfirmlyunderUnionmilitary
control.AbrahamLincolnfavoredapolicyofquickreunificationwithaminimumof
retribution.ButhewasconfrontedbyaradicalgroupofRepublicansintheSenateand
HousethatwantedcompleteallegianceandrepentancefromformerConfederates.Beforea
politicalbattlehadachancetofirmlydevelop,LincolnwasassassinatedonApril14,1865,
bywellknownactorandConfederatesympathizerJohnWilkesBoothatFord'sTheaterin
Washington,D.C.LincolnwastakenfromthetheatertoaPetersenHouseacrossthestreet
andlaidinacomaforninehoursbeforedyingthenextmorning.Hisbodylayinstateatthe
CapitolbeforeafuneraltraintookhimbacktohisfinalrestingplaceinSpringfield,Illinois.