Chapter 2

Energy in Thermal Processes: The First

Law of Thermodynamics

(Charles D. Winters)

F I G U R E 2.1 A pan of boiling

water is warmed by a gas
Energy enters the water through
the bottom of the pan by heat.
 Water
Beach

F I G U R E 2.2 Circulation of air at the

beach. On a hot day, the air above the warm
sand warms faster than the air above the
cooler water. The warmer air floats upward
due to Archimedes’s principle, resulting in
the movement of cooler air toward the beach.
 T ( C)
120
E
D
90

60 C
Steam
Water + steam
30

B Water
0
Ice +
A
water
–30
0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000
Ice 62.7 396 815 3 070 3 110
Energy added ( J)

F I G U R E 2.3 A plot of temperature versus energy added when 1 g of ice initially at 30.0 C is converted to steam at 120.0 C.
 A
dy

P V

(a) (b)

F I G U R E 2.4 Work is done on a

gas contained in a cylinder at
pressure P as the piston is pushed
downward so that the gas is
compressed.
 P
f
Pf

Pi i

V
Vf Vi

Figure 2.5

A gas is compressed quasi-statically

from state i to state f. The work done
on the gas equals the negative of the
area under the PV curve. Note that the
area is negative because Vf Vi , so
the work done on the gas is positive.
 P P
P

f f f
Pf Pf Pf
Figure 2.6
The work done on a gas as it is Pi i Pi i Pi i
taken from an initial state to a final
V V V
state depends on the path between Vf Vi Vf Vi Vf Vi
these states. (a) (b) (c)

Insulating Insulating
wall wall

Final Vacuum
position
Membrane

Initial
Gas at Ti position Gas at Ti

Energy reservoir (b)

at Ti
(a)

F I G U R E 2.7 (a) A gas at temperature Ti expands

slowly while absorbing energy from a reservoir so as
to maintain a constant temperature. (b) A gas
expands rapidly into an evacuated region after a
membrane is broken.
 W

∆ E int

Figure 2.8

The first law of thermodynamics

equates the change in internal energy
in a system to the net energy transfer
to the system by heat Q and work .
 P
Isotherm

i
Pi PV = constant

f
Pf
V
Vi Vf

F I G U R E 2.9 The PV diagram for

an isothermal expansion of an ideal
gas from an initial state to a final
state. The curve is a hyperbola.

P V Tf

Ti

V
(a) (b)

F I G U R E 2.10 (Example 2.5) (a) Cutaway view of a

cylinder containing an ideal gas immersed in an ice water
bath.(b) The PV diagram for the cycle described.
 P

Isotherms

f
f
i T + ∆T
T
V

FIGURE 2 . 1 1 An ideal gas is

taken from one isotherm at
temperature T to another at
temperature T T along three
different paths.
 P

Isotherms
f

f
i
T + ∆T
T
V
Figure 2.12

Energy is transferred by heat to an

ideal gas in two ways. For the
constant-volume path i : f, all the
energy goes into increasing the
internal energy of the gas because no
work is done. Along the constant-
pressure path i : f , part of the
energy transferred into the gas by
heat is transferred out by work.
 P

Isotherms

Pi i
Adiabatic process

Ti
Pf
f Tf
V
Vi Vf

F I G U R E 2.13 The PV diagram for

an adiabatic expansion of an ideal
gas. Note that Tf Ti in this process,
so the gas cools.
 z

x
(a)

x y
(b)

x y

(c)

F I G U R E 2.14 Possible
motions of a diatomic
molecule: (a) translational
motion of the center of
mass, (b) rotational motion
about the various axes, and
(c) vibrational motion
along the molecular axis.
 30 7R
2
25 Vibration
5R
CV ( J/mol·K)

20 2
Rotation
15
3R
2
10
Translation
5

0
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10 000
Temperature (K)

F I G U R E 2.15 The molar specific heat of hydrogen as a

function of temperature. The horizontal scale is logarithmic.
Note that hydrogen liquefies at 20 K.
 Rotational
states
Vibrational
states
ENERGY

Rotational
states

F I G U R E 2.16 An energy level diagram for vibrational

and rotational states of a diatomic molecule. Note that the
rotational states lie closer together in energy than the
vibrational states.
 Th
A

Energy transfer
for Th > Tc Tc

∆x

FIGURE 2.17 Energy transfer

through a conducting slab with cross-
sectional area A and thickness x.
The opposite faces are at different
temperatures Tc and Th.
 L
Energy
Th transfer Tc

Th > Tc
Insulation

FIGURE 2.18 Conduction of

energy through a uniform, insulated
rod of length L. The opposite ends
are in thermal contact with energy
reservoirs at different temperatures.
 (National Optical Astronomy Observatories/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

F I G U R E 2.19 The surface of the Sun shows

granulation, due to the existence of separate
convection cells, each carrying energy to the
surface by convection.
F I G U R E 2.20 Convection currents
are set up in a room heated by a
radiator.
 m m

insulator

Figure P2.2
The falling weights rotate the
paddles, causing the temperature
of the water to increase.
Figure P2.7
 P (Pa)

i
6 106

4 106

2 106 f

V (m3)
0 1 2 3 4

Figure P2.18

P (kPa)
8 B

4
A
2 C

V (m3)
6 8 10
Figure P2.22
Problems 2.22 and 2.23.

P
B C
3Pi

A
Pi D

V
Vi 3Vi

Figure P2.28

P
A B

D C

V
Figure P2.30
 50.0 cm3
400 cm3

Before

After

Figure P2.43

80.0 C Au Ag 30.0 C

Insulation
Figure P2.46
 P

A T1
C T2
B T3
T4

F I G U R E 2.1 (Quick Quiz 2.5) Identify the

nature of paths A, B, C, and D.

Rod 1
Th Tc Th Tc
Rod 1 Rod 2 Rod 2

(a) (b)

F I G U R E 2.2 (Quick Quiz 2.7) In which case is the rate of energy transfer larger?
 E int ( J)

Steam

Ice + Water +
Ice water steam
Water
0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000
62.7 396 815 3 070 3 110
Energy added ( J)