Chapter 4

Electric Forces and Electric

Fields

(Charles D. Winters)

F I G U R E 4. 1 Rubbing a balloon against your hair

on a dry day causes the balloon and your hair to
become electrically charged.
 Rubber
Rubber

F
– – – –
–– – –– –
F F
+ + Glass – – Rubber
+ + + + – –– –
+ – F
(a) (b)

F I G U R E 4.2 (a) A negatively charged rubber rod, suspended by

an insulating thread, is attracted to a positively charged glass rod. (b) A
negatively charged rubber rod is repelled by another negatively charged
rubber rod.

–
–
–
–
–
–

F I G U R E 4.3 When a glass rod is

rubbed with silk, electrons are
transferred from the glass to the silk.
Because of conservation of charge, each
electron adds negative charge to the silk,
and an equal positive charge is left
behind on the rod. Also, because the
charges are transferred in discrete
bundles, the charges on the two objects
are e or 2e or 3e, and so on.
 +
–
+ +
– –
– + –
+ – – +
–
+ +
(a)

+ –
+ – – +
– – – + – –
+ – +
– –
+ +
(b)

+ –
+ +
– – – + – –
+ +
–
+ +
(c)

+
–
+ +
– – – + – –
+ +
–
+ +
(d)

+
+ – – +
+
+ – – +
+ +
(e)

Wall

FIGURE 4.4 Charging a + – +

metallic object by induction; that + – +
is, the two objects never touch + – +
each other. (a) A neutral metallic
+ – +

(© 1968 Fundamental Photographs)

sphere, with equal numbers of
+ – +
positive and negative charges. (b)
The electrons on the neutral + – +
sphere are redistributed when a Charged Induced
charged rubber rod is placed balloon charges
near the sphere. (c) When the
(a) (b)
sphere is grounded, some of its
electrons leave through the FIGURE 4.5 (a) The charged balloon on the left induces a charge distribution on the wall’s
ground wire. (d) When the surface due to realignment of charges in the molecules. (b) A charged comb attracts bits of
ground connection is removed, paper because charges in the paper’s molecules are realigned.
the sphere has excess positive
charge that is nonuni-formly
distributed. (e) When the rod is
removed, the remaining electrons
redistribute uniformly and there
is a net uniform distribution of
positive charge on the sphere.
 Suspension
head

Fiber

B
A

F I G U R E 4. 6 Coulomb’s
torsion balance, which was
used to establish the inverse-
square law for the electrostatic
force between two charges.
 r F12
+
q2
+ rˆ12
q1
F21 (a)

–
q2

F12

F21
+
q1
(b)

Figure 4.7
Two point charges separated
by a distance r exert a force
on each other given by
Coulomb’s law. Note that the
:
force F 21 exerted by q2 on
q1 is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the
:
force F 12 exerted by q1 on q2.
(a) When the charges are of
the same sign, the force is
repulsive. (b) When the
charges are of opposite signs,
the force is attractive.
 2.00 m

x 2.00 – x

+ – + x
q2 F23 q 3 F13 q1

F I G U R E 4.8 (Example 4.1) Three

point charges are placed along the x
axis. If the net force on q 3 is zero, the
:
force F 13 exerted by q 1 on q 3 must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in
:
direction to the force F 23 exerted by
q 2 on q 3.
 + q0 + q 0′ >> q 0

– – –
– – –– – –
– –
– –
– – –– – – –
– –
–

(a) (b)

F I G U R E 4.9 (a) For a small enough test

charge q 0, the charge distribution on the
sphere is undisturbed. (b) If the test charge q 0
were larger, the charge distribution on the
sphere would be disturbed as a result of the
proximity of q 0.
 q0 q0
Fe

P P
q r r q Fe
+ – r
(a) (c)

E
P E P

q r q
+ – r
(b) (d)

Figure 4.10
A test charge q0 at point P is a distance r from a
point charge q. (a) If q is positive, the force on
the test charge is directed away from q. (b) For
the positive source charge, the electric field at
P points radially outward from q. (c) If q is
negative, the force on the test charge is
directed toward q. (d) For the negative source
charge, the electric field at P points radially
inward toward q.
 y

E1

θ
P E
θ

r E2
y

θ θ
+ – x
a a
q q

F I G U R E 4.11 (Example
:
4.3) The total electric field E
at P due to two equal and
opposite charges (an electric
dipole) equals the vector sum
: : :
E 1 E 2. The field E 1 is due
to the positive charge q, and
:
E 2 is the field due to the
negative charge q.
 ∆q
r

∆E

FIGURE 4.12 The

:
electric field E at P due to a
continuous charge distribution
is the vector sum of the fields
:
E due to all the elements q
of the charge distribution.
 y
dq = dx
dx
x
E
x
P
a

F I G U R E 4.13 (Example 4.4) The electric field at P due to a

uniformly charged rod lying along the x axis. The field at P due
to the segment of charge dq is k e dq /x 2. The total field at P is
the vector sum over all segments of the rod.
 dq 1
+ +
F I G U R E 4.14 (Example 4.5)
+ +
+ + A uniformly charged ring of radius
+ +
+ + a. (a) The field at P on the x axis
a r +
+
+ + due to an element of charge dq.
+ d E2
+ + (b) The total electric field at P is
+ θ P +
+ x dEx +
x θ along the x axis. The perpendicu
+ + +
+ lar component of the electric field
+ +
+ dE⊥ + + d E1 at P due to segment 1 is canceled
+ + dE
2 by the perpendicular component
(a) (b)
due to segment 2.

B
A

F I G U R E 4.15 Electric field lines

penetrating two surfaces. The
magnitude of the field is greater on
surface A than on surface B.
 (Douglas C. Johnson/Cal Poly Pomona)
q –q
+ –

(a) (b) (c)

F I G U R E 4.16 The electric field lines for a point charge. (a) For a positive point charge, the lines are directed radially
outward. (b) For a negative point charge, the lines are directed radially inward. Note that the figures show only those field
lines that lie in the plane containing the charge. (c) The dark areas are small particles suspended in oil, which align with the
electric field produced by a small charged conductor at the center.

(Douglas C. Johnson/Cal Poly Pomona)

+ F I G U R E 4.17 (a) The electric field lines for
two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign
(an electric dipole). Note that the number of lines
leaving the positive charge equals the number
terminating at the negative charge. (b) Small
particles suspended in oil align with the electric
(a) (b) field.
 B

(Douglas C. Johnson/Cal Poly Pomona)

A
C
+ +

F I G U R E 4.18 (a) The electric field lines

for two positive point charges. (The
locations A, B, and C are discussed in Quick
Quiz 4.5.) (b) Small particles suspended in
(a) (b) oil align with the electric field.

+2q + q

Figure 4.19
The electric field lines for a
point charge 2q and a
second point charge q.
Note that two lines leave the
charge 2q for every one that
terminates on q.
 E
+

+
v=0 v
+ + q
+

+ –

+ –
x
F I G U R E 4.20 (Example 4.6) A positive
:
point charge q in a uniform electric field E
undergoes constant acceleration in the
direction of the field.
 y
vi i

(0, 0)
x
(x, y)
E
–
v
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

Figure 4.21
An electron is projected horizontally into a uniform
electric field produced by two charged plates. The
electron undergoes a downward acceleration (opposite
:
E ), and its motion is parabolic while it is between the
plates.
 anode
gun
grid
plates plates

C
A

Electron
beam
Fluorescent
screen
F I G U R E 4.22 Schematic diagram of a cathode-ray tube. Electrons leaving the hot cathode C are accelerated to the anode A. In
addition to accelerating electrons, the electron gun is also used to focus the beam of electrons, and the plates deflect the beam.
 Area = A

E
A

FIGURE 4.23 Field lines of a

uniform electric field penetrating a
plane of area A perpendicular to the
field. The electric flux E through this
area is equal to EA.

Normal
A

θ
E
A = A cos θ

F I G U R E 4.24 Field lines for a uniform electric

field through an area A whose normal is at an angle
to the field. Because the number of lines that go
through the shaded area A is the same as the
number that go through A, we conclude that the
total flux through A is equal to the flux through A
and is given by E EA cos .

in Equation 4.18 is then 90°.

∆Ai

θi
Ei

F I G U R E 4.25 Asmall element

of a surface of area A i . The
electric field makes an angle i with
the normal to the surface (the
:
direction of A i ), and the flux
through the element is equal to E i
A i cos i .
 Figure 4.26
∆A 1 A closed surface in an electric field. The area
:
vectors Ai are, by convention, normal to
En θ the surface and point outward. The flux
∆A 3 θ E E
E through an area element can be positive
(element 1), zero (element 2), or negative
En ∆A 2 (element 3).
 y

d A3

E
d A1

d A2

z
d A4

FIGURE 4.27 (Example 4.8) A

hypothetical surface in the shape of a cube in
a uniform electric field parallel to the x axis.
The net flux through the surface is zero. Side
is the bottom of the cube and side is
opposite side .

Spherical
surface

r
Ai
+
q E

F I G U R E 4.28 A spherical surface

of radius r surrounding a point
charge q. When the charge is at the
center of the sphere, the electric field
is normal to the surface and constant
in magnitude everywhere on the
surface.
 S3
S2
S1

F I G U R E 4.29 Closed surfaces of

various shapes surrounding a charge q.
The net electric flux through each
surface is the same.

F I G U R E 4.30 Apoint charge located

outside a closed surface. The number of
lines entering the surface equals the
number leaving the surface.
 S q4
q2
q1

q3 S

Figure 4.31
The net electric flux through any closed
surface depends only on the charge
inside that surface. The net flux through
surface S is ql/e0, the net flux through
surface S9 is (q2 1 q3)/e0, and the net
flux through surface S0 is zero. Charge
q4 does not contribute to the flux
through any surface because it is outside
all surfaces.
 Gaussian
surface

r
dA
+
q E

F I G U R E 4.32 (Example 4.9)

The point charge q is at the
center of the spherical gaussian
: :
surface, and E is parallel to d A at
every point on the surface.
 r

a
Gaussian
r sphere

a
Gaussian
sphere
(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.33 (Interactive Example 4.10) A

uniformly charged insulating sphere of radius a and total
charge Q. (a) For points outside the sphere, a large,
spherical gaussian surface is drawn concentric with the
sphere. In diagrams such as this one, the dotted line
represents the intersection of the gaussian surface with
the plane of the page. (b) For points inside the sphere, a
spherical gaussian surface smaller than the sphere is
drawn.
 a

E E = keQ r
a3
keQ
E=
r2

r
a

F I G U R E 4.34 (Example 4.10) A plot of E versus r for

a uniformly charged insulating sphere. The electric field
inside the sphere (r a) varies linearly with r. The
electric field outside the sphere (r a) is the same as
that of a point charge Q located at r 0.

+
Gaussian +
surface
+
r

E
E
dA

+
+
+

(a) (b)

F I G U R E 4.35 (Example 4.11) (a) An infinite line of

charge surrounded by a cylindrical gaussian surface
concentric with the line charge. (b) An end view shows
that the electric field on the cylindrical surface is
constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the surface.
 +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
E + + A
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + + E
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
Gaussian
surface
FIGURE 4.36 (Example 4.12) A
cylindrical gaussian surface penetrating an
infinite sheet of charge. The flux is E A
through each end of the gaussian surface and
zero through its curved surface.
 E E
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

F I G U R E 4.37 Aconducting
slab in an external electric field
:
E. The charges induced on the
surfaces of the slab produce an
electric field that opposes the
external field, giving a resultant
field of zero inside the
conductor.

Gaussian
surface

F I G U R E 4.38 An isolated
conductor of arbitrary shape.
The broken line represents a
gaussian surface just inside the
physical surface of the
conductor.
 E + + +
+
+
A +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ ++
+

F I G U R E 4.39 A gaussian
surface in the shape of a small
cylinder is used to calculate the
electric field just outside a
charged conductor. The flux
through the gaussian surface is
EA.
 y 7.00 µµC
+

0.500 m

60.0
+
2.00 µ
µC –4.00 µ
µC

Figure P4.5
 +3q +q

Figure P4.8

1.00 m

µC
2.50 µ µC
6.00 µ

Figure P4.11

5.00 nC 6.00 nC
0.300 m
x
0.100 m

Figure P4.13

a
2q q

a a

3q 4q
a

Figure P4.15
y

q q
x
2a

Figure P4.16
 y

θ0 θ

x
O dx

Figure P4.21

q2

q1

Figure P4.23

P +
q

a a

+ a +
q q

Figure P4.25 Problems 4.25

and 5.17.