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17-07-98 13:59
Side 1
Pyrox AS
Pyrox CIS
Pyrox AB
Rochdelskaya, 15
RU-123023 Moscow
Lngviken
SE-739 30 Skinnskatteberg
NORWAY
RUSSIA
SWEDEN
Tel.
+47 2305 2300
Fax +47 2305 2321
e-mail export@pyrox.no
Tel.
+7 095 255 0334
Fax +7 095 255 0275
e-mail pyroxcis@pyrox.no
Tel.
+46 222 41490
Fax
+46 222 41830
e-mail eral@pyrox.se
Dear customer
ur objective is to supply products which meet and, preferably, exceeds the requirements and expectations
of our customers and the outside world. We wish to have close and good relations with our customers. In
that way we will have first-rate knowledge of what is required from us, our products and services.
The first contact you establish with PYROX is through one of our distributors. We have carefully
concentrated on selecting distributors with good basic competence in ventilation and energy
engineering. Our distributors are trained by us and have a wide experience with our products.
Their sales staff are customer-oriented and well educated.
It is my hope that you will use this catalogue as a working tool to
choose the right products for your projects. Additional information may
be obtained from one of the Pyrox sales offices or from your local
distributor.
Yours sincerely
Svein Magnus Nilsen
Managing Director
Welcome to PYROX!
Since the founding in 1923 in Bergen, Norway,
PYROX has been a pioneer and leading company in development, manufacturing and marketing of electrical heating appliances. The company was established in order to exploit the
invention of the electric heating element, and
through 50 years stoves, cooking plates, convection and fan heaters were the main products of
the company. Later we concentrated on industrial heating products and in addition we developed a significant competence and knowledge
within the ventilation and air handling field.
As a result of continuous product development
and our professional level, PYROX today ranks
delivery time. We have well-stocked warehouses and can deliver within short time to
most destinations in Europe.
Our aim is to supply products which meet and preferably exceed - the requirements and
expectations of our customers. In order to
constantly know what is required of us, our
products and services, we work hard at keeping good and close relations to our customers.
Our distributors are all highly skilled within the
heating, energy and ventilation engineering.
Their sales organisations are customer-oriented with well trained and experienced employees.
Trondheim
Skinnskatteberg
Stockholm
Bergen/Tysnes
Stavanger
Oslo
DISTRIBUTOR:
Pyrox AS
Vollaveien 20 A
P.O. Box 110 Alnabru
N-0614 Oslo
Norway
Telephone: +4723052300
Telefax:
+4723052321
e-mail:
export@pyrox.no
1998
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VENTILATION
1. UNITS, FORMULAE, CONVERSIONS
2 HEATING AND COOLING
3. HEAT RECOVERY
4. MOLLIER DIAGRAM FOR HUMID AIR
5. VENTILATION PRINCIPLES
6. FANS
7. ACOUSTICS
8. COMFORT CRITERIA
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS
10 ELECTRICITY
2
3
5
7
8
13
16
22
24
29
HEATING
11. BUILDINGS`POWER REQUIREMENT FOR HEATING
12. BUILDINGS' ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
13. RADIANT HEAT
14. AIR CURTAINS
15. FAN HEATERS
16. CONVECTION HEATERS
17. REGULATING TEMPERATURE
18. APPENDIX
32
40
43
53
57
60
61
63
________________________________________________________________________
1
volume
effect, output
specific heat
capacity
energy
enthalpy
time
velocity
volume flow
density
pressure
pressure diff.
force
electric current
electric voltage
temperature
temp. diff.
length
area/surface
frequency
thermal
transmit-tance
coefficient
heat
transmission
coefficient
thermal conductivity coefficient
SI UNIT
ENERGY
1 kJ = 0.239 kcal
ENTHALPY
1 kJ/kg=
0.239kcal/kg
1 m /h =
-3
3
0.278 x 10 m /s
m
W-j/s-Nm/s
kJ/kgC
J-Nm-ws
kJ/kg
s
m/s
3
m /s-l/s
3
kg/ m
2
N/m -Pa
2
N/m -Pa
N
A
V
C-K
C-K
m
2
m
Hz
2
W/ m C
w/ m C
2
W/ m C
2
L = m /h
Q = L x 1.2 x t [kW at 20C]
3,600
Pyrox
VOLUME FLOW
3
3
1 m /s = 3,600 m /h
1 hp = 0.736 kW
-3
1 kcal/h = 1.163 x 10
kW
1 kcal = 4.187 kJ
1 kcal/kg = 4.187 kJ/kg
1 kp = 9.807 N
1 mm H2O = 9.807 Pa
2
________________________________________________________________________
2
RH=50%
RH=100%
Air velocity
The air velocity across the heating coil is
calculated as follows:
L
v = L [m/s], where: V = A
A
3
L = air flow rate m /s
2
A = gross area m
Water volume
To calculate pressure drop on the water side
of the heating coil and determine the size of
the shunt valve, the water volume in a heating
coil must be given.
This is calculated as follows:
q = Q [kg/s], where
.
Cp t
Q = heating coil effect, [W]
t = temperature increase of water through the
heating coil, [C]
Cp = 4.175 j/kgC at a water temperature of
50C
2.2 COOLING COIL
In calculating the required cooling effect, it is
important to consider that part of the effect is
used to separate the water (latent heat) and
the remaining effect to lower the air
temperature (sensible heat). It is therefore
necessary to incorporate enthalpy differences
in the calculations to absorb the latent heat
part. The cooling effect is calculated as
follows:
Q = L 1.2 t [kW], where:
3
L = air flow rate, [m /s]
h = enthalpy difference for air through the coil,
[kJ/kg]
.
Pyrox
t1
t2
CALCULATION OF
COOLING COIL EFFECT
________________________________________________________________________
3
t1
Dx
h1
RH=50%
Latent heat
RH=100%
t2
h2
Sensitive heat
X
THE PROCESS IN THE MOLLIER-DIAGRAM
________________________________________________________________________
4
3. HEAT RECOVERY
x2 x1
x 3 - x1
t = t2 - t1 = temperature efficiency t2 - t1
t3 - t1
t3 - t1
In a hygroscopic rotor: t = x = h
t1 = air temperature prior to heat recovery unit,
supply air side
t2 = air temperature after heat recovery unit,
supply air side
t3 = air temperature prior to heat recovery unit,
exhaust side
Pyrox
Example
The temperature of the supply air after the
heat recovery unit can be determined when
the following data are given:
t3 (exhaust air) = 22C
t1 (supply air) = 15C
t (efficiency) = 80%
Risk of frost
Frost problems are rare in connection with
rotating heat recovery equipment. However,
there is a risk of freezing at very low outdoor
temperatures (below -10C) and humid
exhaust air (exceeding 40%). In ordinary
rooms, the relative humidity is usually
considerably lower in case of very low outdoor
temperatures. In reality, this means that frost
problems are very minor with the use of
rotating heat recovery equipment.
3.2 PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
In plate heat exchangers, fresh air and
exhaust air flow on each side of a number of
dividing plates. Plate heat exchangers yield
slightly lower efficiency than rotating heat
recovery units, but on the other hand, there
are completely separate air currents for supply
air and exhaust, and accordingly they have a
slightly wider application range.
Humidity from the exhaust air may condense
and the heat recovery unit must therefore be
equipped with a condensate collection pan
and outlet.
Efficiency
Efficiency lies in the range of 60% - 70%.
t3
t1
t2
ROTATING HEAT
RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
Risk of frost
In case of low outdoor temperatures,
condensed water from the exhaust air may
freeze and the exchanger will eventually be
covered with ice. A common defrosting
method is to run the external air in a by-pass
circuit past the exchanger when the pressure
drop across the exchanger has reached a
certain level. It is important for the defrosting
system to function properly as efficiency will
decline as the exchanger is covered by ice.
________________________________________________________________________
5
Pyrox
3.3 LIQUID COIL HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchange using liquid coils is a fluidrelated heat recovery system with heating
(cooling) coils in the exhaust and fresh air
ducts, respectively. One of the advantages of
this system is that exhaust and fresh air ducts
do not need to be combined. The coils can, for
example, be located in the attic and basement
respectively. A frost medium, usually a mixture
of ethylene-glycol and water, is circulated
through the piping system.
Efficiency
Efficiency lies in the range of 50% - 60%.
Risk of frost
The percentage of glycol should be roughly
30% to ensure that the liquid mixture does not
freeze. At low outdoor temperatures (below 10C), the exhaust coil may freeze. A common
method of defrosting the coil is to stop the
circulation pump in the fluid circuit when the
pressure drop in the coil has increased by
50% for example.
Defrosting only takes a few minutes.
Circulation pump
If a circulation pump is selected, pressure can
be increased by about 10% and the volume of
water/glycol by about 30% compared to a
water system only.
________________________________________________________________________
6
Pyrox
________________________________________________________________________
7
5. VENTILATION PRINCIPLES
5.1 AIR QUALITY CONCEPTS
In ventilating various premises, it is normal to
differentiate between two principles: ventilation
by diffusion and ventilation by displacement.
Before taking a closer look at these two types
of ventilation, the most common air quality
terms should be defined:
Ventilation efficiency
Ventilation efficiency is a measure of how fast
a pollutant can be removed from a room. It is
defined as the relation between the
concentration of pollution in the exhaust air
and the concentration of pollution in the room.
m =
Occupied zone
The occupied zone is that part of the room
normally occupied by people. For offices,
schools, etc., it is normal to calculate with a
distance of 0.5 m from an outer wall with
window, 0.2 m from other walls and 0.1 m - 1.8
m above floor level.
ce 100% where:
cm
a = n
.
2 m
Pyrox
100%
OCCUPIED ZONE
Near zone
This denotes the zone near a low-impulse
valve where there is a floor draft. Velocity v =
2.0 m/s is used as the draft limit for a lowimpulse valve in a comfort system. The goal is
to achieve the smallest possible near zone for
a low-impulse valve.
With ventilation by displacement, the supply
mechanism is located at a low level, and air is
supplied directly to the occupied zone at a low
velocity. Convection flows from potential heat
sources give the air an upward motion and the
hot/polluted air is removed via exhaust valves
located at the ceiling.
where:
________________________________________________________________________
8
Pyrox
VENTILATION OF AUDITORIUMS
VENTILATION OF AUDITORIUMS
VENTILATION OF AUDITORIUMS
________________________________________________________________________
9
Pyrox
Design of the supply air systems in ventilation
by displacement
For displacement-type ventilation at premises
with normal heat sources in the form of
people, light, etc., experience shows that the
temperature change between floor and ceiling
is roughly as shown in the figure below:
Hm
t
Case a:
t
1.1m
Room height
D tot
Example
The following data have been specified for an
office:
2
Floor area
10 m
Surplus heat
500 W
Height to ceiling
2.7 m
Supply air mechanism
K = 0.5
The vertical temperature gradient must be less
than 3C per m
3
2
a) Volume of supply air 5 m /h per m
3
2
b) Volume of supply air 10 m /h per m
3
2
c) Volume of supply air 15 m /h per m
D o
0.1
ti
tg
tR
tu
t C
TEMPERATURE CHANGE
BETWEEN FLOOR AND CEILING
ttot =
500 = 30C
.
50 1.2 . 1,000
3,600
to = 0.5 30 = 15C
.
ttot = tu - ti =
Q
L ?C p
Case b:
ttot = 15C
tu = temperature at ceiling, C
ti = supply air temperature, C
Q = addition of heat in the room, W
L = amount of air supplied, kg/s
cp = specific heat capacity of air, 1,000
Ws/kgC
In the following, the conditions when heat is
added in the form of pollution are reviewed.
The temperature difference between floor and
ceiling is given by:
to = tg - ti, where:
tg = temperature 0.1 m above floor level
ti = supply air temperature
Depending on the type of supply air
mechanism, this yields:
to = K ttot
.
to = 0.5 15 = 7.5C
.
tR = tg + 1 . (tu - tg)
2,6
tR = 22.5 + 1 . (30 - 22.5) = 25.4C
2,6
This is usually an acceptable maximum
temperature.
ttot = tu - ti =
________________________________________________________________________
10
Pyrox
Case c
If the supply air flow rate is increased to 15
3
m /h, the temperature gradient becomes
1.9C/m and the room temperature 1.1 m
above floor level becomes 21.9C.
These are excellent conditions.
If the supply air temperature is increased to
17C, the temperature gradient remains the
same as before.
The room temperature rises to 24C, which is
adequate in most cases.
In conclusion, it is possible to say that 15 m3/h
2
per m yields excellent conditions.
Since outdoor temperatures during summer
only rise above 17C a few days of the year
most places in Norway, artificial cooling is not
normally required.
Proposed ventilation for industrial premises
Ventilation by displacement is well suited to
industrial premises with substantial pollution
and high heat loads.
The measurement of dust concentrations in
welding shops with displacement-type
ventilation indicates that the dust content of air
at floor level is 1/3 of the dust content under
the ceiling.
COANDA EFFECT
COANDA EFFECT
VENTILATION BY DIFFUSION
________________________________________________________________________
11
Pyrox
Indoor air velocity
Suitable air velocity in the occupied zone
depends on such conditions as activity,
cladding and air temperature. Empirical data
indicate that draft can be avoided in the
temperature range of 20 - 22C if the air
velocity is less than 0.18 m/s.
Induction
A diffuser's ability to mix indoor air with the air
jet from the diffuser.
As an example, a high degree of induction
when supplying air at temperatures below
room temperature is favourable in avoiding
draft problems.
Jet drop in case of obstruction
The change of direction of air jets under the
ceiling when obstructed by girders, light
fittings, etc. Lights must be installed at a
distance from the ceiling to maintain a Coanda
effect.
________________________________________________________________________
12
6. FANS
Pyrox
b>90
Forward-curved blades
b=90
b<90
Backward-curved blades
WHEEL SHAPES
Pa
L10 x
Pd
Pt
b>90
b=90
b<90
m 3/s
FAN CHARACTERISTICS
________________________________________________________________________
13
Pa
Backward-curved blades
Forward-curved blades
(drum wheel)
m 3/s
FANS WITH BACKWARD-CURVED BLADES
AND FORWARD-CURVED BLADES
Choke lines
In addition to the fan characteristics, so-called
throttle regulation (choke) lines or operating
lines are included in the diagram. These are
parabolic, but because a logarithmic axis
system is often used, the choke lines are
shown as straight lines. The lines are
numbered from 1 to 10 as shown in fig. 6.4
The choke line number (l) can be calculated as
follows:
Pd = dynamic pressure at fan outlet
Pt = the fan's total pressure increase
________________________________________________________________________
14
Pyrox
Fan efficiency
The efficiency is constant along a choke line.
Diagrams often show efficiency instead of
choke lines, fig. 6.4.
A fan's efficiency can also be shown as a
function of the choke line number, fig. 6.5.
Fans with backward-curved blades have the
highest maximum efficiency, up to 85% and
the operating point should lie within the area
between lines 1 and 2. Fans with forwardcurved blades have a lower maximum
efficiency, approximately 70%, and this is
achieved in the area between lines 4 and 5,
Pa
(90%)
(85%)
1
2
3 (80%)
4 (75%)
5 (65%)
10
FAN EFFICIENCY
Fan selection
Fan selection is based on the calculated total
pressure increase required (sum of pressure
losses) and desired air flow rate per time unit.
Normally, the desired operating point can be
achieved with several fan sizes. If a small fan
is selected, the operating point will lie far to the
right of the diagram, fig. 6.4. The result will be
low efficiency. If a larger fan is selected, the
operating point will lie further to the left of the
diagram and greater efficiency will be
achieved. The initial cost of a larger fan is
therefore often offset by lower operating costs.
m 3/s
z%
Backward-curved blades
100
80
Forward-curved blades
m 3/s
________________________________________________________________________
15
7. ACOUSTICS
Pyrox
Atmospheric
pressure
= 10 ?log(
P
Pa
Sound pressure
Tid
N
)(dB )
No
= 10 ?log(
The following values can be defined on the
basis of the above:
P = the instantaneous value of the sound
pressure
Peff = sound pressure efficiency
Peff = Pa/2 - the value registered by sound
meters
f = 1/T = frequency (Herz - Hz)
c = sound velocity (m/s)
= wavelength (m)
Whether a sound is audible to the human ear
depends on its frequency and volume. The
human ear can hear sounds in the 20Hz 20,000 Hz frequency range.
The lowest sound pressure the human ear can
5
perceive lies at 2_10 Pa at 1,000 Hz.
Sound that is perceived as undesired or
uncomfortable is usually considered NOISE.
Measuring units for noise
Sound power (N):
The quantity of energy per time unit which is
generated in the form of sound from a sound
source.
P2
P
) = 20 ?log( )
2
Po
Po
2
-12
-4
10
LNref10
dB
-13
= 10 log ( 10 ) = 10 log10 = 80
-12
-4
= 10 log ( 10 ) = 10 log10 = 90
10
-13
________________________________________________________________________
16
Pyrox
ADDITION
Difference to be added to the highest dB value
Difference between dB values to be added
Sound power:
This is independent of the location of the
measuring point and the characteristics of the
surroundings.
Sound pressure:
This decreases with increasing distance to the
source. It depends on the room's acoustic
properties.
LP = LW + 10 log ( Q + 4 n)
2
4r
R
2
The Q/4r fraction represents the direct
sound from the sound source, while 4/R
represents the reflected sound.
r = distance from sound source to measuring
point
Q = directional factor
R = room constant
SUBTRACTION
Value to be subtracted from the highest dB
value Difference between dB values to be
subtracted
________________________________________________________________________
17
Pyrox
The room constant R is an expression of the
room's acoustic properties and can be defined
as follows:
R = A [m Sabine]
_
1
2
A = the room's absorption (m Sabine)
= mean absorption coefficient of the room
2
a
0.30-0.45
0.10-0.15
0.05-0.10
0.03-0.05
Q
4
= ? r1 = 0,14 ? Q ?R
2
4r
R
Near zone
At r <r1, the direct sound dominates and little is
achieved by altering the room's acoustic
properties.
Reverberation field
When r>2 x r1 , the sound pressure is
practically independent of the distance, and
only the reflected sound has any impact.
Reverberation time
This is the time it takes for the sound pressure
to drop to 60dB after the sound source has
been switched off.
Rooms with several sound sources
It is of interest to note how conditions develop
in a room with several sound sources. As an
example, it is quite common to have several
ventilation apertures in one room. As a first
step, it is then necessary to specify where in
the room measurement will take place.
Only the direct sound then affects one of the
valves, while the others contribute reflected
sound. The correlation between sound
pressure level and sound power level can then
be written as:
.
LP = LW + 10 log ( Q + 4 n)
2
4r
R
n = number of valves
________________________________________________________________________
18
Pyrox
Calculation example
A suitable valve to supply air to a room is to be
selected. You have the choice of a valve from
Pyrox or a valve from another manufacturer
called X. A comparison of the two with respect
to sound is to be performed.
Sound level requirement for the room:
NR30 (or close to 35 dBA)
According to manufacturer X's catalogue, the
sound pressure level is 30 dBA for the
applicable air flow rate. It is further stated that
this value applies to the reverberation field of a
2
room corresponding to 10 m Sabine.
For Pyrox's valve, a sound power level of 32
dBA is quoted for the corresponding air flow
rate.
Unless you know the correlation between, and
importance of, sound pressure level and
sound power level, it is easy to be misled into
believing that manufacturer X's valve has a
lower sound level than the corresponding
Pyrox valve. As will be demonstrated, the
circumstances are a bit more complex.
The sound data specified for manufacturer X's
valve apply to a room with a clearly defined
measuring point and clearly specified acoustic
properties. Before the valves can be
compared, the specified sound value must be
converted to a form where it is independent of
the measuring point and acoustic properties of
the room. It is therefore necessary to calculate
the sound power level of the valve.
.
LW = LP - 10 log ( Q + 4)
2
4r R
The first fraction within the parenthesis equals
0, since measurement was performed in the
reverberation field. Furthermore, R_A = 10
2
m Sabine since this is a relatively hard room,
so that can be set at approximately 0. This
will subsequently yield:
Room constant R:
Direction factor Q:
38 m Sabine
2 (generally applies to
ceiling-mounted
valves)
No. of valves:
Measuring point:
requirement
2
The sound
applies to 1 m below
of the valves
one
LP = 32 + 10 log ( 2 + 4 2) =
28dBA
4r
38
LW = 30 x 4 = 34 dBA
________________________________________________________________________
19
Pyrox
7.3 Sound reduction
Sound reduction can basically be achieved in
two ways: by absorption and by reflection.
There are various stages of sound reduction
in a ventilation plant, including:
* Sound reduction in straight ducts
* Sound reduction in ducts with internal sound
insulation
* Sound reduction in bends and branch ducts
* Sound reduction in connection with exhaust
into
the chamber
* Sound reduction through changes in crosssection
* Sound reduction through end reflection. At
the
point where a duct enters a room, part of the
sound is reflected back to the duct. This acts
as
a sound reduction for the room.
* Sound reduction through room absorption.
The difference between LW - LP can be
considered
as a sound reduction due to room
absorption.
* Sound reduction through sound absorbers. If
the
natural attenuation in a system is not
sufficient,
sound absorbers must be added.
The degree of sound reduction as a result of
the aforementioned stages can usually be
derived from tables, diagrams and the
manufacturer's data.
The following will examine sound reduction in
ducts with internal insulation since this a
simple method of reducing noise. Sound
reduction can roughly be estimated as follows:
D=K O
A
.
1.4
[db/m]
________________________________________________________________________
20
Pyrox
7. Find the sound source's sound power level
in the manufacturer's catalogue.
8. The difference between the values in item 7
and item 6 yields the sound reduction required
in the sound absorber.
A calculation as shown above must be
performed for each individual octave band.
Sound is normally most critical at frequencies
of 250 Hz and 500 Hz. Accordingly, it usually
suffices to perform calculations for these
frequencies.
There is user-friendly software program
available for these types of calculations,
which greatly facilitates the work.
________________________________________________________________________
21
8. COMFORT CRITERIA
Pyrox
Type of activity
Working in a sitting
position, such as
reading and writing
Light work standing,
laboratory work,
typing
Moderate physical
labour
Heavy physical
labour
II
III
IV
Total heat
loss per
person,
estimated
value in W
100
150
200
more than
250
Without clothing
Light summer clothing
Medium clothing
Warm clothing
HEAT
CONDUCTIVITY
RESISTANCE,
2
R in m K/kW
0
80
160
240
CONDITIONS:
* Activity levels 1 and 2
* Medium to light clothing
* Air temperature close to the surface
temperature of the surrounding surface.
5. INTERNAL AIR TEMPERATURE
TOLERANCE
Air-conditioning plants for ventilation and
heating only should not have overall local
deviations in room temperature of more than
2.0K in the horizontal measuring zone of the
occupied area.
For air-conditioning plants with cooling, these
deviations must not exceed 1.5K, with the
exception of impact from heat sources.
________________________________________________________________________
22
Pyrox
4. ROOM AIR VELOCITY
The validity of this penetration curve is subject
to the specified conditions.
A shift in change of conditions may occur.
Accordingly, the overall assumption of a room
air velocity of 0.2 m/s is often incorrect. To
determine the limit value of air velocity, it is
necessary to be familiar with the room, the
room's functions and the activities of the
people in the room.
________________________________________________________________________
23
Pyrox
________________________________________________________________________
24
Pyrox
table 47:522
PREMISES
Offices and
premises for
light and
average work
table 47:521
Sales premises
7.0
0.7
Educational
premises and
activity rooms in
nurseries
5.5
0.7
Gymnasium
facilities
7.0
0.7
Assembly halls
4.5
0.7
Hotel rooms
7.0
0.7
Restaurants
7.0
0.7
Patients'
rooms/resident
rooms at
hospital and
health
institutions
7.0
0.7
PREMISES
Assembly halls
Gymnasiums
Educational facilities
Offices
Sales premises
Restaurant premises
No. of people
The number of people (number of people per
2
m of floor space in the room) is determined
on the basis of the assumed function of the
room. If the number of people cannot be
determined in any other way, the values in the
table can be used as a guideline.
Examples of air flow rates
Notes:
Air flow rates are specified in litres per second
per person for column a), in litres per second
2
per m floor space for column b), and in litres
per second per shower/WC/urinal for vents. (1
3
l/s 3.6 m /h).
The figures in column b are based on the use
of building materials, equipment and furniture
of acceptable "good" quality with respect to
odour and other irritating effects.
Vents
Chemistry
rooms
Welding/So
ldering
Kitchen
Showers
17
WC, urinals
17
________________________________________________________________________
25
Pyrox
________________________________________________________________________
26
Pyrox
Table 27.53
ROOM
Natural
ventilation
Duct cross
2
section in cm
Mechanical
ventilation Air
volume rate in
l/s
Living room,
bedroom
Kitchen
150
17
Bathroom with/without WC
150
17
Separate shower or WC
100
11
150
22
33
30
55
Not
recommende
44
d
Not
recommende
d
3 cm pr m
floor space
Lift shaft
50 cm per
2
m of shaft
area
Adequate ventilation
________________________________________________________________________
27
Pyrox
1. UP TO 50 m FLOOR SPACE
With natural ventilation: outdoor air intake and
outlet, each with an area of minimum 2% of
the floor space.
2
________________________________________________________________________
28
10 ELECTRICITY
1.10.1 Ohm's law
.
U=R I
.
P=U I
U = voltage in V (volts)
R = resistance W (ohm resistance)
I = current in A (Amperes)
P = power in W (Watts)
EXAMPLE:
How to control the amperage of an
electric battery, 1 phase
electric heating power, 3 kW
voltage 230 V
Pyrox
1.10.1 Control of heating equipment
On/off thermostats
The simplest and cheapest method of
maintaining an even temperature in a room to
be heated, is to use a thermostat that senses
room temperature and switches the hot air fan
on or off. See figure
25
24
l = P l = 3,000 = 13.04 A
U
230
0
ON/OFF THERMOSTATS
P = U ? 3 ?I
For three-phase multiply by a factor of 3.
EXAMPLE:
How to determine the amperage of a fan
motor:
P = U I cos
. .
25
24,5
I = 250 = 0.89A
.
400 0.7
EXAMPLE:
What is the power?
I = 10A
U = 400 V
400 x 1.73 x 10 = 6920 W
DEAD BAND
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29
10. ELECTRICITY
Pyrox
Multi-stage thermostats
For hot air systems with higher power values, switching full power on/off is seldom desired. The
common practice is to divide the power into two or several equal parts and switching on as much
power as required. The simplest way to control a hot air fan is to install a multi-stage thermostat
with three contactors. The thermostat functions in the following manner:
When the temperature drops below the set temperature, contactor no. 1 switches on 1/3 power.
When the temperature drops further, contactor no. 2 switches on another 1/3. If the temperature
continues to drop, contactor no. 3 switches on the remaining power. This yields a smaller network
load during control of higher output and a more even temperature from the hot air system. The
principle is shown in figure
C
25
24
23
22
P
P3
1
0
P2
1
0
P1
1
0
MULTI-STAGE THERMOSTATS
Program control
For higher effects/output it is possible to use program connection. The duct coil elements are then
divided into a number of groups. If group 1 is of 1 kW, then group 2 is of 2 kW, group 3 of 3 kW
and group 4 of 4 kW. These four power groups yield 7-stage power control. Power can be
adjusted according to 1kW stages from 1 to 7 kW.
This principle is illustrated in figure
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
Stage
PROGRAM CONTROL
A program controller can be used for control of stationary hot air fans. With this type of
equipment, it is possible to control the power to each apparatus in the system, with up to 12
heating stages.
Night set-back of room temperature is a standard feature. Program controllers can also be
delivered with functions for control of damper motors in mixing dampers to control outdoor and
surrounding air, respectively.
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30
Pyrox
1 min
1 min
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS
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31
Pyrox
General
The total power requirement for heating a building is determined by three factors:
VENTILATION
INFILTRATION
TRANSMISSION
Transmission heat loss is caused by the stream of heat from inside the building going through the
building's structure. The greater the difference between indoor/outdoor temperature, the greater
this heat loss will be. Another determining factor is the building's thermodynamic properties.
Generally, efforts are made to reduce this kind of heat loss by insulating the building.
Air infiltration heat loss is due to cold outdoor air seeping in through leaks in the structure of the
building. The extent of this type of heat loss is difficult to calculate precisely. Normally empirical
data is used to calculate this type of heat loss for various types of building.
Finally, heat is required to heat ventilation air, either via direct application of heat to the heating
coil in a mechanically balanced system, or indirectly to the inside air in a building with natural
ventilation.
Heat loss due to transmission
Heat loss will occur through various components of the building such as exterior walls, windows,
floors and ceilings. This heat loss can be expressed by the following equation:
= U n ? An ?T
[W ]
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32
Pyrox
If we are familiar with the construction of the building, the U factor for a construction consisting of
several layers can be calculated using the following equation:
U=
1
Ri + Ry + R1 + R 2 +......+ Rn
[W / m
?K ]
ROOM
OUT
Ri = internal heat transfer resistivity between the air and the building's construction
Ry = external heat transfer resistivity between the air and the building's construction
R1..Rn = heat transfer resistivity for each individual material layer
The following values can be used for Ri and Ry in the calculations:
Ri = 0.13 m K/W
2
Ry = 0.04 m K/W
2
Rn equals the heat transfer resistivity for each individual material used in the building's
construction, and is calculated on the basis of Rn = sn/n where s stands for the thickness of the
________________________________________________________________________
33
Pyrox
layer and is the material's thermal conductivity. The values for most construction materials
can be found in Norsk Standard 3031 (NS3031) as well as in technical manuals.
When we are required to calculate the transmission heat loss for a building in practice, we must
begin with the building regulations' U factor requirements. However, in older buildings, and in
some exceptional cases, it may be necessary to calculate the U factor.
The building regulations' requirements are shown in the following table:
Component
Facades:
Exterior wall
Window
Door, entrance
Ceiling/roof:
Floor:
Above outside air
Above non-heated room
On ground
U factor in W/m x K
Applies at tinside > 18C
0.30
2.40
2.00
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
When the difference in temperature at the component is less than 5C, transmission heat loss will
be negligible. This is usually the case at inside walls. The difference in temperature at a
component adjacent to outside air is calculated as T = tr - t0, where:
tr = room temperature
t0 = dimensioning outside temperature
The room temperature is usually set at 20C for rooms for normal living/working areas. In
swimming baths, operating theatres and treatment rooms, 2530C is often chosen. For specialpurpose rooms, it is important to discuss what the dimensioning temperature should be.
The dimensioning outside temperature is the lowest outside temperature measured over a 3-day
period in the course of a 30-year period. Dimensioning outside temperatures for various places in
Norway can be found in NS 3031 or in the Byggforsks Manual No. 33, VVS-tekniske klimadata for
Norge.
When calculating the heating requirement of a room adjacent to an unheated room, the
temperature in the unheated room must be estimated, or calculated by setting up a heating
balance for adjacent rooms.
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34
Pyrox
Outside air will infiltrate the building through leaks in the building's construction. This air then has
to be heated to room temperature. Calculating this type of heat loss is difficult because it will
depend on many factors such as how draught-proof the building is, wind pressure and air
temperature.
The volume of infiltrated air is calculated using the air change rate n, which expresses the ratio
3
between the volume of outside air L in m3/h and the volume of the room V in m . In a new
building, n can be calculated as 0.2, while in older buildings air change rates in the range of n =
0.30.8 have been measured.
In new buildings in particularly exposed locations, an air change rate higher than n=0.2 should
sometimes be used. NS 3031 stipulates the recommended values in such cases.
Heat loss through air infiltration is calculated using the following equation:
= n ?cp ?V ?(tr t 0) [W ]
n = air change rate, [h ]
3
V = volume of room, [m ]
3
cp = the air's heat capacity = 0.335 Wh/m K
tr = room temperature
t0 = dimensioning outside temperature
-1
The regulations state that n = 0.4 h must be calculated without any addition for air infiltration.
This type of heat loss is calculated according to the same equation as for heat loss due to air
infiltration. The heat loss calculated is added to the heat loss due to transmission for each
individual room.
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35
Pyrox
MECHANICAL
EXHAUST
SUPPLY
AIR
TRANSMISSION
INFILTRATION
HEATER
HEATER
HEATER
ti = the air temperature after the heating coil, usually equal to room temperature
= heat return efficiency
________________________________________________________________________
36
TRANSMISSION
INFILTRATION
HEATER
HEATER
HEATER
In this kind of system, there is no addition in each individual room due to the ventilation system.
The heat requirement for each room is therefore equal to the sum of the transmission heat loss
and the air infiltration heat loss.
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37
Pyrox
Type of building
Office building, new
Office building, existing
Nursing home, new
Nursing home, existing
Hotels, new
Hotels, existing
Bathrooms, swimming pools, new
Bathrooms, swimming pools, existing
Detached houses, new, + 20 cm insul.
Detached houses, existing
Blocks of flats, new
Blocks of flats, existing
Schools, new, with gymnasium
Schools, existing, with gymnasium
Example
You have been asked to calculate the necessary power requirement to heat a room in a detached
house. The house is in Oslo which has a dimensioning outside temperature of -20C. The desired
room temperature is 20C. The room is below an unheated attic (-20C) and the floor is above a
basement (0C). The house plans provide the following details:
Floor area:
Ceiling area:
Exterior walls:
Window area:
Volume of room:
44 m
2
44 m
2
29 m (less the window area)
2
5m
3
100 m
The house has a mechanical exhaust ventilation system. The total exhaust air flow rate is 150
3
m3/h. The exhaust air flow rate from the room in question is 50 m /h. It is assumed that the
building's construction complies with the statutory requirements in terms of U factor. This gives
the following data:
Exterior wall:
Ceiling:
Floor:
Window:
0.30 W/m K
0.20
"
0.30
"
2.40
"
2
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38
Pyrox
This data generates the following calculations:
Transmission heat loss:
Exterior walls:
Ceiling:
Floor:
Windows:
=
=
=
=
0.3 x 29 x 40
0.2 x 44 x 40
0.3 x 44 x 20
2.4 x 5 x 40
=
=
=
=
348 W
352 W
264 W
480 W
1,444 W
Total power requirement for heating the room is 1,444 + 268 + 670 = 2,382 W.
2
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39
Pyrox
General
When calculating the annual energy requirements of a building for heating rooms and heating
ventilation air, we must take the following into account:
This section demonstrates how to calculate the annual energy requirements of a building,
including how to take the above-mentioned factors into account:
Definition of central concepts in energy calculations
To be able to carry out an energy calculation, we need to know something about the climatic
conditions, and how they vary during the course of the year at the site of the building. Three
concepts are important to this process:
_ temperature duration curves
_ length of the heating season
_ number of degree days
The temperature duration curve is plotted by counting the number of days with a mean
temperature below a certain temperature. A temperature duration graph can be generated by
plotting consecutive values of the temperature and number of days. If this graph is plotted as a
mean graph covering ten years, it will give an approximately correct picture of the climate for the
place in question. An example of this kind of graph is given below:
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40
Pyrox
TEMPERATURE DURATION
GRAPH
DAYS
The heating season means the part of the year when the building needs to be heated. The length
of the heating season is usually calculated as lasting until the mean outside temperature is 10C.
If the temperature duration graph for the location is known, the length of the heating season can
be worked out. The diagram above shows that the length of the heating season will be approx.
240 days. The fact that it is generally unnecessary to heat the building outside this period, despite
the outside temperature being lower than room temperature, is due to internal supply of heat and
supplementary heat from the sun.
Degree days means the area which is delimited by the duration graph and an isotherm. The true
term is degrees multiplied by days, but is usually abbreviated to degree days.
The number of degree days if the desired room temperature is 20C is shown by the area
delimited by the duration curve and the isotherm 10C plus the rectangle marked between the
isotherms 10 and 20C as shown in the figure above. For example, if the desired room
temperature is 17C, the number of degree days would be the area below the isotherm 10C plus
a rectangle delimited by the isotherms 10 and 17C.
The number of degree days for different places can be found in tables of climatic data or may be
obtained on request from the Meteorological Institute.
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41
Pyrox
(t
T
R
to )
?G ?
(t
I
R
to )
?G ?
(t
V
i
to )
?G ? v ? s
Qt
[kWh ]
NS 3032 states the recommended values for the energy requirement in various types of building:
Type of building
Office building, new
Office building, existing
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42
Pyrox
Heat transfer
Transfer of heat always occurs from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. There are five
basic methods by which this transfer can take place:
_
_
_
_
_
conduction
convection
radiation
mass transfer
phase change
Conduction occurs when heat spreads during constant lowering of temperature from a hotter part
of a body to a colder part of the same body. Heat can also be conducted from one body to
another if there is close contact between the two.
Convection occurs when heat from a liquid or a gas is conducted to a solid body (or vice versa).
Radiation occurs when heat is transferred from one body to another without heating the medium
present between the two bodies, e.g. air. For instance, the sun heats the earth without heating
the atmosphere between the two.
Mass transfer occurs when the heat content of a fluid alters if it runs through surroundings with a
different temperature than the fluid itself.
Phase change occurs during evaporation and condensation. In the case of evaporation a certain
amount of heat must be applied for phase change to occur, while in the case of condensation a
certain amount of heat is released.
In practice, the heating elements used to heat rooms will transfer heat using a combination of
convection and radiation, depending on the surface temperature of the heating element.
In water-filled radiator systems convection will account for 7080% of the heat output, while the
rest of the heating occurs through radiation. In radiant heaters, the ratio will be reversed, i.e.
radiation will account for more than 80% of the heat transfer.
General
In actual fact, radiant heat consists of electromagnetic rays like radio waves and visible light rays.
Heat radiation may or may not occur, depending on the wavelength of the electromagnetic rays.
Part of the electromagnetic spectrum is represented below, showing where temperature radiation
will take place:
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43
Pyrox
1 nm
Visible
light
1 m
Temperature radiation
(infrared heat)
Microwaves
1 mm
Radio waves
1m
Radiant heating elements are divided into groups according to how high the elements' surface
temperature is. One group includes short-wave radiation with temperatures of approx. 750C, and
long-wave radiant heaters with a surface temperature of approx. 100C are used in rooms with
low ceilings. In the middle is a group with temperatures of approx. 300C, used for ceiling heights
of 2.5 to 20 m.
Heating with radiant heat can have many advantages over other types of heating. The radiated
heat passes unimpeded through the air and does not emit heat until it meets surfaces such as
floors and walls. These surfaces in turn emit convection heat to the air in the room, thereby
heating the entire living/working area. As such, it is possible to avoid heat collecting under the
ceiling. Some of the radiated heat will also be absorbed directly by the people in the room.
This effect makes it possible to tolerate an air temperature 23C lower than with convection
heating, while experiencing the same degree of comfort.
These factors mean that correctly dimensioned radiant heating is energy-saving.
Definitions
In connection with planning of radiant heating and the use of catalogue data, it is important to
define what is meant by a number of concepts and quantities. We shall therefore offer definitions
of the following:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
heat radiation
intensity of radiation
radiation temperature contribution/asymmetry of radiation
radiation temperature
air temperature
operative temperature
thermal gradient
Heat radiation from a radiant heating panel increases to the power of 4 of the absolute
temperature. This means that the radiant heating panels can be manufactured in very small sizes,
while still being capable of emitting considerable heat. The radiated heat emitted from a hot
surface can be calculated using the following equation:
Ps = A ? ? (Ts 4_ To 4 )
[W ]
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44
Pyrox
2
The intensity of radiation shows how much heat radiation a surface or a body receives per m . If a
person is exposed to heat radiation, the greater the intensity of radiation, the greater the rise in
temperature in the part of the body exposed to the heat will be. Those parts of the body in the
shade will not experience any rise in temperature. In mathematical terms, this can be expressed
as follows:
qs = ( s + k )?t
[W / m ]
2
COLD
ASYMMETRY OF RADIATION
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45
Pyrox
Acceptable asymmetries of radiation are discussed in the ASHRAE Applications Handbook for
1995, taking comfort requirements into account. This handbook concludes that asymmetry of
radiation of 12C will not cause problems for people in normal working clothes. It is recommended
that the maximum limit is set at 15C. The table below shows the correlation between asymmetry
2
of radiation and the recommended input radiation heat per m of floor area. Other studies show
that people accept varying levels of asymmetry depending on the cause of the asymmetry. It has
been demonstrated that most people's threshold is lowest for asymmetry of radiation caused by
heat from the ceiling. ISO 7730 contains a recommended maximum limit of 5C for asymmetry
below a warm ceiling. On the basis of this recommendation, we suggest that, depending on the
type of building, an interval of 510C be adopted for radiant heat installations.
2
Asymmetry of radiation ( C)
3
5
10
15
25
This means that if the asymmetry of radiation is not to exceed 10C, the maximum input radiated
2
heat can be 80 W/m floor area.
The air temperature is quite simply the temperature of the air, unaffected by the radiation
temperature.
The operative temperature is the temperature which a person feels, and is the combined effect of
the air temperature and the radiated temperature. In practice, the operative temperature is given
by the following equation:
top =
tl + ts
ts
= tl +
2
2
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46
Pyrox
Further energy savings can be made since radiation heating produces a minor vertical thermal
gradient, i.e. the difference in temperature between floor and ceiling. In very high-ceilinged rooms
in which convectional heating systems often encounter problems with the heat collecting just
below the ceiling where it fulfils no useful purpose, radiated heat will pass unimpeded through the
air and emit warmth where it is needed, thus creating a small vertical thermal gradient.
CEILING HEIGHT
THERMAL
GRADIENT
DUE TO
RADIANT
HEATING
THERMAL GRADIENT
DUE TO FAN HEATERS
THERMAL GRADIENT
40 m
20 m
4.0 m
2
80 m
2
30 m
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47
FACTORY
________________________________________________________________________
48
Pyrox
Maximum requirements for asymmetry of radiation
To verify this, we must check the radiation temperature tables for the product in question. The
tables below show the radiation temperatures for HeatLine radiant heaters with the radiation
temperature contribution at various distances from the heater. This check will be the determining
factor in deciding the permissible output power per heater.
HL12
0m
1m
2m
3m
HL12
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
17.2
9.5
5.8
2.5
1m
8.9
6.1
2.9
1.7
2m
2.9
2.8
1.0
0.8
3m
0.6
1.0
0.8
0.6
HL17
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
23.2
10.8
6.8
3.1
1m
11.4
7.2
3.8
2.1
2m
3.2
3.0
1.6
1.2
3m
0.8
1.6
1.0
0.8
We set the maximum permitted asymmetry of radiation (temperature contribution) at 10C since
this is assumed to be a building in which people are constantly in motion and have modest
comfort requirements. The most critical point will be directly below each heater in the upper part
of the working area (2 m directly below the heater).
HL17: From the table we see that at a distance of 1 m from the heater, the
temperature contribution directly below the heater is stated as being 23.3C. At a
distance of 2 m, the contribution drops to 10.8C. This is still in excess of our
requirement for 10C.
HL12: The corresponding figures for this heater are 17.2C and 9.5C,
respectively. This is below our requirement and the HL12 is therefore a good
choice in terms of asymmetry of radiation.
Controlling the operative temperature
The operative temperature requirement in the working area was 18C on average. A maximum
vertical thermal gradient of 5C in the working area is permissible. To check this, we need to
check how the temperature contribution from the heater decreases as the distance from the
heater increases vertically and horizontally. This is important in determining the distance we can
allow between the heaters and what air temperature is permissible.
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49
Pyrox
The least favourable situation would be with heaters placed at regular intervals of 6m, since at
this distance there would be no overlapping of the temperature contribution curves from the
heaters. The temperature contribution 2 m below the heater would therefore vary between 9.5
and 1.0C. The correlation between the operative temperature, the air temperature and the
radiation temperature contribution is given by the equation:
top = tl +
ts
2
With heaters placed at 6 m intervals, the temperature in the working area would vary between
15.3C and 19.75C. The least favourable vertical thermal gradient would be 4.45C, meaning
that the vertical thermal gradient requirement would be fulfilled. By placing the heaters directly
above the workstations, we see that we would be satisfying the requirement of 18C at a height of
1 m above the floor. It would therefore seem sensible to use HL12 ceiling-mounted heaters in
this case.
Calculation of power requirement
The above calculations showed that with radiant heat we can reduce the air temperature, thereby
achieving significant energy savings compared to other heating systems. In this case, it was
sufficient to heat the air temperature to 15C.
Transmission heat loss:
Part of building
Exterior wall (net)
Ceiling area
Floor (on ground)
Windows
Entrances
Total:
Area (1)
2
280 m
2
800 m
2
800 m
2
80 m
2
30 m
U factor (2)
2o
0.3 W/m C
0.3
"
0.2
"
2.8
"
2.0
"
Output(123 )
2,940 W
8,400 W
5,600 W
7,840 W
2,100 W
26,880 W
Installation
Pyrox
________________________________________________________________________
50
To cover the combined output requirement, we need to install 28 HL12 heaters each with an
output power of 1,200 Watt. The following positioning is recommended:
This means that there will be approx. 5 m between the heaters, which more than satisfies our
requirement for no more than 6 m between the heaters. Variation in the operative temperature
and the thermal gradient will therefore be somewhat less than the above calculations.
Zone heating
There are often many different temperature requirements in the same premises, due to different
working operations. With radiation heating it is possible to divide the premises into different
temperature zones as well as providing the opportunity for spot heating of especially exposed
workstations.
The air temperature can be kept low throughout the whole premises, at the same time as raising
the operative temperature in individual zones to the desired level by installing radiant heating
panels to suit requirements in each zone.
In this way the heating costs for the building as a whole are kept down, whilst ensuring the
necessary level of comfort in terms of heating.
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51
ZONE HEATING
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52
Pyrox
General
Open doors and entrances represent a huge loss of energy, in addition to creating problems with
draughts. Installing an air curtain can reduce the energy loss and improve the level of comfort.
Three factors contribute to the size of the air stream passing through an open door:
_ difference between outside and indoor pressure
_ difference between outside and indoor temperature
_ wind velocity against the opening
The difference between outside and indoor pressure can be eliminated using balanced
ventilation.
Air stream due to differences in temperature
Hot air is less dense than cold air. This means that cold outside air will penetrate through the
entrance at the lower part of the opening, pressing warm indoor air out through the top of the
opening. This exchange of air is caused by thermal currents, and is due to the fact that the
masses of cold air and warm air have different densities. The air stream through the entrance can
be calculated using the following equation:
Lt =
B
? H 1,5 ? 0 ? g ?
3
m
where:
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Pyrox
Air stream due to effect of wind:
The air stream through the entrance is reinforced by the effect of the wind. Let us assume that the
wind will make the air stream uniform across the entire opening. After a while the premises will
have such a large overpressure that the air stream is limited to what leaks out through gaps in the
building. The air stream due to the effect of the wind is calculated using the following equation:
L v = B ?H ?
v10
?0,25
2
where:
Lt = 4/3 x 5
1,5
x 1.0 x
9,81?0,06 / 1,24
= 10.26 m /s
This represents an energy loss over the course of one year of:
Eloss = 20 x 1.24 x (18 - 6.5) x 1 x 260 = 74,152 kWh
On the basis of the above energy price, this results in an energy cost of
NOK37,000 per year.
Installing air curtains
An air curtain creates an effective barrier in the entrance, preventing the penetration of cold
outdoor air. The air velocity from the air curtain must be so great that the resulting air velocity is
directed downwards. The air curtain should be set so that a small part of the air stream is directed
out of the opening, while the rest blows into the premises. In this way, the cold outside air is
borne out again with the barrier, while the warm indoor air is kept inside.
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Installation
To achieve the best possible result, the air door units should be positioned as close to the
opening as possible, and they should extend over the entire width of the entrance.
air curtains
Energy-saving potential
The energy-saving potential depends on the height of the entrance. Measurements show that
when used in entrances up to 3.5 m high, air curtains reduce energy loss by 90%. For entrances
higher than 3.5 m, the savings decrease approximately linearly in proportion to the height of the
entrance. For entrances which are 7 m high, the energy-saving potential is down to approx. 30%.
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55
Pyrox
100
90
80
Saving (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
11
Hight (m)
In the above example with an entrance 5 m high, we see from the graph that it is possible to
reduce energy loss by approx. 75% by installing air curtains.
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Pyrox
General
Fan heaters are particularly suitable for heating industrial buildings and warehouses where rapid,
practical and economical heating of the premises is required. The installation costs for fan
heaters are lower per kW input than for MANY other heating systems.
To a achieve a good result, it is vital that the hot air jet reaches right down to the floor. This
means that this type of heating is not suitable for combination with diffuse ventilation or other
systems which are sensitive to air velocities in the working area.
The fan heaters can be fitted with a mixing unit for combining indoor and outside air so that the
fans also cater for the premises' need for ventilation.
Planning and installation
As described above, to achieve a satisfactory result it is essential that the jet of warm air reaches
right down to the floor. This means that we must calculate the maximum height at which the fans
can be mounted while still allowing the air jet to reach the floor. The jets downthrust depth
depends on:
_ the difference in temperature between incoming air and air in the room
_ the incoming velocity and dimensions of the outflow outlet
_ the angle at which the jet of air is directed towards the floor
For a given angle, the jets downthrust depth can be expressed as follows:
z = k z ?l
where:
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Pyrox
The Archimedes figure expresses the relationship between the upthrust forces and the mass
forces in a jet of air. We define this figure as follows:
Ar =
t g l
T u0 2
where:
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Calculations
3
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General
Heating rooms using radiators is based on the principle of heat being transferred convectionally
from the heated surface of the radiator to the air inside the room. The circulation of air above the
radiator is due to thermal currents causing a rising stream of warm air from the radiator. The
radiators are usually installed beneath windows to eliminate cold draughts from these. The
primary heating effect (7080%) is caused by convection, while the rest is caused by radiation.
In rooms with normal ceiling heights this heating principle will produce an even temperature
throughout the entire room. In rooms with very high ceilings, however, there is some danger of
the heat collecting just below the ceiling. This problem can be countered by installing fans on the
ceiling which cause the air to circulate, thus evening out the temperature in the room .
Calculation of power requirement
Radiators are selected on the basis of a calculation of the power requirement for the premises.
The principle of this process has already been outlined. It must be taken into account that
overhanging windowsills reduce the emission of heat by 25%, while casing which allows the air
to circulate gives a reduction of 15% since the emission of radiated heat is reduced.
Water-filled radiators
Radiators are selected from catalogues which normally state the output at a difference in
temperature of 60C between the mean radiator temperature and the room temperature. This is
based on the ingoing and outgoing temperatures of
9070C, giving a mean temperature of 80C. If you deduct a room temperature of 20C the
result is 60K. It is interesting to see what the output of the radiator is when the difference in
temperature over the radiator is different to that on which the catalogue data is based.
Measurements show that with a temperature difference deviating from T = 60C, the new output
= can be shown by the following equation:
t
=
kat
60
1,33
Example
The radiators in an old building with a water-filled heating system are dimensioned for flow/return
temperatures of 90/70C. In connection with the installation of a heating pump, the heating
system is adjusted to a low temperature system with flow/return temperatures of 55/45C.
The catalogue data has been consulted to provide information about the existing radiators, which
are claimed to have an output 2000 W each. What will the new output figure for these radiators
be with the new flow/return temperatures stated above?
= kat (t/60)
1,33
= 2000 x [ [(55+45)/2-20]/60]
1.33
= 795 Watt
This shows us that the output is more than halved by reducing the flow temperature to 55C.
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Thermostats
On/off thermostats
The simplest and cheapest method of maintaining an even temperature in a heated room is to
use a thermostat which is sensitive to room temperature and switches the heat source on or off
as necessary.
An important concept when discussing thermostatic control is the switching resolution. A
thermostat which turns itself off at 24C and on at 25C has a switching resolution of 1C.
It is best to have a small switching resolution, since this reduces fluctuations in room temperature
so that it remains as stable as possible. There are many types of thermostat. In general, it is
possible to distinguish between mechanical thermostats, such as capillary tube thermostats, and
electronic thermostats.
Electronic thermostats are somewhat more expensive than mechanical ones, but they have the
advantage of having adjustable switching resolutions and extremely precise settings. The
switching resolution must not be made too small when controlling heating via contactors since
they may turn themselves on and off at very short intervals, causing a great deal of wear and
more noise.
Multistage thermostats
In systems with a large output it is better not to turn the whole power plant on and off. In this kind
of system it is usual to divide the output among two or more component parts and switch in as
much power as necessary.
This kind of temperature control leads to less wear on the network when large outputs are to be
controlled, as well as resulting in more even temperatures.
Pre-programmed control
With larger outputs, it is possible to use pre-programmed control. For instance, a channel battery
can be divided into a number of groups. If Group 1 is set at 1 kW, Group 2 is set at 2 kW while
Group 3 is at 4 kW. Various combinations of these three output groups allow 7-stage output
control.
Infinitely variable temperature control
Temperature control of the type Pulser or TTC is often used as an alternative to output control
with on/off or 3-stage thermostats. Pulser 220 and TTC use a triac in the control circuit. A triac is
a semiconductor which can connect and disconnect the current to electrical heating elements
without the disturbing noise which can occur with temperature control using contactors.
One whole connection and disconnection cycle takes approx. 1 minute or less. The output is
increased by increasing the on-time and reducing the off-time accordingly. The output regulators
are also equipped with a temperature regulator and a potentiometer. The temperature sensor can
be built-in or external. Triac regulators cannot be used to control contactors, and therefore cannot
be used to regulate fan heaters or air curtains. However, this type of regulator is extremely
suitable for use with radiant heaters and channel batteries.
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18. APPENDIX
Pyrox
0m
14.8
9.5
4.8
2.5
1m
7.9
3.8
1.2
0.8
2m
2.6
2.0
0.8
0.2
3m
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.1
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
17.2
9.5
5.8
2.5
1m
8.9
6.1
2.9
1.7
2m
2.9
2.8
1.0
0.8
3m
0.6
1.0
0.8
0.6
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
23.2
9.8
6.8
3.1
1m
11.4
7.2
3.8
2.1
2m
3.2
3.0
1.6
1.2
3m
0.8
1.6
1.0
0.8
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
25.6
11.3
6.9
3.2
1m
14.7
7.3
3.9
2.1
2m
4.2
3.5
1.9
1.4
3m
1.2
1.7
1.3
0.9
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
30.7
14.4
7.7
4.9
1m
26.2
9.5
6.3
3.7
2m
3.9
6.7
5.8
3.1
3m
1.0
2.9
3.3
1.0
1m
2m
3m
4m
0m
35.9
16.5
9.2
5.8
1m
30.7
11.3
7.6
4.4
2m
4.7
8.0
6.9
3.5
3m
1.2
3.5
3.9
1.2
HL 12
HL 17
HL 21
HL 32
HL 42
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Measuring points for gauging radiation temperatures:
0m
1m
1m
2m
_________
3m
2m
3m
4m
0m
1m
2m
0m
1m
2m
0m
1m
2m
0m
1m
2m
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m
CL 06
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m
CL 09
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m
CL 12
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m
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Documentation for air curtains
These tables show air velocities measured at different distances from the outlet opening at
maximum and minimum fan speeds. These values apply to isothermal air supply.
LRX
Distance(m)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
LG
Distance(m)
0
1.0
2.0
2.5
LGW
Distance (m)
0
1
2
2.5
MTV
Distance (m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
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