CHAPTER 2

Theoretical Background
2.1 Literature Review
In the most famous work of author Jonathan Swift, Gullivers Travels (1726), a flying island named Laputa
was mentioned. It was said that this fictional island used magnetic levitation to stay afloat and move about
in different directions [2].
However, it wasnt until over a century later that any significant research on magnetic levitation was
conducted. In 1842, British mathematician Samuel Earnshaw proved that it is impossible to levitate a
static system and to maintain its stability using only paramagnets [3]. This is popularly known as the
Earnshaws Theorem. According to this theorem, the levitated part would be highly unstable and move
away from the desired position. This meant that magnetic levitation is impossible in many common
scenarios. This theory was modified by German physicist Werner Braunbeck in 1939 [3, 4]. The
Braunbeck extension shows that it is indeed possible to produce a stable magnetic levitation system with
diamagnetic materials in which the magnetic permeability is less than one, or with superconductor in
which the magnetic permeability equals zero [5].
In the meantime, research and development on magnetic levitation had continued and significant
progress had been made.

2.1.1 Maglev trains

In 1912, Emile Bachelet was awarded a U.S. patent on for the Levitating Transmitting Apparatus he had
designed using the magnetic levitation technology [6], and he demonstrated his system with a small
model. This was a key moment in the history of magnetic levitation as it encouraged further research of
this technology in various countries.

Hermann Kemper earned a patent in 1933 for his work Monorail vehicle with no wheels attached [7] that
used was based on the maglev technology. This eventually led to the making of Transrapid, a
magnetically levitated high speed monorail train that first carried passengers in 1979 [8]. A low speed
maglev shuttle in Birmingham, UK was the first commercially used maglev train which operated between
1984 and 1995 [9]. Its success is mostly attributed to Eric Laithwaite who is known as the Father of
Maglev.
Maglev trains are now widespread in various parts of the world. The most recent success of the magnetic
levitation trains came in April 21, 2015 when a Japanese manned maglev train achieved the record
breaking speed of 603 km/h [10].

2.1.2 Related Works on Electromagnetic Suspension

Magnetic levitation ball bearing systems have long been used in engineering universities around the world
as lessons of control engineering. The most renowned and helpful of those is the Control System
Analysis and Design course of University of Michigan, which has an online tutorial titled Control Tutorial
for MATLAB & Simulink [11]. The tutorial explains how the magnetically levitated ball system can be
modelled using state-space method, and how the control design can be made using pole placement
method.
In a demo book called Physics Demonstration by Professor Julien Clinton Sprott of University of
Wisconsin - Madison, Professor Donald W. Kerst contributed a tutorial of a magnetically levitated ball [12].
The tutorial claims that if two insulated magnet coils are separated by a gap close to their diameter and
placed in a way that their axes are in a vertical line, and a current is flown is opposing directions in the
two coils, then the ac magnetic fields would be able to stably levitate a highly conducting light object, like
a metal ball. The magnetic field produced is zero at the center of the gap between the two coils, but it
increases as the field lines move outside. The tutorial mentions that the levitation will indeed be difficult to
execute as the large magnetic fields are required, and as a result the coils are required to have large
current density and necessary heat dissipation mechanism. The input power line should have a capacity
of 25 A at 60 Hz frequency, and the capacitance required for the connection is 212 F.

When it comes to the controller part, a feedback is of utmost importance. When the ball is levitating, there
are small factors that can affect its stability. To make sure that the ball recovers from these external
disturbances and come back to the steady state, a feedback loop is required. For this purpose, a sensor,
a comparator and a controller mechanism is required. The sensors sense the position of the ball, the
comparator decides if the ball is at the desired height or not, and if there is an error, the control
mechanism sends signals to bring the ball back to the desired height. There are various ways this can be
achieved.
One of the experimenters of magnetic ball levitation, Barry Hansen, used a set of infrared emitter and
photo-detector as the sensors [13]. The position of the ball is then measured by the amount of light
crossing from the infrared emitter to the photo-detector. Based on that the comparator and the control
mechanisms take action if necessary. However, one flaw with this design is that the external disturbance
may cause the ball to go completely off the area covered by the sensors. In that case, a proper feedback
may not be possible.
In 2015, Swedish scientists created a magnetically levitating light bulb called Flyte, which has an
expected lifetime of 22 years [14, 15]. The levitating bulb draws power from a wooden base wirelessly
through induction technology.
Moreover, in 2015, a team of scientists designed and implemented a magnetically levitated wireless
bungee jumping mechanism in association with IKEA [16, 17]. The concept behind this system is the
repulsion between two like poles of a dipole magnet.

2.2 Component Specification

Hall Effect Sensor The Hall Effect Sensors provide varied output voltage in response to
magnetic fields, and are required for the feedback system to stabilize the ball position. The Hall

Effect sensors used was A1324.

MOSFET A MOSFET is used in the project to convert the DC-DC, which is required to generate

electromagnetic force in the electromagnet. The NTD4963N MOSFET was used for this purpose.
Electromagnet The electromagnet is the most essential part of the project, without which the
metallic object will not levitate at all. It will generate ample electromagnetic force to lift the ball off

the ground and suspend it in mid-air. We used a 15mH coil as our electromagnet.
Neodymium/Metal Ball The metal ball is the magnetic object used in the project that will be

levitated. It is made of steel and nickel coated and has a mass of approximately 3 grams.
Wooden Skeleton We used a wooden structure made of melamine board, which serves as a
skeleton for the entire system. All other parts, such as the electromagnet, are attached to it and

has a separate space for the circuit board to be placed.

Printed Circuit Board A printed circuit board is used in the project for ease of the systems

performance and to minimize the human errors. (still under development)

Soldering Iron The soldering iron is used to affix various components to one another for efficient

and smooth performance.

Controller As a controller we used dsPIC30F2011 digital signal controller. It is fast, consumes
low power, and a 16-bit controller which contains 1 ADC, 2 CCP, 1 UART, 1 SPI, 1 12C and 3

timers.
Tactile Switch Tactile switches have been used to control the metallic objects stability and

movement as desired.
Diode We used a Light Emitting Diode and a Schottky diode (1N5817). Schottky diode is mainly

used as its switching speed is high and very low forward voltage drop.
Capacitor Capacitors of different ratings and capacities have been used.
Resistors Resistors of different values have been used.
9V Battery or DC power supply It supplies DC voltage to the system.
Voltage Regulator It is a DC voltage regulator, operating at 5 volts, and it limits the output
voltage to 5 volts and maintains the magnitude constantly. The LM7805 5 V regulator is used for

this.
Battery Snap A battery snap is used to help connect the battery with system.

Conductor Cables and Connecting wires These were used for connection purposes of the
system.

2.2.1 Power ratings of components

The following table consists of a list of the components included in the electrical part of the system.
Corresponding power ratings and quantity of each components are tabulated.

Quantity
1. dsPIC30F2011 controller 1pc
2. Hall Effect Sensor A1324 1pc
3. LM 7805 DC 5V linear voltage regulator
4.
5.
6.
7.

1pc
NTD4963N MOSFET 1pc
1N5817 Schottky Diode 1pc
Resistors 1k (1pc)/ 10k (1pc)
Capacitors 100nF (2pcs)/ 1F (1pc)/ 1000

F (1pc)
8. Conducting wires 72 & 63 (1pc each)
9. Tactile Switches 3pcs

Power Rating
2.5V*250mA 3V*300mA
(Watts)
24 VA (Watts)
5VA (Watts)
30V * 44A = 132 VA (Watts)
20 VA (Watts)
20 VA (Watts)
25 VA (Watts)
25 VA & 30 VA (Watts)
N/A

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laputa
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnshaws_theorem
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Braunbeck
[5] B.V.Jayawant electromagnetic suspension and levitation (PDF)
[6] E. Bachelet, Levitating Transmitting Apparatus, U.S. Patent 1020942, March 19, 1912.
[7] H. Kemper, Monorail Vehicles with No Wheels Attached, Reich Patent 643316, August 11,
1934.
[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transrapid
[9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev
[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L0_Series
[11] http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?
example=Introduction&section=ControlStateSpace
[12] Physics Demonstration by Julien Clinton Sprott
http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/demobook/CHAPTER5.HTM

[13] http://www.coilgun.info/levitation/home.htm
[14] http://www.flyte.se/
[15] http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3071853/Now-s-light-bulb-moment-WirelessFlyte-LEVITATES-lasts-22-YEARS.html
[16] http://www.vagabomb.com/The-Worlds-First-Wireless-Bungee-Jump-Is-Magnetism-DoneRight
[17] http://www.scienceabc.com/sports/first-ever-wireless-bungee-jump.html