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TheRepairofReinforcedConcreteJohnBroomfield

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TheRepairofReinforcedConcrete
JohnBroomfield
Recentdevelopmentsintherepairofreinforcedconcreteincludemodernelectrochemicaltechniquesthatcan
minimisetheinterferencewiththestructure,animportantfactorinbuildingrestoration.

Thisarticleisreproducedfrom
TheBuildingConservation
Directory,1996

Author
DRJOHNBROOMFIELDisan
independentconsultant
specialisinginthecorrosionof
steelinconcrete.Hehas
workedwiththeStrategic
HighwayResearchProgramme
(SHRP)inWashingtonDC
(19871990)andTaywood
EngineeringLimited,withwhom
hedesignedsomeofthefirst
cathodicprotectionsystemsto
beinstalledonconcrete
structuresintheUKandtheFar
East.Heisanactivemember
ofanumberofcorrosion
standardsbodiesinEuropeand
theUSandhaspublishedover
20papersinthefield.

Furtherinformation
TheHooverBuilding,Perivale,London(built193235):aspectacularexampleofreinforcedconcrete
construction,nowoccupiedbyTesco

Wegenerallythinkofconcreteasamodernbuildingmaterial,yetitisoneoftheoldestandmostdurablebuildingmaterials.
ItsearliestknownusewasforahutfloorinformerYugoslavia,datingfrom5600BC:later,morenotableexamplesincluded
theGreatPyramidatGizaandtheParthenoninRome.
AlthoughtheRomansexperimentedwithbronzereinforcement,reinforcedconcreteasweknowittodaydatesfromthemid
19thcenturyfollowingtheintroductionofPortlandcementconcretein1854whenitwaspatentedbyJosephAspedenin
Wakefield.Steelreinforcedboatsandplanttubsweremadeinthe1850s,andapatentwastakenoutin1854byWilliam
Wilkinsonforamethodofbuildingfireproofbuildingsusingstripsofironembeddedinmassconcrete.Wilkinsonshowed
thatheunderstoodwheretensionsteelwasneededinhisflatceilings,wherewireropeswereembeddedfollowingtheline
oftensionintheupperpartsofbeamsoversupportsandinthelowerpartsinthemidspan.

RELATEDARTICLES
Legislationandguidance
Scienceandconservation

RELATEDPRODUCTSAND
SERVICES
Concreterepairs

Steelhastheadvantageofhavingthetensilestrengththatconcretelacks,andishighlycompatibleinitschemicaland
physicalcharacteristicsaswewillseelater.Thematchingofthermalexpansioncoefficientsiscriticaltotheversatilityof
reinforcedconcrete.

DETERIORATIONMECHANISMS
Likemasonryandbrick,reinforcedconcretestructuresdeteriorateunderattackfromexternalelementssuchasfreezethaw
damage(theexpansionoffrozenmoisturewithinthestructureasitthaws),anderosion.Inacompositemanmadematerial
suchasconcretethereareadditionalmechanismscausedbythegreatercomplexityofitscomposition.Ofparticular
concerntodayisthealkalisilicareactionintheconcreteandthecorrosionofthereinforcingsteel,bothofwhichare
affectedbythealkalinityofPortlandcementconcrete.Portlandcementismadebyburningconstituentswhichincludelime
inakilnandgrindingtheresulttoafinepowder.Thisproducesahighlyalkalinematerialwhichreactswithwaterand
hardens.Whenitisaddedtocoarseandfineaggregateandmixedwithwater,thecementcombineswiththeaggregateand
hardenstoformconcrete.Thehardeningprocess(hydrationreaction)iscomplexandcontinuesovermanymonthsifnot
years,dependingontheamountofwaterinthemix.Theremustbeexcesswaterforworkabilityandaporenetwork
thereforedevelopsasitdriesout.Excesscalciumhydroxideandotheralkalinehydroxidesarepresentintheporesanda
solutionofpH12.0to14.0develops(pH7.0isneutralvaluesbelowindicateacidity,andalkalinityabove).Itisthispore
networkandthesolutionsitcontainsthatarecriticaltothedurabilityoftheconcrete.

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CathedralCommunications
Limited2010

ALKALISILICAREACTIVITY(ASR)
ASRoccursifthewrongaggregatesareusedinthemix.Somesilicaceousminerals,includingquartzesandopals,react
withwaterinahighalkalineenvironmenttoformsilicagel,amaterialusedtoabsorbmoisture.Assilicagelswellswhenit
absorbsmoisture,thematerialcancauseconcretetocrack,andwhite,weepingdepositsofsilicaappear.Inmanycases
ASRissuperficialandharmless,butitisunattractiveanddifficulttotreat.Themosteffectiveremedyistodryoutthe
structure.
ManyifnotmosttypesofconcreteincorporatesomematerialwhichissusceptibletoASR.Howeververyfewstructures
showsignsofsignificantASRdamage,asthereactiveaggregatecomponentswhichcausetheproblemareconsumedin
theprocess.ThoseareasoftheUnitedKingdomwhereASRisprevalentarenowwellknownandthequarriesresponsible
havebeenidentified.

CORROSIONOFREINFORCINGSTEEL
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AlthoughthealkalinitywithintheconcreteporestructurecanleadtoASR,thehighpHvaluealsoprovidesaprotective
coatingofoxidesandhydroxidesonthesurfaceofthesteelreinforcement.Withoutthislayer,whichisknownasa
'passive'film,thesteelwouldbeexposedtotheairandmoistureinthepores,leadingtorapidcorrosion.Itisthemain
chemicalreasonwhyreinforcedconcreteisadurableconstructionmaterial.Thelayerisdurableandselfrepairing,andit
canlastforhundredsofyearsifthealkalinityismaintained.However,thepassivelayeritselfcanbeattackedbychlorides
insaltandthealkalinityoftheconcretecanbereducedbyreactionwithatmosphericcarbondioxide,aprocessknownas
'carbonation'.

DETERIORATIONTHROUGHCARBONATION
Carbondioxide,whichispresentintheairinproportionsofaround0.3percentbyvolume,dissolvesinwatertoforma
mildlyacidicsolution.Unlikeotheracidsthatmaychemicallyattackandetchthesurfaceoftheconcrete,thisacidforms
withintheporesoftheconcreteitselfwherethecarbondioxidedissolvesinanymoisturepresent.Hereitreactswiththe
alkalinecalciumhydroxideforminginsolublecalciumcarbonate.ThepHvaluethendropsfrommorethan12.5toabout8.5.
Thecarbonationprocessmovesasafrontthroughtheconcrete,withapHdropacrossthefront.Whenitreachesthe
reinforcingsteel,thepassivelayerdecayswhenthepHvaluedropsbelow10.5.Thesteelisthenexposedtomoistureand
oxygenandissusceptibletocorrosion.
Concreteinsidethebuildingfrequentlycarbonatestotallywithoutanysignofdeteriorationastheconcretedriesout,leaving
thesteelexposedtoairbutnotmoisture.Problemsareseenexternallywhereconcreteisexposedtotheelementsandin
certainsituationsinternally,suchaskitchensandbathrooms,wheretheconcreteissusceptibletocondensationorwater
leakage.Externalfacadesareparticularlyvulnerable,especiallywherecladdingpanelshavepoorlyplacedhandlingsteel
thatisnearthesurface.Carbonationdoesnothavetopenetratefarandtheconcretequalitymaybeofpoorquality.

DETERIORATIONDUETOCHLORIDE
Saltcausescorrosionbyadifferentmechanism.Whendissolvedinwatersodiumchlorideformsaversatile,highly
corrosivesolutionofsodiumions(Na+)andchlorideions(Cl).Saltisusedfordeicingroadsanditspresenceinseawater
isamajorproblemforreinforcedconcretestructures.Theverymobilechlorideionsdispersethroughconcreteporesin
solutionandwheretheycomeintocontactwiththereinforcingsteeltheyattackthepassivelayer.Steeloxidisesinthe
presenceofairandwatertoformrustwhichhasavolumeofupto10timesthatofthesteelconsumed.Asconcretehasa
lowtensilestrengthitwillcrackwhenaslittleasatenthofamillimetreofsteelhasbeenconsumed.Horizontalcracks
form,causingcornersto'spall'andsurfacesto'delaminate'asthereinforcement'sconcretecoverbecomesdetachedand
fallsawayinsheets.Theconsequencecanbeseenontheundersideofroadbridgesandmanybuildingsandstructures
besidethesea.

THECORROSIONMECHANISM
Corrosionofsteelreinforcementoccursbyanelectrochemicalprocess
whichinvolvesexchangesofelectronssimilartothatwhichoccursina
battery.Theimportantpartofthemechanismistheseparationofnegatively
chargedareasofmetalor'anodes'wherecorrosionoccursandpositively
chargedareasor'cathodes'whereaharmlesschargebalancingreaction
occurs(Figure1).Attheanodetheirondissolvesandthenreactstoform
thesolidcorrosionproduct,rust.Therustisformedatthemetal/oxide
interface,forcingpreviouslyformedoxideawayfromthesteeland
compressingtheconcrete,causingittospall.

REPAIRTECHNIQUES
Ifcorrosionofsteelinconcreteissuspected,adeteriorationsurveymustbecarriedouttoidentifythecause,mechanism
andextentofcorrosion.Aninadequateinvestigationcanleadtohighercostsandinadequaterepairs.Therearecertain
testswhicharespecifictothecorrosionassessmentofsteelinconcrete,relyingontheelectrochemicalnatureofthe
corrosionprocess.Thesearehalfcellpotentialmeasurement,resistivitymeasurementandcorrosionratemeasurement.
Furtherexaminationofthesetechniquesisbeyondthescopeofthisarticle,andareadinglistisprovidedbelowforfurther
reference.

PHYSICAL
Theobviousthingtodowhenconfrontedwithcorrosiondamageistocutoutthedamagedareas,replaceanysteel
weakenedbysectionlossandputbackgoodqualityconcrete.Howeverthereareseveralproblemswiththisapproach:
cuttingouttheareaofdamagemayleavemanyareasthatareabouttocrackandspall
asaresultoftheelectrochemicalnatureofthecorrosionprocess,repairscanactuallyleadtoanaccelerationof
corrosioninadjacentareas,especiallywithchlorideinducedcorrosion,astheremovalofthecorrodinganodealso
causethelossoftheprotectivecathodesarounditandnewanodesformwhenthematerialisrenewed
therepairsmaybevisuallyintrusiveasitisverydifficulttomatchtheconcreteusedforrepairtothecolourandtexture
oftheoriginal,anditisalmostimpossibletogetthenewmaterialtoweatherinthesameway
extensiveconcreteremovalrequiressubstantialtemporarysupport,addingtothecomplexityoftheprojectaswellas
expense
coatingsandbarrierscanbeveryeffectiveiftheamountofchlorideatthedepthofthereinforcementisbelowthe
chloridethresholdorifthedepthofcarbonationislessthanthecoverdepth.Penetratingsealerssuchassiloxysilanes
havebeenshowntohelptodryoutconcreteifleaksarerepairedandtheamountofdirectwaterontheconcreteis
reduced.Thesearecolourlessandpenetratethesurfaceleavingtheappearanceunaffected.
However,silanesarenotsuitableforcarbonatedconcrete.Anticarbonationcoatingsmustbecrackbridgingsurface
coatingstokeepoutcarbondioxide.However,coatingsmembranesandsealersarealluselessifcorrosionhasalready
begunanddirectwaterimpingementisnotminimised.Coatings,penetratingcoatingsandbarrierscanalsobeeffectivein
slowingorstoppingASRbydryingouttheconcrete.

ELECTROCHEMICAL
Themovementofchargedionsandtheseparationof
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anodesandcathodesalongthesteelcreatessomeofthe
problemsbutalsooffersussomesolutionstothecorrosion
ofsteelinconcrete,ascorrosioncanbestoppedby
makingallthesteelacathode(Figure1).Thisisdoneby
puttinganexternalanodeonthesurfaceorembeddingitin
theconcrete(Figure2).TheDCpowersupply,knownasa
transformerrectifier,willthenpasscurrentbetweenthe
anodeandthereinforcingsteel.
Thiselectrochemicalrehabilitationapproachcanbeusedin
threedifferentways:cathodicprotectionelectrochemical
chloridemigrationor'desalination'andrealkalisation.

CATHODICPROTECTION(CP)

Inthisprocesstheanodes,powersupplyandcontrol
systemsarepermanent,andarangeofanodescanbe
used(Figures3and4).Theaggressiveanodicreactionis
isolatedtoacorrosionresistantanodewhiletheharmless
cathodicreactionoccursatthesurfaceofthesteel
reinforcement.Thisprocesscreatesadditionalhydroxyl
ions,rebuildsthepassivealkalinelayerandrepelschloride
ions.
CPhasbeenusedonhundredsofreinforcedconcrete
structuresaroundtheworldandhaspotentialforthe
conservationofhistoricbrickandstonemasonry,terracotta
andstatuarywheresteelandironhasbeenusedtoprovide
reinforcementorastructuralframe.

ELECTROCHEMICALCHLORIDEMIGRATION
(DESALINATION)
Thisprocessusesatemporaryanode,powersupplyand
monitoringsystemtoapply50voltsdirectcurrenttothe
steel.Thepositivechargerepelsthenegativelycharged
chlorideionsandrebuildsthepassivelayeroveraperiodof
fourtosixweeks.AlthoughlesswellproventhanCP,the
techniquehasbeenusedtosuccessfullytreatmorethan
50structuresintheUK,continentalEuropeandNorth
America.

REALKALISATION
Thissystemistheequivalentofdesalinationfor
carbonatedstructures.Itreliesontheprinciplethatthe
hydroxylionsproducedatthecathoderealkalisethe
concretefromthereinforcementoutwards.Thisislinked
withawetanodeatthesurfacethatcontainscalcium
carbonate,whichmovesunderelectroosmoticpressure
andrealkalisestheconcretefromthesurfaceinwards.
Therearemorethanonehundredrealkalisationprojects
completedintheUKandonthecontinent.Oneofthe
earliestwastherenovationoftheHooverFactorybeside
theM40atPerivale,NWLondon(seeillustrationattopof
page).
Thesespecialisttreatmentsrequireexpertadvicetocheck
thatthestructureissuitableandthatthebestsystemis
applied.Theremustbesteelcontinuity,separationbetween
steelandanodesandreasonableconcretequalitybefore
thesetechniquescanbeconsideredascosteffectiveand
technicallysoundforaparticularstructure.

CORROSIONINHIBITORREPAIR
TECHNIQUES
Arecentdevelopmentistheimpregnationwithchemical
corrosioninhibitorswhicharewidelyusedinthepower
generation,chemicalandmanufacturingindustries.
Recently,attemptshavebeenmadetointroducethese
chemicalsintohardenedconcrete.Ifsuccessful,then
thesecouldbegood,relativelysimplemethodsof
increasingthelifespan,reducingmaintenanceand
providinga'minimumintervention'methodofslowingor
stoppingcorrosion.

SUMMARY
Corrosionofsteelinconcretecanbeseentobea
significantproblemformanyreinforcedconcretestructures
ifmoistureispresent.Ifthereisnosalttocausecorrosion
intheshortterm,carbonationwillaffectmoststructures
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overthecenturies.Ifthestructurecannotbekeptdrythen
thereisarangeoftechniquesthatcanbeuseddepending
onthestructure,itsconditionandthecauseandextentof
theproblem.

Electrochemicaltechniquescanreducetheamountand
extentofpatchrepairs,andleavetheappearance
unchangedwithprobesembeddedintheconcreteora
surfacecoating,dependingonrequirementsandconditions.
Chemicalimpregnationwithcorrosioninhibitorsisalso
underinvestigationasafurtheroption.
Alkalisilicareactionisachemicalattackoftheaggregates
inthepresenceofthealkalinityoftheconcreteand
moisture.IftheconcretecanbekeptdrythenASRwillbe
minimised.MostASRdamageisunsightlyratherthan
structurallydangerous.

RecommendedReading
JPBroomfield,'AssessingCorrosionDamageon
ReinforcedConcreteStructures'inCorrosionandCorrosion
ProtectionofSteelinConcrete,EditedbyRNarayan
Swamy,SheffieldAcademicPress,1994
CathodicProtectionofReinforcedConcreteStatus
Report,ReportNo.SCPRC/001.95,Societyforthe
CathodicProtectionofReinforcedConcrete,London,1995
CCStanley,HighlightsintheHistoryofConcrete,British
CementAssociation,Crowthorne,Berks,1986
ConcreteSocietyTechnicalReports:
No26RepairofConcreteDamagedbyReinforcement
Corrosion,1994
No36CathodicProtectionofReinforcedConcrete,1989

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