Chapter 1: Introduction

Solar thermal power plants use the sun's rays to heat a fluid to high temperatures. The fluid is then
circulated through pipes so that it can transfer its heat to water and produce steam. The steam is
converted into mechanical energy in a turbine which is then converted into electricity by a
conventional generator.
Solar thermal power generation works essentially the same as power generation using fossil
fuels, but instead of using steam produced from the combustion of fossil fuels, the steam is
produced by heat collected from sunlight. Solar thermal technologies use concentrator systems to
achieve the high temperatures needed to heat fluid.
For thermodynamic reasons high temperatures are required to achieve the utmost
efficiency. Such high temperatures are reached by increasing the energy flux density of the solar
radiation incident on a collector.
A Solar Thermal Electricity generating system also known as Solar Thermal Power plant
is an emerging renewable energy technology, where we generate the thermal energy by
concentrating and converting the direct solar radiation at medium/high temperature (300C
800C). All solar thermal systems capture the energy of the sun by absorbing light as heat. Solar
thermal power systems focus sunlight, usually with mirrors, to heat a fluid to high temperatures
and drive an engine. With their high efficiency and the lowest power production costs of all solar
technologies, the technologically mature parabolic trough power plants in particular have
outstanding prospects for the future. The uninhabited deserts of North Africa alone could generate
many times the European power requirements. It will also contribute directly to the CO2 reduction
strategy. According to a Greenpeace study, the use of CSP (concentrated solar power) can prevent
154 million tons of CO2 emissions worldwide by 2020. This approach stands in contrast to
photovoltaic solar power systems, in which light interacts with special materials directly to
separate charges and generate electricity. Photovoltaic power enjoys many advantages, such as
unattended operation and small-scale feasibility, but remains significantly more expensive as a
source of large-scale power than solar thermal technologies. The modern era of large scale solar
power generation was born in Californias Mojave Desert in the 1980s, when Luz Industries built
1

a total of 354 MW of Solar Electric Generating System, or SEGS, power plants. The SEGS plants
use long parabolic mirrors with pipes at the focus point, where circulating oil is heated to 700 F
(350 C). The oil is pumped through heat exchangers which boil water to make high-pressure steam,
which drives turbine generators to make electric power. The ability to store energy as heat makes
solar thermal electric power particularly valuable, because energy can be stored when the sun is
shining and released for electricity generation when the power is needed most. Often peak
electricity demand extends well into the evening on hot summer days; solar thermal electric power
is uniquely able to deliver zero-carbon electric power to meet these demands. Solar plants can be
built to be dispatchable, gathering energy during daylight hours and releasing it during times of
peak demand. Solar technologies have the potential to be major contributors to the global energy
supply. The ability to dispatch power allows large-scale central solar technologies to provide 50%
or more of the energy needs in sunny regions around the world. Solar thermal power plant
technology is particularly efficient at high solar irradiation.
Computer systems manage the mirror positions, tracking the motion of the sun throughout
the day to maintain the focus point on the absorber. At night and during stormy weather, the
reflector units invert, exposing steel to the sky for maximal resistance to weather events such as
ice, hail and high winds. Solar power plants use a simple Rankine cycle system for power
generation from the steam collected by the solar field. Pipes in the absorber carry water which
boils and can reach over 545 degrees F (285 C) at about 70 times atmospheric pressure. This high
pressure steam drives a steam turbine generator, then is recondensed to water and used over and
over.

According to the type of solar radiation concentration, solar thermal power plants are subdivided
into:

Concentrating (point and line focussing) systems.

1. Solar tower power plants (i.e. Central receiver systems) as point focussing power plants,
2. Dish/Stirling systems as point focussing power plants
3. Parabolic trough and Fresnel trough power plants as line focussing power plants.

Non-concentrating systems.
1. Solar updraft tower power plants
2. Solar pond power plants
2

 Process of solar thermal power generation:

Concentrating solar radiation by means of a collector system;

Increasing radiation flux density (i.e. concentrating of the solar radiation onto a
receiver)

Absorption of the solar radiation (i.e. conversion of the radiation energy into thermal
energy (i.e. heat) inside the receiver);

Transfer of thermal energy to an energy conversion unit;

Conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy using a thermal

Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy using a generator.

Concentrating (point and line focussing) systems:a) Parabolic trough plants: - The solar field of a parabolic trough plant contains numerous
parallel rows of collectors that comprise parabolic curved dishes and concentrate sunlight onto
an absorber tube that runs along a focal line, thus producing temperatures of about 400 C. The
heat carrier here is circulating thermal oil which absorbs the generated heat and creates steam
at an approximate temperature of 390 C in a heat exchanger; the steam is then used to drive a
steam turbine and a generator to generate electricity as in conventional power plants. The
principal share of solar thermal power generation in Spain is currently supplied by numerous
parabolic trough plants each with a capacity of 50 MW, the majority of which have thermal
storage for about seven hours of operation without sun.

Fig 1.1: Parabolic Trough Plant

b) Fresnel collectors: - Long, only slightly curved, flat mirrors concentrate the solar radiation
onto a fixed absorber tube, thus directly heating and vaporising water. In comparison with the
parabolic trough, the investment outlay in terms of the reflecting surface is lower due to the
simpler basic concept; on the other hand, the comparative annual efficiency is lower. Two
Fresnel power plants with a total capacity of 31 MW have been put into operation in the
Spanish province of Murcia.

Fig 1.2: Fresnel collector

c) Solar towers: -In solar tower power plants, the solar radiation from hundreds of automatically
positioned dishes is concentrated on a central absorber at the top of the receiver. The
significantly higher concentration of sunlight than in parabolic trough collectors, for example,
also allows for higher temperatures of up to about 1,000 C. This allows for greater efficiency,
particularly when using gas turbines, and is therefore likely to lead to lower electricity costs.
The first commercial solar tower power plant in Europe, the PS10, which has an installed
capacity of 10 MW, was commissioned in 2007 in Seville, Spain; it was supplemented in 2009
with the PS20, a twin solar tower power plant. In mid-2011, the Gem solar tower power plant
was connected to the grid in the province of Seville. It has a capacity of 20 MW and uses a
thermal molten salt storage system that allows for up to 15 hours of storage at rated power,
thus providing electricity from solar energy around the clock during the summer months. In
October of 2013, a solar power plant with a capacity of 420 MW went on the grid in the USA,
and another with 120 MW is about to be commissioned.
4

Fig 1.3: Solar Towers

d) Dish / Stirling systems: - In dish/Stirling systems, a parabolic dish concentrates the solar
radiation onto the heat receiver of a downstream Stirling engine, which then converts the
thermal energy into mechanical power or electricity. Efficiencies of over 30 per cent are
achieved. There are prototype systems at the Platform Solar, for example, in Almeria, Spain.
These plants are particularly suitable as stand-alone systems. They also offer the possibility of
interconnecting several individual systems to create a solar farm, thus meeting an electricity
demand from ten kW to several MW.

Fig 1.4: Dish System

e) Solar Pond: - A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection and storage device of
solar energy. By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective of
time and season. In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated
water, being lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere. The net result is
that the pond

water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature.

The solar pond

technology inhibits this phenomena by dissolving salt into the bottom layer of this pond,
making it too heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot. The salt concentration increases with
depth, thereby forming a salinity gradient. The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond
remains entrapped there. The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in
the form of hot brine. The pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large tract of land
(it could be barren), a lot of sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or
bittern.

Fig 1.5: Solar Pond

f) Solar Updraft Tower: -The solar updraft tower (SUT) is a renewable-energy power plant for
generating electricity from solar power. Sunshine heats the air beneath a very wide greenhouselike roofed collector structure surrounding the central base of a very tall chimney tower. The
resulting convection causes a hot air updraft in the tower by the chimney effect. This airflow
drives wind turbines placed in the chimney updraft or around the chimney base to
produce electricity. Plans for scaled-up versions of demonstration models will allow significant
power generation.

Summarized five different types of solar-hybrid power plants with different sizes of solar
fields and different storage capacities are modeled and analyzed on an annual basis. These are as
follows:

Table 1.1: Concentration factors and technical parameters of selected solar thermal power
generation technologies.
Solar

Dish/

Parabolic

Fresnel

Solar

Solar

Tower

Stirling

trough

Collector

Pond

updraft
Tower

Typical

30-200

0.01-1

10-200

10-200

0.2-5

30-200

Real Capacity(MW)

10

0.025

80

0.3

0.05

Concentration Factor

600-1000

Up to

50-90

25-50

Capacity(MW)

3000
Efficiency in %

10-28

15-25

10-23

9-17

0.7-1.2

Operation Mode

grid

grid/

grid

grid

grid

Grid

island

Chapter 2: Potential of Solar Thermal Technology and its

Status in India
Solar thermal power generation or Solar Thermal Electricity (STE) generating systems are
emerging renewable energy technologies. It can be developed as a viable option for electricity
generation in future. Solar power can play an important role in a secure energy future for India as
the country becomes a hub for solar projects. Solar electricity is a clean and eco-friendly energy
solution for Sustainable Energy. Due to Indias progressively increasing economic growth, with
increasing population and its ever increasing energy demand, the need to harness electricity from
the renewable sources has become a necessity. As per the energy technology perspectives baseline
scenario 2010 of International Energy Agency, Indias primary energy use is expected to quadruple
during 2007 2050.Gross domestic product (G.D.P) is expected to increase eightfold, and CO2
emissions would increase by almost 5 times. Indias share in total global CO2 emissions is
projected to double from current 5 per cent to about 11 per cent. Solar thermal systems uses solar
energy by utilizing solar radiations to generate heat- as hot water, hot steam, hot air etc. that can
be made more effective for meeting numerous applications in various sectors such as power
generation, space heating, space cooling, community cooking, etc. These applications make use of
solar energy collectors as heat exchangers that transform solar radiation energy to internal energy
of the transport medium such as heat transfer fluid, usually air, water, or oil.
The solar energy thus collected is carried from the circulating fluid either directly to the hot water
or space conditioning equipment or to a thermal energy storage tank from which it can be drawn
for use at night and/or cloudy days. Solar thermal systems can be of two types: either nonconcentrating or concentrating types.
They may also be classified as stationary or with sun-tracking mechanisms, depending on the
application, temperatures required and economic viability.
India is world's 6th largest energy consumer, accounting for 3.4% of global energy
consumption. Due to India's economic rise, the demand for energy has grown at an average of
3.6% per annum over the past 30years.
In March 2009, the installed power generation capacity of India stood at 147,000 MW
while the per capita power consumption stood at 612 kWh. The country's annual power production
9

increased from about 190 billion kWh in 1986 to more than 680 billion kWh in 2006. The Indian
government has set an ambitious target to add approximately 78,000 MW of installed generation
capacity by this year. The total demand for electricity in India is expected to cross 950,000 MW
by 2030. This indicates that Indias future energy requirements are going to be very high and solar
energy can be one of the efficient and eco-friendly ways to meet the same. Solar thermal power
generation can play a significant important role in meeting the demand supply gap for electricity.
Three types of applications are possible:
1. Rural electrification using solar dish collector technology .Typically these dishes care of
10 to 25 kW capacity each and use striling engine for power generation. These can be
developed for village level distributed generation by hybridizing them with biomass
gasifier for hot air generation.
2. Integration of solar thermal power plants with existing industries such as paper, dairy or
sugar industry, which has cogeneration units. Many industries have steam turbine sets for
cogeneration. These can be coupled with solar thermal power plants. Typically these units
are of 5 to 250 MW capacities and can be coupled with solar thermal power plants. This
approach will reduce the capital investment on steam turbines and associated power-house
infrastructure thus reducing the cost of generation of solar electricity.
3. Integration of solar thermal power generation unit with existing coal thermal power plants.
The study shows that savings of upto 24% is possible during periods of high insolation for
feed water heating to 241 0C (4).

2.1 WORLD SCENARIO OF SOLAR ENERGY

A. Advanced International Policies Scenario (AIP)
The solar thermal heating and cooling sector today is experiencing steady growth in
industrialized countries with mainly small scale applications. In future the extension to large scale
applications for heating and cooling is expected and this thereby will help to increase the energy
share rapidly. After 2030, a peak of growth will have been reached due to a reduced need for
heating and cooling installations. The reduction is based on the assumption that by that time a
greater level of energy efficiency performance in buildings will limit the growth.

10

It means that if energy systems are restructured with improved efficiency as a guiding principle,
then within a few decades the demand for thermal energy in the buildings sector will no longer
grow substantially. This particularly limits the demand for thermal energy from solar sources and
from biomass as well as geothermal sources for heating demand over the medium term shown in
Table, as:

Table 2.1: Expected annual growth rates for solar thermal

AIP

2001-2010

2010-2020

2020-2030

2030-2040

16%

16%

14%

7%

B. World Status
In percentage of total publications, it is seen that five leading countries USA
(19.71%), China (11.59%), Germany (10.56%), Japan (9.8%), and India (6.15%) together
contribute 58% in the total publications, which is increasing trend in the research output
(publications) in the emerging areas of solar photovoltaic research. A smaller percentage
of research publications from India are in collaboration with other countries, largely USA,
Germany, Japan, and South Korea. We further analyze the publications from India vs.
world in terms of solar energy technologies.
Both solar photovoltaic and solar thermal technologies namely; Mono crystalline solar
cells, Polycrystalline solar cells, Amorphous solar cells, Thin films cells, Concentrating
PV,, Parabolic trough, Solar power tower, and Parabolic dish are selected as keywords for
the search. The status of world solar potential is represented by figure 1.

11

Fig 2.1: View of World solar energy potential

Fig 2.2: Pictorial view of Indias DNI resource at 10 km resolution

12

2.2 INDIAS POWER SCENARIO

The India Energy Portal estimates that around 12.5% of Indias land mass, or 413,000 km2,
could be used for harnessing solar energy. This area could be further increased by the use of
building-integrated PV. Though large-scale CSP (concentrated solar power) has not yet been
deployed in India, one study has estimated that this technology alone could generate 11,000 TWh
per year for India. In addition to Indias potential for widespread deployment of solar technologies
to supply electricity across the country, India also has the potential to significantly reduce
electricity demand through increased deployment of solar water heaters (SWH), which can be
deployed on rooftops in the built environment. Although India already has a strong solar cell
production industry, until now, there has not been a high demand for them in the domestic market.
India announced the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission for accelerating solar electricity
growth in 2010. A target of achieving 20,000 MW of solar electricity by 2022 has been set. Indias
current electricity installed capacity is 135 401.63MW. Currently there is peak power shortage of
about 10 % and overall power shortage of 7.5%. The 11 th plan target was to add 100 000 MW by
2012 and MNRE had set up target to add 14500 MW by 2012 from new and renewable energy
resources out of which 50 MW would be from solar energy. The Integrated Energy Policy of India
envisages electricity generation installed capacity of 800 000 MW by 2030 and a substantial
contribution would be from renewable energy. This indicates that Indias future energy
requirements are going to be very high and solar energy can be one of the efficient and eco-friendly
ways to meet the same. Indias DNI resource at 10 km resolution shown in Fig 2.
India is located in the equatorial sun belt of the earth, thereby receiving abundant radiant
energy from the sun. The India Meteorological Department maintains a nationwide network of
radiation stations, which measure solar radiation, and also the daily duration of sunshine. It can be
observed that although the highest annual global radiation is received in Rajasthan, northern
Gujarat and parts of Ladakh region, the parts of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
also receive fairly large amount ofradiation as compared to many parts of the world especially
Japan, Europe and the US where development and deployment of solar technologies is
maximum.RPO (Renewable purchase obligation) is one of the tools which have been implemented
by many countries to achieve their ambitious RE goals. In India, state electricity regulatory
13

commissions (SERCs) determine the obligated entities, which generally include distribution
companies, captive consumers, and any open-access users. Due to significant cost difference in
solar and non-solar RE technologies, most of the states have come up with their separate targets
for solar electricity
Table 2.2: State-wise distribution of installed solar capacity as on 31st of
(November, 2012)

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2.3 CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM

Solar Thermal Power systems uses concentrated solar radiation as a high temperature
energy source to produce electricity using thermal route. The average operating temperature of
stationary non-concentrating collectors is low (max up to 120 0 C) as compared to the desirable
input temperatures of heat engines (above 300 0 C) thus the concentrating collectors are used for
such applications. These technologies are used for applications where direct solar radiation is high.
The hot thermic fluid is used to generated steam or hot gases, and then is used to operate a heat
engine. In these systems, the collectors efficiency reduces marginally as its operating temperature
increases, whereas the heat engines efficiency increases with the increase in its operating
temperature.

Table 2.3: Solar Thermal Projects

1. Solar Thermal Power Plant of 50kW capacity has been installed by
MNES following the parabolic trough collector technology (line focusing) at Gwalpahari,
Gurgaon, which was commissioned in 1989 and operated till 1990, after which the plant was
shut down due to lack of spares.
2. A Solar Thermal Power Plant of 140MW at Mathania in Rajasthan has been proposed and
sanctioned by the Government in Rajasthan. The project configuration of 140MW Integrated
Solar Combined Cycle Power Plant involves a 35MW solar power generating system and a
105MW conventional power component and the GEF has approved a grant of US$ 40 million
for the project. The Government of Germany has agreed to provide a soft loan of DM 116.8
million and a commercial loan of DM 133.2 million for the project
3. A commercial power plant based on Solar Chimney technology was also studied in NorthWestern part of Rajasthan. The project was to be implemented in five stages. In the 1st stage the
power output shall be 1.75MW, which shall be enhanced to 35MW, 70MW, 126.3MW and
200MW in subsequent stages. The height of the solar chimney, which would initially be 300m,
shall be increased gradually to 1000m. Cost of electricity through this plant is expected to be
Rs. 2.25 / kWh. However, due to security and other reasons the project was dropped.

15

4. BHEL limited, an Indian company in power equipment manufacturing, had built a solar dish
based power plant in 1990s as a part of research and development program of then the Ministry
of Non-conventional Energy Sources. The project was partly funded by the US Government.
Six dishes were used in this plant.

5. 140 MW ISCC plant with 35 MW solar capacity.

16

Chapter 3: Requirements, Challenges, Advantages and

Disadvantages
3.1 Key Requirements for Concentrating Solar Power Plants
CSP plants need:

Financing The primary barrier to utility-scale solar power is project financing. The 2008
economic crisis severely restricted the private sector capital that is typically used to finance
renewable energy projects. Commercial banks today simply do not have enough appetite
for long-term, low interest debt to finance construction of every project in the queue.

Areas of high direct normal solar radiation In order to concentrate the suns energy,
it must not be too diffuse. This feature is captured by measuring the direct normal intensity
(DNI) of the suns energy. Production potential in the U.S. Southwest stands apart from
the rest of the U.S.

Contiguous parcels of land with limited cloud cover A CSP plant operates most
efficiently, and thus most cost-effectively, when built in sizes of 100 MW and higher.
While land needs will vary by technology, a typical CSP plant requires 5 to 10 acres of
land per MW of capacity. The larger acreage accommodates thermal energy storage.

Access to water resources Like other thermal power plants, such as natural gas, coal
and nuclear, some systems require access to water for cooling. All require small amounts
of water to wash collection and mirror surfaces. CSP plants can utilize wet, dry, and hybrid
cooling techniques to maximize efficiency in electricity generation and water conservation.

Available and proximate transmission access CSP plants must be sited on land suitable
for power generation with adequate access to an increasingly stressed and outdated
transmission grid. Access to high-voltage transmission lines is key for the development of
utility-scale solar power projects to move electricity from the solar plant to end users. Much
of the existing transmission infrastructure in the Southwest is at full capacity and new
transmission is urgently needed.

17

3.2 Striking Challenges

1) Inexpensive Alternatives
The most obvious is competition with abundant and inexpensive coal. Until more nations
begin taxing carbon emissions, especially the United States and China, the cost of coal-fired plants
will remain economical. Every ten days another coal power plant is built in the Peoples Republic.
Obviously, such growth will have a natural cap, but currently such expansion and consumption is
severely impacting global climate change. With the development and advancement of solar
thermal, the rapid growth of China and other industrializing nations will hopefully be diverted
away from coal.

2) Attenuation
Whether accompanied with this benefit or not, usually we have to concentrate the solar
radiation in order to compensate for the attenuation of solar radiation in its way to earths surface,
which results in from 63,2 GW/m2 at the Sun to 1 kW/m2 at Earths surface. The higher the
concentration, the higher the temperatures we can achieve when converting solar radiation into
thermal energy.

3) Cost
Large scale conversion to solar around the world will not occur until solar is the cheaper
alternative, and industry leaders hope to reach that point within a decade.

4) Land Requirement
Another challenge for solar thermal is the amount of space required for efficient production
of energy. Not only space, but space that gets a consistent amount of direct sunlight. Solar thermal
power plants typically require 1/4 to 1 square mile or more of land. One silver lining of global
climate change and human impact on the land is that more and more farmland is becoming
unsuitable for agricultural production. This land, presumably originally chosen for its sun
exposure, begs to be used for solar thermal energy production. Utilization of desertification can
prove to be a boon for solar thermal real estate procurement and growth.

18

3.3 Advantages
The Main Advantages of This are as follows:

Solar thermal electric power collectors provides a practical, scalable solution to one of the
greatest challenges of our times.

It can provide reliable, night and day electric power at market prices without carbon
emissions.

It has availability that closely matches human energy requirements by hour and by season.

It uses less land than coal mining and transport.

It is quick to implement.

It is available widely around the planet, not just in a few countries.

It has enormous primary energy resource which is inexhaustible over time.

A potential advantage of solar thermal systems is the ability to produce electricity when
sunlight is weak or unavailable by storing solar heat in the form of molten salt.

Solar energy is a clean and renewable energy source.

Once a solar panel is installed, solar energy can be produced free of charge.

Solar energy will last forever whereas it is estimated that the worlds oil reserves will last
for 30 to 40 years.

Solar energy causes no pollution.

Solar cells make absolutely no noise at all. On the other hand, the giant machines utilized
for pumping oil are extremely noisy and therefore very impractical.

Very little maintenance is needed to keep solar cells running. There are no moving parts in
a solar cell which makes it impossible to really damage them.

In the long term, there can be a high return on investment due to the amount of free energy
a solar panel can produce, it is estimated that the average household will see 50% of their
energy coming in from solar panels.

19

3.4 Disadvantages
1. Solar panels can be expensive to install resulting in a time-lag of many years for savings
on energy bills to match initial investments.
2. Electricity generation depends entirely on a countries exposure to sunlight; this could be
limited by a countries climate.
3. Solar power stations do not match the power output of similar sized conventional power
stations; they can also be very expensive to build.
4. Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar powered devices can be used at night.
The batteries can often be large and heavy, taking up space and needing to be replaced
from time to time.

20

Chapter 4: CSP vs. Photo-Voltaic Panels

There are two main kinds of solar energy:

Solar photovoltaic (PV) directly converts solar energy into electricity using a PV cell made
of a semiconductor material.

Concentrating solar power (CSP) devices concentrate energy from the suns rays to heat
a receiver to high temperatures. This heat is transformed first into mechanical energy (by
turbines or other engines) and then into electricity solar thermal electricity (STE).

Over the period 200011, solar PV was the fastestgrowing renewable power technology
worldwide. Cumulative installed capacity of solar PV reached roughly 65 gigawatts at the end of
2011, up from only 1.5 GW in 2000. In 2011, Germany and Italy accounted for over half the global
cumulative capacity, followed by Japan, Spain, the United States and China.
Concentrated solar power is a reemerging market. Roughly 350 megawatts (MW) of
commercial plants were built in California in the 1980s; activity started again in 2006 in the United
States, and Spain. At present, these two countries are the only ones with significant CSP capacity,
with respectively about 1 GW and 500 MW installed, and more under construction or
development.

4.1 Technology
Concentrated Solar Thermal systems (CSP), are not the same as Photovoltaic panels; CSP
systems concentrate radiation of the sun to heat a liquid substance which is then used to drive a
heat engine and drive an electric generator. This indirect method generates alternating current (AC)
which can be easily distributed on the power network.
Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels differ from solar thermal systems in that they do not use the
suns heat to generate power.

Instead, they use sunlight through the photovoltaic effect to

generate direct electric current (DC) in a direct electricity production process.

The DC is then

converted to AC, usually with the use of inverters, in order to be distributed on the power network.

21

4.2 Energy Storage and Efficiency

CSP systems are capable of storing energy by use of Thermal Energy Storage technologies (TES)
and using it at times of low or no sunlight, e.g. on cloudy days or overnight, to generate electric
power. This capability increases the penetration of solar thermal technology in the power
generation industry as it helps overcome intermittency problems; usually due to environmental
fluctuations.
PV systems, on the other hand, do not produce or store thermal energy as they directly generate
electricity and electricity cannot be easily stored (e.g. in batteries) especially at large power
levels.
Thus CSP systems are far more attractive for large scale power generation as thermal energy
storage technologies are far more efficient than electricity storage technologies; CSP systems can
produce excess energy during the day and store it for usage over the night, thus energy storage
capabilities can not only improve financial performance but also dispatch ability of solar power
and flexibility in the power network.

4.3 Investors Perspective

Energy markets consider three main factors in deciding on power sources: cost of energy,
ancillary services and power dispatch-ability on demand. Obviously, in a recently long-shaken and
uncertain global economic environment,

energy investors consider

competitive cost of

energy the most important issue. That is why in 2011 in the US we have seen a sudden shift from
planned CSP power plants being converted to Photovoltaic (PV) this trend continues in 2012.
As long as energy price of PV plants is less than the Energy price of equivalent CSP, and continue
to decline, PV will remain a preferable solution over CSP for energy investors. CSP systems will
need to demonstrate high performance in all three attributes, competitive thermal-energy-storage
costs, energy dispatch-ability and reliability as an ancillary solution, in order to remain attractive
and competitive against Photovoltaic panels.
It has been stated by energy market players that PV systems constitute a more proven
technology which can be built easier, at lower cost and at much shorter time than CSP plants,
which, to the contrary, need more space for large-scale applications and are associated with
22

greater risks (e.g. higher investment, challenges with thermal storage, cooling).

Moreover,

PV panels have demonstrated a substantial price drop, claimed to be in the rage of 30%-40%
(for the past couple of years) and some expect they will continue to drop. Only in the US,
according to market data and research, a total capacity of approximately 3000 MW (3 GW)
has been converted from CSP-to-PV solar plants. Some of these conversions include the 500
MW project of solar trust & Solar Millenium and the 709MW and 850MW projects of
Tessera-SES (Imperial Valley and Calico respectively).

4.4 Integration for solar Power Penetration

Although diminishing PV costs and uncertain energy market conditions currently favor
photovoltaic installations, as already mentioned, comparison between PV and CSP will
continue to be controversial; in fact, it may be that the two solar energy technologies may no
longer compete; instead, in the future they may work together to increase solar energy
penetration into the power industry. According to latest research activity at the US National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL http://www.nrel.gov) it is suggested that TES in
Concentrated Solar Thermal Plants can increase the penetration of solar or wind power
(intermittent renewable energy technologies) in to the power industry.

What this actually

means is that CSP with capabilities of Thermal Energy Storage can be used as a
complementary solution to overcome intermittency issues of other renewable energy
technologies as solar Photovoltaic panels (PV) and Wind turbines. Both of these technologies
are greatly influenced by the unpredictability and instability of environmental conditions,
placing their reliability, as power generation solutions, rather limited.

Integration of CSP and TES systems with PV or Wind turbines can help address demand load
curve issues (see shaving the Demand curve in Renewable Energy Facts: Energy storage is
key for RES penetration into Power generation) and achieve cost savings from reduction of
ancillary services (spinning reserves). Thus CSP with TES may not necessarily be perceived
as a competitor of PV systems but as a complementary enabler for large scale PV installations.

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Chapter 5: Future Perspective

Solar energy is an enormous resource that is readily available in all countries throughout the
world, and all the space above the earth. Long ago, scientists calculated that an hours worth of
sunlight bathing the planet held far more energy than humans worldwide could consume in a year.
I firmly believe that India should accelerate the use of all forms of renewable energy (photovoltaic,
thermal solar, solar lamps, solar pumps, wind power, biomass, biogas, and hydro), and more
proactively promote energy efficiency. However, in this article, I will only focus on the use of
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technology to meet Indias future energy needs.

Concentrated solar power plants have been used in California since the 1980s. More recently,
Pacific Gas & Electric has signed contracts to buy 500 megawatts of solar thermal power from two
solar companies. First, NextEra Energy Resources will sell 250 megawatts of CSP generated
power from the Genesis Solar Energy Project to be located in Riverside, Calif. Second, Abengoas
Mojave Solar project will supply the remaining 250 megawatts from a plant located in San
Bernardino County, Calif. Subject to California Public Utility Commission approval of the power
purchase agreements, construction of these solar energy generating plants is expected to start in
2010 with operations planned to begin in 2013. Both these solar thermal power projects will
contribute to meeting Californias aggressive Renewable Portfolio Standard, which calls for
moving away from fossil fuels to solar and other renewable energy sources that avoid pollution.
In addition to California, the sunny state of Arizona has become home to the worlds largest Solar
Plant. Solana (which means a sunny place in Spanish) solar power generating station is
scheduled to begin operation in 2012, harnessing Arizonas most abundant renewable energy
resource the sun. This plant (located 70 miles southwest of Phoenix) has a projected capacity of
280 megawatts, and will make use of Abengoa Solars CSP technology.

The vast Rajasthan Desert is very similar to the Sahara desert in Africa, and has the
potential to become the largest solar power plant in India. Due to high levels of available sunlight,
CSP plants in Rajasthan could begin satisfying most of Indias energy needs in just a few years.
Indias potential benefits from solar power are as numerous as the sands of Rajasthan desert, and
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include reduced dependence on fossil fuels and a cleaner environment. These benefits can be
realized by installing renewable energy technologies, such as CSP, to protect the environment
while diversifying energy resources and helping to lower prices. Solar power can also reduce strain
on the electric grid on hot summer afternoons, when air conditioners are running, by generating
electricity where it is used. India has optimal conditions to use CSP to harness solar energy from
the Rajasthan Desert. However, to take advantage of this innovative technology, potential CSP
plant sites must be identified and deployment accelerated. Specifically, India needs to heavily
subsidize Solar and Wind Power projects just like Japan, Germany and other European nations are
doing. The use of renewable energy has great potential to create more jobs in India especially in
the rural areas.

Solar power is an enormous readily available source of energy. It can be used everywhere,
and can, in principal, satisfy most of Indias energy demand from a renewable, safe and clean
resource. Concentrating solar collectors are very efficient and can completely replace the
electricity traditionally produced by fossil fuel power plants. CSP plants in the 30 MW to 200 MW
range are now operating successfully in locations from California to Europe. Nearly every day
now, new CSP plants are being planned for construction. Todays CSP plants supply the heat
needed to generate electricity at a cost equivalent to $50 $60 per barrel of oil. This cost is
expected to be slashed by 50% to below $25 $30 per barrel in the next 10 years.
India should begin creating a mainstream solar energy market with the goal of making solar power
cost-competitive with fossil fuel-generated electricity. One step toward achieving this goal would
be to start a nationwide solar initiative of building 10 million solar roofs within ten years. It has
often been said that it is not a question of if, but when solar power becomes cost-competitive with
traditional electricity sources. With the right programs and policies today, India can have a great
deal of control over how rapidly solar power becomes cost-competitive. And, by getting in on the
ground floor of this new technology, India can also create millions of jobs in renewable energy.

Indias solar energy holds great promise. India must accelerate its investment in renewable
energy resources, specifically solar and wind energy. The U.S.-India Energy Dialogue, which
facilitates discussions on renewable energy and energy efficiency, can be a very useful tool to
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spark investments in solar energy. This can lay the foundation for an energy independent future
one in which the Government of India takes advantage of the vast amounts of energy available
from the Rajasthan Desert sun (instead of oil from the Arab nations) to power its future energy
needs. In addition, solar energy would not only create millions of jobs, but also sustain Indias
positive economic growth, help lift its massive population out of poverty and combat climate
change.

Indias Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) journey under the ambitious Jawaharlal Nehru National
Solar Mission (JNNSM) started in 2010 with a total of seven projects being awarded, amounting
to a total capacity of 470 MW. Four years have passed since Phase 1 and, to date, only one project
(50 MW Godawari Green Energy) out of the seven was commissioned before the March 2014.

The reasons for delays are many:

Insufficiently accurate Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) data.

Expensive financing leading to very difficult financial closure.

Unclear future of government subsidies.

Difficulty securing land and water.

The need for a local manufacturing.

The tight profit margins and even tighter time limitations.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has approved
Indias largest solar project as part of its emissions trading scheme.
The Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) latest project is a 100MW concentrated
solar power (CSP) installation to be constructed in Rajasthan. Despite countless delays in the
construction process India-based Reliance Power will complete the project under Phase 1 of the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM), Indias renewable energy programme. Seven
projects were awarded under Phase 1. A total of 470MW of CSP projects, out of which 320MW
of projects were delayed forcing the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) to extend
the deadline to next year. As a large, emerging economy, India faces big challenges relating to
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energy and climate change. On the one side, the country has hundreds of millions of people without
access to electricity and an economy demanding more energy to power growth. The countrys
National Solar Mission set a goal of increasing production of photovoltaic electricity to 1,000MW
per year and deploying at least 1,000MW of solar thermal power generation with an overall aim
of making solar energy competitive with fossil-based energy. The JNNSM has set the country a
target of installing 20,000MW of grid connected solar power by 2022.

5.1 Solar developments

Experts say this could be the last major CSP project in India. The technology requires large
capital investment and interest appears to be fading around the world, with Desertecs demise the
most high profile casualty of this transition. In India, ten developers constructing projects worth
315MW have also decided to change technologies due to the drop in price for PV.

5.2 The project

The project, located in Dhursar, Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan, is expected to generate 2.15
million carbon credits during the initial 10 years of operations. The installation is expected to
sell power from the plant to the grid at Rs. 11.97 ($0.20) per kWh for ten years. The total
project cost is estimated to be Rs. 158 crore (approximately $29 million) and was part financed
by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the US Export-Import Bank. ADB loaned
Reliance $103 million. Including the current registration, the company claims a total renewable
energy portfolio of 1,000MW.

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Conclusion
Solar thermal power plants are a technically feasible option to supply a significant fraction of the
world energy demand. Though current cost of electricity produced by solar thermal power plants
is still high, there is a large potential for cost reduction in a medium to long term. A lot of money
is currently invested to develop improvements and innovations that will achieve a significant cost
reduction, thus making reduction of public subsidies possible. Resource assessment, technological
appropriateness and economic feasibility are the basic requirement of project evaluation. The solar
radiation is available sufficiently over the country. The solar tower power and point focusing dish
type plants are being popular worldwide. In the pulp and paper industry, the moderate temperature
is required for processing; and solar energy can effectively generate this amount of heat. The solar
energy based power generating systems can play a major role towards the fulfillment of energy
requirements of industry.

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