Lecture 10

Image removed due to copyright considerations.

See "Nasa jet smashes speed record," BBC News UK Edition, 28 March 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3575561.stm.

Image removed due to copyright considerations.

"A series of photographs showing the growth of time of the fireball produced
by an atomic-bomb explosion in New Mexico." Originally published in Life Magazine, 1945.

Problems

Figure 5.18
0

0.5

1.5

1.O

M, =

4
2.0

2.445

U/C,

Mass flux as a function of

M,, for a perfect gas with
y = 1.40.

In terms of M,, the normalized mass flux becomes, from (5.62),

PU
y
= M*(
P*U*

+ l

-y

- 1

li(y

- l)

(5.65)

'ch is shown in Fig. 5.18. This illustrates the maximum at M =

= 1. For low Mach numbers, the curve rises as a straight line,
&.espondingto the linear increase i mass flux with speed for incorn*
-I I \ / ( * , - 111 the, mass flux is

A//-.

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.26 Spring 2004 Final Project
Suggested Topics for the Final Course Project
These course projects are designed to allow you to pursue in greater depth a topic related to
compressible ows. The course project will consist of a written report and an oral presentation
( 15 minutes). You may work in groups or individually. Please let me know by the end of next
week (Friday, April 9) the topic of your project and the names of the people in your group. It is
important to remember that this is a technical paper. It must include some technical analysis related
to compressible ow and may include a discussion of physical phenomena, theories, experiments
and/or outstanding questions in the eld.
Some suggested topics are listed below you may also choose a topic not listed that runs closer
to your own interests.

Review of a classic paper You may use an important paper in compressible ow as the
backbone of your project. The project must include a complete summary of the important
points of the paper and a brief review of the important references therein. An outstanding
project will also include an analysis that goes beyond the analysis in the paper. This might
include a numerical analysis of parameter space not included in the original manuscript, use
of theory in a design project, etc. Some good candidates for papers include:
Coleman and Mizel, Existence of caloric equations of state in thermodynamics. J.
Chem. Phys. 40 (1964) 11161125.
G. I. Taylor, The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion. (Parts I &
II). Proc. Royal Soc. A, 201 (1950).
Many, many other papers are listed in the bibliography in Thompson.
Whither supersonic ight? Recall all the fastest planes were built 3040 years ago (an eternity
on a technical time scale). Why is this? What technical and economic factors are driving the
development of supersonic ight? Remember this must be a technical paper. Your analysis
must include some technical calculations related to issues involving supersonic ight and/or
design.
Granular Flows Understanding processing and transport of granular is becoming increasingly
important in many industries including pharmaceuticals and ceramics. Currently our un
derstanding of these systems is limited, and even the fundamental equations of motion are
unknown. To devise a continuum model for these systems, it is necessary to include the eects
of compressibility as variations in density play an important role in these ows.
Rocket nozzles The design of an eective rocket nozzle requires conguring an expanding high
temperature ow so as to maximize thrust and minimize weight. How do these designs work
and what are the important supporting technologies?

Scramjet (supersonic combustible ramjet) What are they? How do they work? Is this the
next big thing in supersonic ight?
Expansion of cooling gases RankHilsch tubes (vortex tubes) and JouleThompson refrigera
tors rely on the tendency of gases to cool when they are expanded. Such devices nd signif
icant technical application when modest amounts of cooling are desired without the use of
complex mechanical systems. How do these systems work? What are the performance limits
of these systems?
Explosions and explosives Explosions are often regarded as strong shock waves. They may arise
from combustible gas mixtures, dustladen gases, solid materials and shaped charges and other
reactive media. What are the important technical aspects of explosions and explosives, and
how do explosions dier from simple shock waves?
Sonoluminescence and other thermoacoustic phenomena. Intense sound waves, when focused in
a resonating chamber, can lead to substantial localized heating. In sonoluminescence, sound
waves are focused on a gas bubble and the energy is converted into light.
RichtmyerMeshkov instability in shock fronts The contact surface between a strongly ac
celerated uid and the one it advances into can be unstable.

http://www.engr.arizona.edu/newsletters/AESpring02/microgravity.html
Focused implosions In some situations, such as inertial connement fusion and highexplosive
triggers for atomic bombs, it is desired to create a spherically imploding shock wave. The
original studies of such problems date from the Second World War.
Similarity transformations of the compressible boundary layer During much of the 20th
century, compressible boundary layers could be analyzed only by analytical techniques. Con
sequently, signicant eort was put into the development of boundary layer similarity transfor
mations that account for variations in density and other physical properties. Most textbooks
focus only on incompressible transformations (Blasius or FalknerSkan). Catalog the various
compressible boundary layer transformations (Howarth, Illingworth, CohenReshotko, and
many others), and determine how well their assumptions track experimental data.

Term paper: 2.26 Compressible Fluid Dynamics, Spring 2004

Similarity transformation methods in the analysis of the two

dimensional steady compressible laminar boundary layer
Yeunwoo Cho
Angelica Aessopos
Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

The system of equations in a steady, compressible,

laminar boundary layer is composed of four fundamental
equations. Those are: the continuity equation, the
momentum equation, the energy equation, and the
equation of state. The solutions of these equations,
when solved simultaneously for a 2-dimensional
boundary layer, are: the velocity in the x and y direction
( u and v ), the pressure (p) and the density ( ). The
system of equations is a system of partial differential
equations (PDE) and is usually difficult to solve.
Therefore, sophisticated transformation methods, called
similarity transformations are introduced to convert the
original partial differential equation set to a simplified
ordinary differential equation (ODE) set. The solutions of
this ordinary differential equation set are usually
nondimensionalized velocities and temperature. By
principle, these ordinary equations are coupled
mathematically and usually can be solved by numerical
methods. However, with further appropriate assumptions
related to the transport properties (e.g. Prandtl number),
and flow conditions (e.g. Mach number, geometry
around flow), these ODEs can be uncoupled
mathematically or can have simpler forms, almost similar
to the forms obtained from the incompressible boundary
layer analysis. (e.g. Blasius solution, Falkner-Skan
equation). Hence, the simplified ODE set makes it
possible to get the solution from the already existing
solutions of the incompressible analysis and also
reduces the computing time in the numerical analysis.

The system of equations in the incompressible boundary

layer with forced convection, is a PDE system composed
of the continuity, the momentum, and the energy
equations. These simultaneous equations can be
reduced to two ODEs using similarity transformation. In
this case, continuity equation and momentum equation
are reduced to a single ODE and energy equation is
reduced to another ODE.

In this paper, three different transformation methods will

be described. A detailed derivation of the generalized
(Levy-Ilingworth) transformation method and the
appropriate assumptions made during the derivation will
be explained. The Howarth transformation and the
Illingworth-Stewartson transformation will be described
briefly.

(1)

Compared with the incompressible boundary layer

analysis, the effect of compressibility on the entire
velocity and temperature field should be considered. As
a result, the system of equations in compressible
boundary layer is a more complicated PDE system,
composed of the continuity equation, the momentum
equation, the energy equation and an equation of state.

SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS OF COMRESSIBLE

BOUNDARYLAYER
The system of governing equations to be solved for a
two-dimensional,
steady,
compressible,
laminar
boundary layer without body forces and bulk heat
transfer is as follows:
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Continuity equation

( u ) + ( v) = 0
x
y

Momentum equation

u (0) = 0

1 P 1 u
u
u

+
=
+v
x y y
y
x
P
=0
y

(2)

v(0) = v( x)

h
=0
y

(5)

At the edge of the boundary layer, the viscous flow

inside the boundary layer is required to smoothly
transition into the inviscid flow outside the boundary
layer.

u ( y ) U e ( x), h( y ) he ( x)

(6)

where, the subscript e represents condition at the edge

of the boundary layer.

Energy equation
2

h
h u P 1 1 h u
+ (3)
u
+v
=
+
x
y x Pr y y y

NONDIMENSIONAL FORM OF THE EQUATIONS

Introducing the non-dimensional variables:

u
v=
Ue
h
h=
=
he

u=
An equation of state

p = RT

h(0) = h( x)

(4)

where,
x : Direction along the surface creating the boundary
layer
y : Direction normal to the surface
u : Velocity in the x direction
v : Velocity in the y direction
: Density
p : Pressure
: Viscosity
: Kinematic viscosity
p : Pressure

h : Enthalpy
R : Gas constant
Comparing the energy equation (3) to the energy
equation (A.47) used in incompressible boundary layer
with forced convection shown in Appendix.4, the first
term in the energy equation in (3) is retained, which is

u P
. The second term on
the compressive work term
x

the right hand side of the energy equation represents the

diffusion of heat transferred to the fluid or generated
within the fluid. The third term represents the heat
generated due to viscous stresses within the fluid, i.e.,
viscous dissipation.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
These boundary conditions at the surface, i.e., y = 0
are given by the no-slip velocity condition with or without
mass transfer or heat transfer.

v
Ue

y=

y
L

P=

P
e U e2

x=

x
L

(7)

(8)

then, the original equations (1)~(4) become:

( u ) ( v )
+
=0
x
y

(9)

u
u
1 P
1 u

+v
=
+
x
y
x Re y y

u P 1 1 h
h
h

+v
= ( 1) M e2
+
x
y
x Pr Re y y

( 1) M e2
+
Re

u
v
y

(11)
where,

Re =

eU e L
: Reynolds number
e

( 1) M e2 =

Cp
Cv

Me =

U e2
he

: Specific heat ratio

Ue
: Mach number
c

(10)

C p : Specific heat at constant pressure

H = h+

C v : Specific heat at constant volume

In the non-dimensional energy equation (11), the first
term, i.e., the work due to compression and the third
term, i.e., the heat generated by viscous dissipation
become increasingly important as the Mach number of
the external flow increases.

BASIC ASSUMPTONS IN THE COMPRESSIBLE

BOUNDAY LAYER
In the PDE system composed of equations (1)~(4), the
influence of compressibility is first contained directly in
the density terms in the continuity equation (1), and
more indirectly as a variable coefficient in the
momentum equation (2) and energy equation (3). The
second influence of compressibility is to produce
temperature variations that are too large to permit the
assumption of constant properties and k .
It is common to use the energy equation written in terms
of enthalpy h in compressible problems instead of k as
shown in the energy equation (3), in which the Prandtl
number (Pr) is shown instead of k =

c p
Pr

. Therefore,

the added complexity with compressible, laminar

boundary layer problems is centered on variable , ,
and Pr.
From an equation of state, the density is a function of
temperature and pressure, i.e., = (T , P ) . However,
the pressure is assumed constant across the boundary
layer. Therefore, the density can be assumed to be a
function of temperature only, i.e., = (T ) . The
viscosity also can be assumed to a function of
temperature only, i.e., = (T ) . Finally, the Prandtl
number (Pr) is assumed nearly constant for most gases
over a wide range of temperature.

DERIVATION OF GENERALIZED SIMILARITY

TRANSFORMATION (ILLINGWORTH-LEVY OR
LEVY-LEE TRANSFORMATION)
The derivation of a generalized similarity transformation
is from the procedure adopted by Li and Nagamatsu [1]
and is well summarized in [2].
ENERGY EQUATION IN TERMS OF ENTHALPY
The energy equation can be rewritten in terms of the
total enthalpy.

u2
2

(13)

where,
u : the velocity along the streamline
Using equation (13), the energy equation (3) becomes:

u
H
H
u
+v
u u
+ v =
x
y
y
x
2

u
1 H u
P
u
+ +
u
Pr y y y y
x
y
(14)
The pressure gradient term in the energy equation (14)
can be eliminated by multiplying the momentum
equation (2) by u and adding the result to the energy
equation (14). This results in:
2
1 u
H
H
u
+v
= 1 + u
u
x
y Pr y
y y

1 H

Pr y y

(15)
EQUATIONS IN TERMS OF STREAM FUNCTION
For the similarity transformations and the corresponding
similar solutions, the compressible stream function can
be defined by:

= u
y

= v
x

(16)
(17)

Equation (16) and (17) automatically satisfy the

continuity equation (1). Then, the momentum equation
(2) and energy equation (15) become:

1 1

y x y x y y
P 1

+
=
x y y y

(18)

or integrating:

H H

y x
x y

U ( x)
(27)
= e
dy
2
N ( x) 0

1
1
1
1

+
= 1

y y y y
Pr y y
N (x) will be determined from the transformed

1 H

+
Pr y y

momentum and energy equations.

FIRST FORM OF TRANSFORMED EQUATIONS

(19)

Introducing equations (23), (24), and (27) into the

momentum equation (18) and energy equation (19)
results in:

VARIABLE TRANSFORMATION
Dependent variable transformation
From the experience with the incompressible boundary
layer equations, the dependent variable transformations
are introduced as follows:

( x, y ) = N ( x) f ( , )
u ( x, y ) = U e ( x) f ( , )
H ( x, y ) = H e ( x) g ( , )
where, the subscript

(20)
(21)
(22)

indicates partial differentiation.

The form of the enthalpy transformation (22) states that

the compressible boundary layer is expected to be
similar with respect to a non-dimensional total enthalpy
profile rather than the static enthalpy or temperature
profile, as in the case for the incompressible constantproperty boundary layer.
Independent variable transformation
Independent variable transformations are introduced as
follows:

= (x)
= ( x, y )
Relation between independent
variable through trnasformation

(23)
(24)
and

dependent

From the definitions of the stream functions in (16) and

(17):

= N ( x)
f ( , ) = u = U e ( x) f ( , ) (25)
y
y
which results in:

U e ( x)
=

y
N ( x)

(26)

N
1 dP
U2
( f ) + x Uff U x ( f ) 2
2
N
U dx
N
= U x ( f f f f )

(28)

N
U
H e ( g ) + x H e Pr fg Pr H e , x f g +
2
N
N
(29)
3
U
(Pr 1) 2 ( f f ) = H e x ( f g f g )
N
where, the subscripts
differentiations.

, and x indicate partial

SIMPLIFIED FORM OF TRANSFORMED EQUATIONS

Chapman - Rubesin viscosity assumption
In the equations (28) and (29), the density and the
viscosity, always appear in the form except in the
pressure gradient term. This leads to the assumption of
a Chapman-Rubesin viscosity law, with w = 1 in
equation (A.3) as shown in Appendix 1. Using the
conditions at the edge of the boundary layer as
reference condition results in:

= C , ( = 1)
e
Te
which, from

(30)

P
= 0 and the equation of state:
y

= C e e

(31)

Substituting this result (31) into equations (28) and (29)

results in:

N
1 dP
U2
e e (Cf ) + x Uff U x ( f ) 2
2
N
U dx
N
= U x ( f f f f )
(32)

SIMILARITY CONDITIONS
From equations (34) and (35), the similarity conditions
are:

N
U
H e e e (Cg ) + x H e Pr fg Pr H e , x f g +
2
N
N
3
U
(Pr 1) 2 e e (Cf f ) = H e x ( f g f g )
N
(33)

Condition (1)

NN x
= const
C e eU e

(36)

Condition (2)

Linear viscosity law assumption, similar assumption,

and iso-energetic assumption
The coefficient C ( ) in equation (31) can vary through
the boundary layer. However, the constant C
assumption is made, and is evaluated at the surface
conditions, e.g., using the Sutherland viscosity law in
Appendix 1.
The flow is assumed to be similar, in other words,
f = f ( ) and g = g ( ) such that the right hand side
of the momentum equation (32) and energy equation
(33) become zero.
Finally, it is assumed that the total enthalpy at the
boundary layer edge is constant, i.e., H e , x = 0 . This
iso-energetic assumption of the inviscid flow at the edge
of the boundary layer, i.e., H e ( x) =constant, is not

U e2
restrictive. Since H e = he +
, both the static enthalpy
2
and the velocity can vary along the edge of the boundary
layer. From the fact that the stagnation enthalpy is
constant across a shock wave, the iso-energetic flow
assumption is reasonable when the shock wave is not
significantly curved
From these assumptions, equation (32) becomes
following (34) by replacing pressure gradient term using
Eulers equation at the edge of the boundary layer, i.e.,
U x = (1 / eU e )(dP / dx) :

f +

where, the prime denotes ordinary differentiation with

respect to .

NN x
N 2U x
ff +
C e eU e
C e eU e2

f 2 = 0 (34)

N 2U x
C e eU e2

2
e

NN x
U
g +
Pr fg = (1 Pr)
( f f )
C e eU e
He

U e2
= const or Pr = 1
He

(38)

Simplification from Condition (1)

If the constant in condition (1) is the unity, then, in the
absence of a pressure gradient, the momentum equation
(34) reduces to the Blasius equation in Appendix.2. In
addition, comparing equation (35) with the energy
equation (A.91) for forced convection in Appendix.5, by
choosing the constant in condition (1) as unity, the
differential equation (35) for the compressible boundary
layer with unit Prandtl number has the same form as that
for the incompressible boundary layer with an isothermal
wall. Therefore, the constant in condition (1) is chosen
as unity as follows:

NN x
=1
C e eU e

(39)

Rearranging and integrating of equation (39) results in:

x

N ( x) = 2 C e eU e dx

(40)

Using equation (40), equation (27) becomes:

Ue
x

2 C e eU e dx
0

(35)

(37)

Condition (3)

and, the equation (33) becomes:

f 2 = function of only

Since,

= (x) and:

dy

(41)

= C e eU e dx

(42)

results in:

U e ( x)
2

dy

(43)

From the above simplifications, the final governing

equations are:

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0

(48)

g + Pr fg = (1 Pr)( f f )

(49)

where,

The transformations given in (42) and (43) are called the

Illingworth-Levy transformation.

Simplification from condition (2)

For the case of

H e = const. , using the definition of

g ( ) in equation (22) and the definition of the stagnation

( 1) M e2
1 2
1+
Me
2

ASSUMPTION FOR THE EXISTENCE OF SIMILAR

SOLUTION

enthalpy:

Power law variation in the Mach number

h u2
u2
+

h+
he 2he
H

2
g ( ) =
=
=
He
U e2

u2
he +
1 +

2
2he

Similar solutions of the equations (48) and (49) exist if

(44)

follows:

can be written in terms of the external Mach number

by

U2
g e f 2

2he

(45)

Finally, from the constant pressure assumption across

the boundary layer,

U e2
e
h
2
2
( g f 2 )

f =
f = 1 +

he

2he
H
= e (g f 2 )
he

Simplification from condition (3)

Condition (3) can be written as follows:
2
e

U
=
He

U
he +

2
e
2
e

U
2

( 1) M
1 2
1+
Me
2

differentiating

(46)

and

evaluating dh e / d using the fact that the stagnation

enthalpy is constant at the edge of the boundary layer.

dM e U e dU e U e2 dhe
( 1) M e
=
2
d
he d
2he d
1 dU e H e
= ( 1) M
U e d he

(51)

and

1 dU e H e
1 dM e
=
U e d he
M e d

(52)

From equations (51) and (52), equation (50) becomes:

(47)

d ln M e
2 dM e
= 2
M e d
d ln

= constant

(53)

Integrating the equation (53) results in

2
e

FINAL FORM OF TRANSFORMED EQUATIONS

[( 1) / 2]M e2 = U e2 / 2he

2
e

then, the term in condition (2) becomes:

N 2U x H e
( g f 2 ) = ( g f 2 )
2
C e eU e he

(50)

is constant.

Since, u / U e = f , equation (44) can be written as

h U e2
= 1 +
he 2he

2 dU e H e 2 dU e 1 2
Me
=
1 +
U e d he U e d
2

M e = (const )

(54)

Therefore, the similarity requirement for the momentum

equation (48) is satisfied by a power law variation of the

Mach number in the transformed plane. In addition, the

similarity requirement is satisfied by an exponential
Mach number variation, which is shown by Li and
Nagamatsu [1] and Cohen [2].
Other assumptions
Furthermore, in order for similarity conditions in
equations (48) and (49) to exist, one of the following
assumptions must also be satisfied:
(1)

=1

(3) Pr = 1
(4) M e = const

f (0) = 0

(55a, b)

The equation (55a) represents the mass transfer normal

to the surface. This equation is obtained by
differentiating the stream function, equation (20), with
respect to x , using the definition of N (x) given by the
equation (40) to evaluate

v( x) = 0

= 2 , i.e., M e

The assumption (1), i.e.,

gases.

2 v( x)
= const
wU e ( x)

N x and the Chapman-

Rubesin viscosity law to rearrange the result. In addition,

for similar solutions to exist, f (0) must be constant.
This implies that:

(2) M e = 0

(5)

f (0) =

=1

is unrealistic for most

The assumption (2), i.e., M e = 0 neglects both the

viscous dissipation and the compressive work terms in
the energy equation. If it is further assumed that there is
no heat transfer at the surface, the M e = 0 assumption
states that the static temperature through the boundary
layer is constant. However, since the static temperature
in the boundary layer should vary from the surface
temperature to the static temperature at the boundary
layer edge, the M e = 0 assumption is less realistic than
the unit Prandtl number assumption.
The assumption (3), i.e., Pr = 1 states that the
stagnation enthalpy or temperature for zero heat transfer
at the surface is constant through the boundary layer.
This result is close to the true adiabatic wall stagnation
enthalpy variation, which is slight.
The assumption (4), i.e., M e = const corresponds only
to the flat plate ( = 0 ) in equation (54). However, for
small values of the pressure gradient parameter, , the
constant external Mach number assumption is sufficient.
The assumption (5), i.e., M e leads to the

hypersonic flow assumption, i.e., = 2 . This

approximation is less than five percent in error at the
external Mach number of ten. In addition, it allows the
investigation of the effects of constant but non-unit
Prandtl number on the heat transfer at the surface.

or

v( x) =

wU e ( x)
2

(56a, b)

Here, as for the Falkner-Skan equation in Appendix 3,

negative values of f (0) correspond to mass transfer
from the surface to the fluid, i.e., injection or blowing,
and positive values of f (0) correspond to mass
transfer from the fluid into the surface, i.e., suction.
The boundary condition related to the energy equation
is:

g (0) = g w = const or g (0) = 0

(57a, b)

Outer boundary conditions

The outer boundary conditions are

f ( ) 1 g ( ) 1

(58a, b)

SOLVING EQUATIONS
Similar solutions for equations (48) and (49) subject
these boundary conditions (55)~(58) can be obtained
according to the following cases. The results are
summarized in Appendix 6. In all the bellow cases, the
fundamental equations are transformed to equations
similar to the fundamental equations governing the
incompressible boundary layer.
Case 1: Low Speed Compressible Boundary Layer
with Variable Properties

= const , M e = 0, Pr = const
M e = 0 means neglecting the viscous dissipation and

Boundary conditions at the surface

compressive work in the energy equation and is

acceptable when the right hand side of equation (49) is
small compared to the left hand side of equation (49).

The boundary conditions required at the surface for

similar solutions to exist are:

The boundary value problem for this case can be written

as follows:

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0

(59)

g + Pr fg = 0

(60)

with boundary conditions

f (0) = 0

f (0) = f w = const

(61)

g (0) = g w = const or g (0) = 0

(62)

f ( ) 1 g ( ) 1

(63)

Since,

Case 1.2 Uncoupled-equations ( = 0, f (0)

plate without mass transfer at the surface)

= 0 : Flat

For this case, momentum equation (59) reduces to

Blasius equation in Appendix 2. Further, energy
equation (60) has the same functional form as the
energy equation governing the incompressible constant
property forced convection thermal boundary layer
without viscous dissipation, i.e., equation (A.62) in
Appendix 4. In particular, the solution of equation (A.62)
for arbitrary but constant Prandtl number is

g ( ) = 1 (1 g w )1 ( )

h( )
1 2
M e ( g f 2 )
= g ( ) +
he
2
From equation (64),

(64)

M e = 0 case results in

h( )
= g ( )
he
Solution g ( ) of equation (60) represents nondimensional static enthalpy profiles through the
boundary layer or non-dimensional temperature profile
for a constant specific heat at constant pressure ( c p ).
Further, from equation (50)

= (2 / U e )(dU e / d )

Therefore, integration yields

U e = (const )(2 ) 2 = (const ) x

= (const ) x m (65)

where,

m /(2 )
: same as , i.e., Falkner-Skan pressure gradient
parameter in Appendix 3.
Coupled-equations

where,

1 ( ) : non-dimensional solution given by equation

(A.66) in Appendix 4
Case 1.3 Another uncoupled-equations - Adiabatic
wall
For an adiabatic wall, i.e., g (0) = 0 integrating
equation (60) twice and using the boundary condition
g (0) = 0, g ( ) 1 results in g ( ) = 1 .
For zero Mach number, the static enthalpy is constant
through the boundary layer. Equation (62) is analogous
to the Busemann and Crocco integrals, which are,
however, restricted to Pr=1. Using Equation (62), the
momentum equation becomes
(67)

This equation (67) is the Falkner-Skan equation in

Appendix 2.

d = C e eU e dx

(66)

f + ff + (1 f 2 ) = 0

and, from equation (42)

Case1.1

equations in this case has no known analytical solution.

This boundary value problem needs numerical methods.

case (Nonzero heat

transfer and 0 )
Due to the variable properties included in the solution,
the momentum and energy equations are coupled.
When there is heat transfer at the surface, the given

Although the non-dimensional momentum and energy

equations are mathematically uncoupled, physically they
are still coupled through the transport properties.
Considering the independent variable transformation for
, from equations (43) and (46), the physical dimension
y becomes:

2 x C U
0 e e e

y=
0
U e

1/ 2

d =

2
eU e

2
eU e

H
J 2 + e J 1
he

2
eU e

e
d

He
2
( g f 2 ) d
1 (1 f ) +
he

(68)

From the Blasius equation f + ff = 0 , if ( f + A) is

multiplied to the Blasius equation, where A is some
constant, and add that result to the energy equation
g + fg = 0 in equation (67), the result becomes:

Where,

J 1 = ( g f 2 ) d
0

J 2 = (1 f 2 )d

( g + Af ) + f ( g + Af ) + f ( f + ff ) = 0

Case 2: Compressible Boundary Layer on a Flat

Plate

(g +

= 0, M e = const , Pr = const

Integrating once:

In the external inviscid flow,

U e , e and Te are constant,

equation (59) reduces to the Blasius equation in

Appendix 2.

f + ff = 0

(69)

The governing differential equations (69) and (49) are

uncoupled. Since, the governing equations are
uncoupled, they are integrated sequentially in a manner
similar to that used for the incompressible constant
property forced convection boundary layer in Appendix 4.
And, the boundary conditions are again given by
equations (61), (62), and (63).

Af ) + f ( g + Af ) = 0

( g + Af ) = (const )e 0

(71)
(72)

fd

(73)

Using the boundary condition in equations (61), (62),

and (63) at the surface ( = 0 ) yields g w = (const ) =0
for the isothermal surface.
After integrating equation (73)
equations (61), (62), and (63):

again

g + Af = (const ) = g w

and

using

(74)

Case 2.1 Pr=1 and Adiabatic wall

The constant A is evaluated from the boundary condition

at infinity, equation (63).
Finally,

Equation (49) reduces to

g + ( g w 1) f = g w

g + fg = 0

(70)

A specific integral of this form of the energy equation

(62) for zero heat transfer at the surface, i.e., adiabatic
wall is g ( ) = 1 . However, since here M e 0 , g ( ) is
the ratio of stagnation enthalpies instead of the ratio of
static enthalpies. Therefore, in this case, the stagnation
enthalpy is constant through the boundary layer. Further,
the adiabatic wall condition is g aw = g (0) = 1 . This
means that for the unit Prandtl number, the stagnation
enthalpy at the surface is equal to the stagnation
enthalpy at the edge of the boundary layer. Since, the
velocity is zero at the surface, for constant specific heat,
the adiabatic wall temperature is equal to the stagnation
temperature of the fluid at the boundary layer edge,
which means, consequently, the unity recovery factor.
This physical meaning is that the conversion of kinetic
energy into thermal energy at the surface through the
viscous dissipation is as efficient as the conversion of
kinetic energy into thermal energy through the action of
pressure forces in the inviscid flow at the boundary layer
edge. This particular integral of the energy equation is
called the Busemann energy integral.
Case 2.2 Pr=1 and Isothermal wall

g w = const

Equation (75) is called the Crocco integral.

(75)

g aw = 1 and

g ( ) = 1 is a solution of the energy equation (75) for

unit Prandtl number.
Case 2.3( Pr

1)

The energy equation g + Pr fg = (1 Pr)( f f ) is

a linear non-homogeneous second order ordinary
differential equation with variable coefficients. The nonhomogeneous term is a known forcing-function that is
physically attributed to heat addition due to viscous
dissipation. Since, the governing equation is linear, a
solution is obtained as the sum of a complementary
solution of the homogeneous equation and a particular
solution of the non-homogeneous equation.

g = K + KG1 + G2

(76)

where, G1 ( ) is the solution of the homogeneous

boundary value problem, i.e. with original boundary
conditions:

G1 + Pr fG1 = 0
G1 (0) = 1 G1 ( ) 0

(77)
(78)

where, G 2 ( ) is the solution of the non-homogeneous

boundary value problem with homogeneous boundary
conditions:

G2

or

+ Pr fG 2 = (1 Pr)( f f )

G2 (0) = 0 G2 ( ) 0

(79)
(80)

From the comparison of equations (A.62) & (A.63) in

Appendix 4 with equations (77) & (78), G1 ( ) = 1 ( ) .
Therefore, G1 ( ) is given by equation (A.66) in
Appendix 4.

Comparing equations (A.64)&(A.65) in Appendix 4 with

equations (79)&(80) reveals that the non-homogeneous
terms are different. By using the method of variation of a
parameter or an integrating factor,

G2 ( ) =
=

f 2
+ Pr ( f ( )) Pr ( f ( )) 2 Pr d d

=
0
2

1
( f 2 1) + 2 ( )
2

(81)

where,

2 ( )

g (0) = 0 = 1 (0)[(1 g aw ) + ( 2 (0) 1 / 2)] (83)

: non-dimensional solution given by equation

(A.71).
The constants K and K in equation (76) are evaluated
using the boundary conditions equations (61), (62), and
(63).

g aw = 1 + ( 2 (0) 1 / 2)

(84)

Case 3: General Similar Compressible Boundary

Layer with Unit Prandtl Number

= const , M e = (const )

, Pr = 1

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0

(85)

g + fg = 0

(86)

with boundary conditions

f (0) = f w = const

f (0) = 0

(87)

g (0) = g w = const or g (0) = 0

(88)

f ( ) 1 g ( ) 1

(89)

This is the same non-dimensional boundary value

problem governing the low speed
( Me = 0 )
compressible boundary layer, i.e., case 1. However,
here the non-dimensional dependent variable g is the
ratio of stagnation enthalpies

H / H e rather than h / he .

The complete solution is therefore

This means that in this case 3, the effects of viscous

dissipation are included.

g ( ) = 1 (1 g w )G1 ( ) + (G2 ( ) G2 (0)G1 ( ))

Case 3.1 Adiabatic wall

= 1 (1 g w )1 ( ) + ( 2 ( ) 2 (0)1 ( ))
+

( f 2 + 1 ( ))

(82)
When = 0 , equation (82) reduces to equation (66)
obtained for M e = 0 .
From

= ( 1) M e2 /[1 + (( 1) / 2) M e2 ] ,

the effects

of viscous dissipation on the enthalpy profile are

significant when the external Mach number is significant
as shown in Figure A.4 in Appendix 6. As increases
the maximum enthalpy ratio in the boundary layer
increases. This is a result of the conversion of kinetic
energy within the boundary layer into thermal energy
through viscous dissipation.
By differentiating the equation (82) and setting the result
to be zero, adiabatic wall temperature can be obtained
as follows.

For zero heat transfer at the surface, an explicit integral

of equation (60) subject to equations (61), (62), and (63)
is g ( ) = 1 . This shows that, for an adiabatic wall, the
stagnation enthalpy is constant through the boundary
layer. Therefore, for zero heat transfer at the surface,
the internal heat generated due to viscous dissipation in
the velocity field and the heat transferred by diffusion
and conduction in the temperature field interact in a
precise manner to maintain the stagnation enthalpy
constant throughout the boundary layer. This result is a
consequence of the unit Prandtl number assumption. As
g ( ) = 1 , the non-dimensional momentum equation
reduces to the Falkner-Skan equation in Appendix 3.
Therefore, the nondimensional momentum and energy
equations are uncoupled.
Case 3.2 Non-zero heat transfer at the surface case
When there is heat transfer at the surface, the given
equations in this case has no known analytical solution.
This boundary value problem was studied numerically by

Cohen [2], Levy [3], Li & Nagamatsu [1], Cohen &

Reshotko [4], and Rogers [5].

OTHER SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATIONS

Case 4: Similar Hypersonic Compressible Boundary

Layer

HOWARTH TRANSFORMATION

= const , M e , Pr 1

Howarth transformation here is a restricted form of the

transformation similar to the one due to Howarth [7] and
the following derivation is adopted from ([2][8]).

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0

(90)

g + Pr fg = 2(1 Pr)( f f )

(91)

with boundary conditions

f (0) = f w = const

f (0) = 0

(92)

g (0) = g w = const or g (0) = 0

(93)

f ( ) 1 g ( ) 1

(94)

For the cases 1 to 3, under certain conditions, the

boundary value problem for the compressible boundary
layer could be reduced to an equivalent incompressible
boundary layer problem. However, this is not possible
for the present case 4. This is because the stagnation
enthalpy is not constant through the boundary layer
even for an adiabatic wall ( g ( ) = 1 is not an integral of
the energy equation). Thus, since, 0 , the
momentum equation (90) cannot be reduced to the
Falkner-Skan equation in Appendix 3. Therefore, the
functions f ( ), f ( ) and f ( ) required in the
energy integrals, equations (A.66) and (81), depend on
g ( ), g ( ) and g ( ) because of the coupling
between the momentum and energy equations, (59) and
(91). Because of this coupling, the energy integrals
cannot
be
evaluated
except
by
successive
approximations using the incompressible Falkner-Skan
solutions to begin the approximation. Therefore,
numerical method should be used to get the exact
solution.

RELIABILITY
OF
THE
TRANSFORMATION METHODS

SIMILARITY

Experimental data presented in Figure A.6 in Appendix 6

suggest that the proposed transformations predict the
velocity and enthalpy of the system with high accuracy
(e.g. velocity profile for the compressible boundary layer
on an adiabatic flat plate)
It should be noted, however, that real life applications
are most likely to deviate from one of these four
categories presented above. The need for numerical
simulation is then becoming essential for more accuracy.
However, the analytical approach is critical as it provides
the essential framework on which the numerical
approximations are built.

Introducing the compressible stream function defined by

v
=
and
=
r
r
y
x

(95)

where, the subscript r indicates some reference

condition.
Independent variable transformations are:

= (x)

= ( x, y )

(96)

, which are subject to the condition u = .

The particular functional forms chosen for the
independent variable transformations are based on the
equivalent forms for incompressible flow with restriction
u = which is also based on the incompressible
results.

y =

y
y

=
y r

which, yields the required

transformation for , i.e.

independent

dy

(97)
variable

(98)

The formal transformation equations are

=
y r

(99)

= x
+x

(100)

Transform of the momentum equation

Using equations (99) and (100), the transformed
momentum equation becomes:

x ( ) =

1 P 1
+
( ) (101)
x r2

Using the Chapman-Rubesin viscosity law with w=1 in

Appendix 1, i.e.

=C
r
Tr
and from

(102)

P / y = 0 , and using the equation of state,

= C r r

(103)

then, equation (101) becomes

x ( ) =
If C =constant, then with

( ) =

1 P
+ r (C )
x

1/ 2

(104)

h h =

x = C , i.e., = Cx ,

1 r 1 P
+ r
C r x

(105)

energy

equation

into

1 r
1 P
1
( h )
+

C
r x C Pr r2

1
( ) 2
2
C r

(110)
Introducing the Chapman-Rubesin viscosity law in
Appendix 1 and assuming that C r r is constant,

h h =

1 r
1 P r

+ h + r ( ) 2
C
r x Pr

(111)
In the absence of a pressure gradient, equation (105) is
equivalent to the energy equation governing forced
convection flow over a flat plate at zero-incidence.
STEWARTSON-ILLINGWORTH TRANSFORMATION

( , ) = (2U ( ) )1 / 2 f ( )

Assuming that unity Prnadtl number, constant c p , and

(106)

( f ) + f ( f ) = 0
The transformed boundary
impermeable surface are

f (0) = f (0) = 0

f ( ) 1

Transform of the energy equation

Transformation
of
the
, coordinates yields

Except for the factor (1 / C )( r / ) in the pressure

gradient term, equation (105) has the same form as the
momentum equation governing incompressible constant
property boundary layer flow. When the pressure
gradient is zero, i.e., for a flat plate at zero-incidence,
equation (105) has exactly the same form as the
incompressible constant property momentum equation.
In the absence of pressure gradient, the similarity
transformations developed for the incompressible
boundary layer flow yield the Blasius equation in
Appendix 2, i.e.

U ( )
=

for compressible boundary layer flow is uncoupled from

the energy equation. Formally this is true. However,
determining the physical coordinate, y , from the inverse
of equation (98), requires a knowledge of the density
distribution in the boundary layer and therefore the
solution of the energy equation. Thus, the momentum
and energy equations for compressible boundary layer
flow, even in the absence of a pressure gradient, are still
technically coupled.

(107)
conditions

for

an

the viscosity linearly related to the temperature,

Stewartson and Illingworth have independently shown
that there exists a transformation from a compressible
flow boundary layer, to a related incompressible flow
boundary layer ([4][8]).
A stream function that satisfies the continuity equation
is:

(108)
(109)

where, the prime denotes differentiation with respect to

.
Therefore, the solution of the momentum equation for
the compressible variable property boundary layer in the
absence of pressure gradient is reduced to the solution
of an equivalent incompressible constant property
equation, i.e., the Blasius equation in Appendix 2. In the
absence of a pressure gradient, the momentum equation

u
=
y
0

(112)

v
=
x
0

(113)

The energy and momentum equations are transformed

to new coordinates X and Y such that:

X = C
0

Y = C
0

Pe a e
dx
P0 a 0

(114)

e
dy
0

(115)

where, a means sonic speed and subscript 0

represents some reference state.

SUMMARY

The enthalpy function S is defined as:

S=

he
1
h0

(116)

The stream function is replaced by the transformed

velocities U and V through following relations.

V =
X
U=

(117)

REFERENCES

In order to reduce this system into a system of ordinary

differential equation, the following relations are
assumed:

= AX aU ep f ( )
Y = BX bU eq
S = S ( )

(119)
(120)
(121)

where, A, B, a, b, p, and, q are undetermined variables.

U e = CX m or U e = C exp(C 2 X )

(122)

Then, the system of ODEs corresponding to the powerlaw velocity distribution of equations my be written:

f + ff = ( f 2 1 S )

[1] Li, T.Y., and Nagamatsu, H.T., Similar solutions of

compressible boundary layer over a flat plate with
suction or injection, JAS, Vol.22, pp.589-597, 1955
[2] David F. Rogers, Laminar flow analysis, Cambridge
University Press, 1992
[3] Cohen, C., Similar solutions of compressible laminar
boundary layer equations, JAS, Vol.21, pp.281-282,
1949
[4] Levy, S., Effect of large temperature changes
(including viscous heating) upon laminar boundary
layers with variable free-stream velocity, JAS, Vol.21,
pp.341-348, 1952
[5] Cohen, C.B., and Reshotko, E., Similar solutions for
the compressible laminar boundary layer with heat
transfer and pressure gradient, NACA TR 1293, 1956

Possible similar solutions are possible if:

where,

With the increased complexity of the equations of motion

for compressible (variable-density), variable-property
flows, it was natural to seek ways of rigorously extending
the material at hand for constant-density, constantproperty flows to those cases. Ways were sought to
transform a compressible boundary layer problem into
an equivalent incompressible problem. The existing
solutions could then be transformed back to a solution
for the original compressible problem. This procedure
ended in success with some assumptions. We
discussed three examples, e.g. the Illingworth-Levy
transformation, the Howarth transformation and the
Stewartson-Illingworth transformation.

(118)

Equations (112)-(118) are applied to the momentum and

energy equations and a new set of equations is
obtained. It assumed that the pressure is constant along
the boundary layer and that wall temperature is
constant.

S + Pr fS = (1 Pr)

2m
: Pressure gradient
m +1
U
u
=
= f : Velocity ratio
U e ue

(123)

( 1) M e2
( f f + f 2 ) (124)
1 2
1+
Me
2

[6] Rogers, D.F, Reverse flow solutions for compressible

laminar boundary layer equations, Phys. of Fluids, Vol.
12, pp. 517-523, 1969
[7] Howarth, L., Concerning the effect compressibility on
laminar boundary layers and their separation, Proc. Roy.
Soc. London Ser. A, Vol. 194, pp. 16-42, 1948
[8] Stefan Schreier, Compressible flow, Wiley, 1982
[9] A.D. Young, Boundary layers, Oxford, 1989

OTHER SOURCES
[1] O.A. Oleinik, V.N. Samokin, Mathematical models in
boundary layer theory, Chapman&Hall/CRC, 1999
[2] Josep A. Schetz, Boundary layer analysis, PrenticeHall, 1993
[3] Herrmann Schlichting, Klaus Gerstan, Boundarylayer theory, Springer, 2000
Image removed due to copyright considerations.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1.
PROPERTIES

VARIATION OF TRANSPORT

The transport properties of importance in a viscous

compressible flow are the viscosity, the thermal
conductivity, the specific heat at constant pressure, and
the Prandtl number which is the combination of the first
three properties.

Figure A.1. Absolute viscosity of certain gases and

liquids

VISCOSITY
From monatomic gas theory, the viscosity of gases
depends only on the temperature and is independent of
the pressure. Experimental measurements confirm that
this result is essentially correct for all gases. For gases,
the viscosity increases with increasing temperature. In
contrast, the viscosity of liquids depends on both
temperature and pressure and decreases with
increasing temperature.

Image removed due to copyright considerations.

Sutherland viscosity law

Experimental measurements of the viscosity of air are
related with temperature by the Sutherland equation:

T
=
r Tr

3/ 2

Tr + S1
T + S1

(A.1)

S1 =198.6 R
Tr =491.6 R

= C
r
Tr

r = 3.58 10 (lb sec/ ft )

2

Therefore, for air,

= 2.270

T 3/ 2
10 8 (lb sec/ ft 2 )
T + 198.6

Chapman-Rubesin viscosity law

Because of the complexity of Sutherland equation,
approximation formula based on the empirical equation
called Chapman-Rebesin viscosity law is used instead.

For air between 180 R and 3400 R ,

Figure A.2. Power law viscosity relationship

(A.2)

Figures A.1 and A.2 show the absolute viscosity of

certain gases and liquids and the power law viscosity
relationship respectively [2].

(A.3)

A simple and useful case of the Chapman-Rubesin

viscosity law occurs when C=1 and w=1 in equation
(A.3). With these values, and using the surface as the
reference condition,

= w ( x)

T
Tw ( x )

For an isothermal wall, this reduces to

 = (const )T
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
The thermal conductivity of gases k also depends only
on the temperature and is independent of pressure. The
variation of the thermal conductivity of air with
temperature is the same as that of the dynamic
viscosity.

APPENDIX 2. BLASIUS EQUATION- THE FLOW

PAST A FLAT PLATE WITHOUT PRESSURE
GRADIENT
GOVERNING
CONDTION

EQUATIONS

u v
+
=0
x y

The specific heat at constant pressure c p for air is

Momentum equation

(A.4)

u
u
2u
+v
= 2
x
y
y

THE PRANDTL NUMBER

The behaviors of transport properties with temperature

mentioned above make the Prandtl number
Pr = c p / k essentially invariant with temperature.

Boundary condition

Therefore, it is assumed that the Prandtl number for

gases is constant. This assumption eliminates the need
to formally specify the functional variation of the c p and

k with temperature. Further, considerable mathematical

simplification occurs if we choose a unit Prandtl number
and a Chapman-Rubesin viscosity law with C=w=1.
Figure A.3 shows the variation of k, cp and Pr with
temperature [2].

BOUDNARY

Continuity equation

SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

almost constant for a wide range of temperatures.

AND

(A.5)

y = 0: u = v = 0

(A.6)

y : u U

(A.7)

TRANSORMATION USING STREAM FUNCTION

u = y

v = x

(A.8)

From (A.5) and (A.8),

y xy x yy = yyy

(A.9)

With boundary conditions

Image removed due to copyright considerations.

y=0

x = y = 0

(A.10)

y y U

(A.11)

After similarity transformation

Figure A.3. Variation of thermal conductivity,

specific heat at constant pressure, and the Prandtl
number with temperature

=y

U
2x

( x, y ) = 2Ux f ( )

f + ff = 0

(A.12)
(A.13)

with f (0) = f (0) = 0

(A.14)

and f ( ) 1

(A.15)

APPENDIX 3. FALKNER-SKAN EQUATION - THE

FLOW PAST A FLAT PLATE WITH PRESSURE
GRADIENT
GOVERNING
CONDTION

EQUATIONS

AND

BOUDNARY

dU
dx

g =

dg
dx

For all x > 0 , the boundary condition at infinity

( y , ) becomes:

y = ABU ( x) f ( , ) U ( x)

Continuity equation

u v
+
=0
x y

(A.16)

Momentum equation

U =

or f ( , )

1
AB

(A.26)

(A.27)

In order to non-dimensionalize equation (A.25) and to

obtain a simple numerical result for the boundary

u
u
2u
1 P
+v
=
+ 2
x
y
x
y

condition at infinity, AB=1 and A B = U are chosen.

3

(A.17)

Where, U : the potential velocity upstream of x = 0 .

Boundary condition

Solving for A and B yields

y = 0: u = v = 0

(A.18)

y : u U ( x)

(A.19)

A = U / and B = / U

(A.28)

Then, equation (A.25) becomes:

TRANSORMATION USING STREAM FUNCTION

y xy x yy = U

dU
+ yyy
dx

f + ff + (1 f 2 ) = g 2
(A.20)

x = y = 0
y y U ( x)

(A.21)
(A.22)

By introducing the transformations

=x

Ay
g ( x)

(A.23)

( x, y ) = BU ( x) g ( x) f ( , )

(A.24)

( AB)
g U
g (Ug ) ff + 3 [1 ( AB) 2 f 2 ]
3
A B
A B
(A.25)
2
( AB) 2
g U ( f f f f )
=
A 3 B
f +

f =

f = f ( ) . Therefore, the right hand side of equation

(A.29) must be zero. Furthermore, , must be
independent of x . Since g and U were assumed to be
functions of x only, , are constants.
(A.31)

with boundary conditions

f (0) = f (0) = 0

(A.32)

f ( ) 1

(A.33)

where,

f=

(A.30)

In order for similar solutions to exist, the transformed

stream function must be a function of only, i.e.,

f + ff + (1 f 2 ) = 0

Then the governing equations yield:

2

where,

g
g2

=
(Ug ) =
U
U
U

With boundary conditions

y=0

U
( f f f f ) (A.29)
U

f =

Since , are assumed to be constants, equations

(A.30) represent two equations in the two unknown
functions, U(x) and g(x). U(x) and g(x) can thus be
determined. From

2g
1
g2

2 =
(Ug )
U =
( g 2U )
U
U
U

(A.34)

Providing
yields

2 0 , integration of equation (A.34)

U 2
g = (2 ) x
U

(A.35)

A second algebraic equation for U(x) and g(x) is

obtained by considering

g
g2
U

=
(Ug )
U =
gg
U
U
U

(A.36)

Multiplying both sides of equation (A.36) by U and

rewriting results in:

U g2
g
g
( )
=
U =
U U
g
g

(A.37)

Using the results for A and g(x) in the original

transformations, yields the appropriate independent
similarity variable

=y

(A.44)

In the above analysis, the cases where

where 2 = 0 were excluded.

=0

and

APPENDIX
4.
FORCED
CONVECTION
BOUNDARY LAYER WITHOOUT PRESSURE
GRADIENT PARALLE FLOW PAST A FLAT
PLATE
GOVERNING
CONDITION

EQUATIONS

AND

BOUNDARY

Image removed due to copyright considerations.

Integration of equation (A.37) results in:

(m + 1) U
2 x

= U g = Kg

(A.38)

Figure A.4. Forced convection boundary layer flow

past a flat plate [2]

Simultaneous solution of equations (A.34) and (A.38)

yields

U ( x)
=K
U

2
2

[(2 ) x]

Continuity equation

= (const ) x m

(A.39)

and

U x

g ( x) = (2 )
U

or

(A.45)

Momentum equation

1/ 2

(A.40)

Similar solution of the steady two-dimensional

incompressible boundary layer exist if the potential
velocity U(x) varies as a power of the distance along the
surface. Providing 0 , without loss of generality,
= 1 is chosen. In addition, by introducing

m=

u v
+
=0
x y

2m
m +1

u
u
2u
+v
= 2
x
y
y

(A.46)

Energy equation

u
T
2T
T
= k 2 +
c p u
+v
y
y
y
x

(A.47)

(A.41)
Boundary condition

U(x) and g(x) then become

2 x
U ( x) = K x m and g ( x) =
U

m +1U

y=0 u=v=0
(A.42)

where,

2
K = U K m +1

m + 1

(A.48)

1/ 2

(A.43)

T = Tw or

T
=0
y

y u U T T

(A.49)

(A.50)

where, the subscript indicates conditions in the

inviscid flow at the edge of the boundary layer.
SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATION

2 + Pr f 2 = Pr f 2
with

2 (0) = 0

and

(A.64)

2 ( ) 0

(A.65)

Using the similarity transformations

=y

U
2x

( x, y ) = 2Ux f ( )

SOLUTION (ANALYTICAL SOLUTION)

(A.51)

f + ff = 0
with

(A.52)

f (0) = f (0) = 0

(A.53)

Homogeneous solution
The solution of the homogeneous problem is

and f ( ) 1

(A.54)

Both the homogeneous and the non-homogeneous

boundary value problems are amenable to analytical
solution.

U
d T
dT
f 2
+ Pr f
= Pr
2
d
cp
d

Pr

(A.55)

=0

Pr

= 0 (Pr)

( f ( )) Pr d

(A.66)

Introducing the non-dimensional temperature

T T
=
Tw T

( f ( ))

( ) =
( f ( ))
where,

(A.56)

0 (Pr) = ( f ( )) Pr d
=0

For the special case of unit Prandtl number

0 (1) = 1 ,

equation (A.66) reduces to

Then, equation (A.55) becomes

+ Pr f = Pr Ef 2
(0) = 0

with

(0) = 1

and

( ) 0

or

(A.57)

U 2
c p (Tw T )

Therefore, when there is heat transfer at the surface the

non-dimensional temperature distribution has the same
form as the non-dimensional velocity distribution.

(A.59)

Non-homogeneous solution

(A.60)

( ) = K1 ( ) + E 2 ( )

(A.61)

Homogeneous equation

1 + Pr f1 = 0
1 ( 0) = 1

and

The non-homogeneous boundary value problem for the

adiabatic wall is solved using the method of variation of
a parameter.

2 ( ) = Pr ( f ( )) Pr ( f ( )) 2 Pr d d

Equation (A.57) is a second-order linear nonhomogeneous differential equation subject to two-point

asymptotic boundary conditions. This equation can be
divided by two equations by superposition principle.

with

(A.67)

(A.58)

where, the appropriate Eckert number is defined as

E=

1 ( ) = 1 f ( )

(A.62)

1 ( ) 0

Non-homogeneous equation

For the special case of unit Prandtl number, this result

reduces to

1
2

2 ( ) = (1 f 2 ( ))

(A.69)

Total solution
Using the condition

(A.63)

(A.68)

=1

at

=0

K = 1 E 2 (0)
and equation (A.61) becomes

(A.70)

 ( ) = [1 E 2 (0)]1 ( ) + E 2 ( )

(A.71)

1
For the special case of unit Prandtl number, 2 (0) =
2
( )

( ) = 1 ( ) + E 2 ( ) 1
(A.72)
2

APPENDIX
5.
FORCED
CONVECTION
BOUNDARY
LAYER
WITH
PRESSURE
GRADIENT AND NONISOTHERMAL SURFACE
CONDITION
GOVERNING
CONDITION

EQUATIONS

AND

BOUNDARY

TRANSFORMED EQUATION

f + ff + (1 f 2 ) = 0

(A.82)

f (0) = f (0) = 0
f ( ) 1

(A.83)

T 2 Pr
T
2T
T
m 1

f
+ 2 Pr
f x
+ Pr f
2
m + 1
x

m +1

= Pr
(A.84)
or

Continuity equation

u v
+
=0
x y

(A.73)

T
T
T
2T
(2 ) Pr f x
+ 2 Pr( 1)f
+ Pr f
2
x

= Pr

Momentum equation
(A.74)

By introducing a non-dimensional temperature:

Energy equation

u
h
h h
+
=
+v
2
y Pr y
x
y
2

y=0 u=v=0

(A.76)

T = T (x)

(A.77)

y u U T Te

(A.78)

SIMILARITY CONDITION FOR THE VELOCITY FIELD

(FALKNER-SKAN EQUATION)

m=

(A.79)

SIMILARITY TRANSFORAMTION
(A.80)
1/ 2

f ( )

(A.86)

Further assumption is made such that the surface heat

transfer is sufficiently small that it does not change the
temperature in the inviscid flow at the edge of the
boundary layer. Thus, Te = T

+ Pr f Pr(2 )(1 ) f

(A.81)

x dTw
Te Tw dx

U 2
= Pr
x 2 m f 2
c p (Te Tw )

(A.87)

CONDITION FOR THE EXISTENCE OF SIMILARITY

SOLUTION

x dTw
= const
Te Tw dx
Tw Te = T1 x

(m + 1) U
=y
2 x

( x, y ) =
xU
m +1

T Tw
Te Tw

(A.75)

Boundary condition

U ( x) = U x m

U2
f 2
cp

(A.85)

u
u
1 dP
2u
u
+v
=
+ 2
dx
x
y
y

U2
f 2
cp

and

x 2m
= const
Te Tw

(A.88)

(A.89)

where,
T1 : a constant associated with the initial temperature
distribution (n=0 : Isothermal condition)
Using this assumption, equation (A.87) becomes

 + Pr f + n Pr(2 )(1 ) f = Pr E1 x 2 m n f 2
where,
the Eckert number is E = U 2 / c p T1

2) < 0
The surface temperature decreases in the direction of
the flow

The associated boundary conditions are

(0) = 0

( ) = 1

(A.90)

SOLUTION
From equation (A.89), there are two classes of similar
solutions of the energy equation for forced convection:
those with viscous dissipation, and those without viscous
dissipation
Low speed incompressible flow (Neglect of viscous
dissipation)
In this case, the Eckert number is small, since U is
small. Under these conditions, the viscous dissipation on
the right hand side can be neglected.

+ Pr f + n Pr(2 )(1 ) f = 0

(A.91)

This equation reduces to the same form as the

homogeneous solution for the flat plate isothermal wall
case, i.e., equation (A.62). Although equation (A.91) is of
the same form as equation (A.62), its solution = ( )
is not the same. Here, the non-dimensional stream
function f ( ) , given by the solution of the Falkner-Skan
equation in Appendix 3, depends on the value of , and,
in turn, the solution of equation (A.91) also depends on
the value of .

=2

APPENDIX 6. SUMMARY OF GOVERNING

EQUATIONS FOR SIMILAR COMPRESSIBLE
BOUNDARY LAYER
Case 1: The low speed compressible boundary layer

0 and M e = 0
Equations

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0
g + Pr fg = 0

f + ff + (1 f 2 ) = 0
g ( ) = 1
1.2 Isothermal Wall analytical Solutions (It can not be
solved)
Comments:
1) g ( ) =

h
he

2) The viscous dissipation terms are neglected

Similar solutions of the energy equation exist for

arbitrary wall temperature variations.
3) n 0 and

3) = 0 and n = 0
Constant surface temperature

1.1 Adiabatic Wall analytical Solutions (It can be solved

using the result of Falkner-Skan equation)

1) n = 0 (isothermal wall)

2)

1) 0 < < 2
The surface temperature increases in the direction of
the flow

Case 2: The compressible boundary layer on a flat

plate

0 and M e = const

The similar solutions of the energy equation depend on

both the pressure gradient and the surface
temperature parameter n .

Equations:

When the viscous dissipation is not neglected

f + ff = 0
g + fg = (1 Pr)( f f )

Similar solutions of the energy equation exits only if

2m-n=0. n = 2 /( 2 ) and

In other words, similar solutions of the energy equation

exist for only one wall temperature variation.

2.1 Adiabatic Wall analytical Solutions (It can be solved

for Pr=1):

f + ff = 0
g ( ) = 1 (Busseman Integral)

2.2 Isothermal Wall analytical Solutions (It can be

solved)
2.2.1 Pr = 1

f + ff = 0
g ( ) = g w ( g w 1) f (Crocco integral)

Image removed due to copyright considerations.

2.2.2 Pr 1

f + ff = 0
g ( ) = 1 (1 g w )1 ( ) + ( 2 ( ) 2 (0)1 ( ))
+

( f 2 + 1 ( ))

Comments:
1) g ( ) =

H
He

2) The viscous dissipation terms are included

3) For Pr = 1 , g aw = 1
For

1
Pr 1 , g aw = ( 2 (0) )
2

Figure A.5 presents the effect of Mach number on the

enthalpy profiles for a flat plate [2]:

Figure A.6. Comparison of experimental and

theoretical velocity profiles for the compressible
boundary layer on an adiabatic flat plate

Case 3:similar compressible boundary layer with

unit prandtl number

0 , M e = (const ) 2 , Pr = 1
Equations:

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0
g + Pr fg = 0
3.1 Adiabatic Wall analytical Solutions (It can be solved):

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0
g ( ) = 1
Image removed due to copyright considerations.

3.2 Isothermal Wall analytical Solutions (It cannot be

solved)
Comments:
1) No analytical solutions for non-unit Prandtl number
2) The viscous dissipation terms are included

Figure A.5. The effect of Mach number on the

enthalpy for = 0 , g w = 0.6 , and Pr=0.723

Figure A.6 shows the comparison of experimental and

theoretical velocity profiles for the compressible
boundary layer on an adiabatic flat plate [2]:

Case 4: The similar hypersonic compressible

boundary layer with nonunit prandtl number

0 M e
Equations:

f + ff + ( g f 2 ) = 0
g + fg = 2(1 Pr)( f f )
4.1 Adiabatic Wall analytical Solutions (Cannot be
solved):

4.2 Isothermal Wall analytical Solutions (Cannot be

solved):
Comments:
1) M e yields

=2

2) g ( ) 1 for the adiabatic wall

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.26 Spring 2004 Problem Set 1
Set:
Due:

February 17, 2004

February 27, 2004 @ 5:00 PM

0. Warmup Problems:
(a) In class we showed that the pressure, P , resulting from an innitessimal disturbance
in an isentropic (1D) uid medium at rest, is governed by a secondorder linear wave
equation.
Show that the velocity, u, and the density, , are also governed by a wave equation.
(b)

P o, o, T o
u, P

Consider a reservoir with an orice as shown

in the gure. In class we showed that for an
isentropic uid, the maximum exit velocity,
umax , is given by

2
umax = 2ho or umax = co
.
1
Show that these two statements are equiva
lent.

1. Fluid Mechanics Review: 1.18 in Thompson

2. Thermodynamics Review: 2.16 in Thompson
3. Thompson 6.1
4. Thompson 6.2
5. Thompson 6.6

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.26 Spring 2004 Problem Set 2
Set:
Due:

March 12, 2004

March 19, 2004 @5:00 PM

1. Using a Tayor expansion, derive eq. (7.27a) in Thompson from eq. (7.26).
2. Thompson 6.10
3. Thompson 6.14
4. Thompson 7.2
5. Thompson 7.18

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2.26 Spring 2004 Problem Set 3
Set:
Due:

1. Thompson 7.12
2. Thompson 7.17
3. Thompson 8.2
4. Thompson 8.6

April 9, 2004
April 23, 2004 @5:00 PM