January 21, 2016

Physiology: the study of function at many levels

o Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular
physiology)
Essential tools for the study of physiology:
o Ability to focus at many level s(From systemic to cellular and
molecular)
o Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and
movement)
o Basic chemical principles
Levels of structural organization
o Chemical: atoms and molecules chpt 2
o Cellular: cells and their organelles chpt3
o Tissue: groups of similar cells chpt4
o Organ: contains two or more types of tissues
o Organ system: organs that work closely together
o Organismal: multiple organs working together
Overview of organ systems
o Circulatory, respiratory, digestive, urinary, musculoskeletal, immune,
nervous, endocrine, reproductive, integumentary
Know organs and functions
I.E.
o Integumentary system
Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues
from injury. Synthesized vitamin D, and house cutaneous (pain,
pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
o Skeletal system
Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework
o Muscular system
Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial
expression
o Nervous system
As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to
internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles
and glands
o Endocrine system
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as
growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body
cells.
o Cardiovascular system
Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. the heart pumps blood.
o Lymphatic system/immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood.
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood

cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response

mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body
o Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls
of the air sacs of the lungs.
Surface area of lungs is about the size of a tennis court
o Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells. Indigestible
o Urinary (excretory) System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water,
electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood
o Reproductive System
Organ Systems Interrelationships
Examples
o Digestive system takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates
unabsorbed matter (feces). Respiratory system takes in oxygen and
eliminates carbon dioxide
Homeostasis
o Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite
continuous outside changes
o Dynamic state of equilibrium
o Always think of how homeostasis is being maintained and/or altered
All systems work in the same basic way
o Stimulus produces change in variable
o Receptor detects change
o Input information sent along afferent pathway to control center
o Output: information sent along efferent pathway to effector
o Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and
returns variable to homeostatic level
o SUMMARY
A return from imbalance to balance
Receptor, afferent pathway, control center, efferent
pathway, effector
Homeostatic control mechanisms
o Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors
(variables)
o Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via
nerve impulses and hormones
Things you should know or revisit! Chapt 2
o Matter: anything that has mass and occupies space
o What are the 3 states?
Solid
Liquid
Gas
o Major elements of the human body

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Types of chemical bonds

Ionic
Formed by transfer of valence shell electrons between
atoms; attraction of opposite charges results in an ionic
bond
Covalent
Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons
Hydrogen
Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one
molecule and an electronegative atom of another
molecule
Chemical reactions
Patterns of chemical reactions
Synthesis reactions
Cell Theory
The cell is the smallest structural and functional living unit
Organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell
functions
Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific
subcellular structures
Continuity of life
Cell diversity
Over 200 different types of human cells
Generalized Cell
Membrane lipids
75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer)
Phosphate ehads: polar and hydrophilic
Fatty acids tails: nonpolar and hydrophobic (review fig.
2.16b)
5% glycolipids
Lipids with polar sugar groups on outer membrane surface
205% cholesterol
Increases membrane stability and fluidity
Lipid Rafts
~20% of the outer membrane surface
Contain phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol
May function as stable platforms for cell-signaling molecules
Membrane proteins
Integral proteins
Firmly inserted into the membrane (most are
transmembrane)
Functions
o Transport proteins: move stuff from the outside of
the cell to the inside of the cell
Functions of membrane proteins
Components of a control mechanism
Negative feedback

The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus

Examples
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine
mechanism)
Positive Feedback
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (chapter
28)
Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
Negative Feedback: Regulation of blood volume by ADH
Receptor sense decreased blood volume
Homeostatic imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease
Contributes to changes associated with aging
Necessary life functions
Survival Needs

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January 28, 2016

Cell to cell communication

o Physiological signals
Electrical signals (not direct no electrical signal goes from one
nerve cell to another. Electrical signal causes chemicals to be
released in synaptic space)
Changes in the membrane potential of a cell
Chemical signals
Secreted by cells into ECF
o Methods
Direct contact and local cell-to-cell communication
Gap junctions
o Transfer both chemical and electrical signals
o Form direct cytoplasmic connections between
adjacent cells
Contact dependent signals require interaction between
membrane molecules on two cells
o CAMs, cell adhesion molecules, transfer signals in
both directions (turning the signal off, become
unstuck, breaks signaling)
Direct contact and local cell-to-cell communication
o Autocrine signals act on the same cell that secreted
them. Paracrine signals are secreted by one cell
and diffuse to adjacent cells

Cells routinely manufacture molecules that

will bind to a receptor on its own border
Paracrine and autocrine are chemical signals
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands or cells
into the blood. Only target cells with receptors for
the hormone will respond to the signal
distance cell-to-cell communication
Neurotransmitters are chemicals secreted by
neurons that diffuse across a small gap to the
target cell. Neuron use electrical signals as well.
Neurotransmitters have a rapid effect

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Long
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Signal pathways
o Neurohormones are chemicals released by neurons into the blood
o Almost all cells can secrete cytokines (not RBC). Cytokines may act as
both local and long-distance signals
o All nucleated cells synthesize and secrete cytokines in response to
stimuli
o In development and differentiation, cytokines usually function as
autocrine or paracrine signals
o In stress and inflammation, some cytokines may act on relatively
distant
o Target cell receptors
o Fat soluble molecules (and amphipathic) can move into and outside of
the cell through concentration gradient.
o Four categories of membrane receptors that are for lipophobic signal
molecules
Signal molecule, receptor, intracellular signal molecules
Receptor-channel
Receptor-enzyme
G protein-coupled receptor
Integrin receptor
o Signal Amplification
Transducers convert extracellular signals into intracellular
messages which create a response
o Biological signal transduction
Steps of signal transduction pathway form a cascade
o GPCR
Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP
Calcium activates everything inside of a cell contains almost
no free floating calcium. It is tightly controlled so it is actively
pumping calcium out of the cell or into storage units (ER)
Novel signal molecules
Modulation of signal pathways
Control pathways
o Response loops
o Feedback loops
Nitric oxide causes vasodilation increasing blood flow

CO irreversibly binds to hemoglobin

OTC painkillers are NSAIDS that stop pressure on nerves that signal for pain
Modulation to keep you alive. Alpha receptor response constricts vessels.
Beta receptor response dilates vessels.
Down-regulation causes an increase need for drugs (increase tolerance and
cause medical problems) reason is that something that is always bound
causes the cell to remove receptors. We do not know if it is possible to regain
receptors.

February 4, 2016 - Boyden Hall Lecture Room 100 look up mammalian

physiology practice exam on google

Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue: Part B

o Neuronal Function and Signaling How do we get a nerve to send an
impulse from one area of the body to another
The body is overall electrically neutral so it doesnt have a
potential but most of the body is water. When you dissolve
something in water you get ions. Net affect is still no electrical
potential. Neurons can overcome this through an ordered
system. Neurons are irritable, meaning they can react to sensory
(light, vibration, mechanical, etc.)
The unique thing about an action potential, every neuron fires
the same action potential sequentially. The body can distinguish
this by
Principles of Electrcity
The old adage that opposites attract each other is true.
Pos Neg attract. In order to generate opposing charges,
energy is required. Your body does the same thing
spends energy to create an electrical separation of
charges. When charges move, energy is liberated. If
opposite charges are separate we say that the system has
potential energy. So you have more of charge on one side
vs charge on the other. The side that has more has
greater potential.
Definitions that we use to describe whats going on
Voltage is a measure of the amount of energy, the
potential generated by separating two charges. Not
movement, but the potential movement
Potential difference is measured voltage between two
points
Current is the flow of ions from one spot to another.
Resistance is a hindrance to the flow of current.
Things with high electrical resistance are insulators. They
stop electrical charge from moving in one direction or the
other
A conductor is a substance with low electrical resistance

A super conductor (ideally) is something that

doesnt hinder the flow of electrical charge at room
temperature.
A guy called Ohm came up with Ohms law used to
describe the relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance: I*V/R or V=IR
We use the plasma membrane as a baseline to separate
charges
o How do we get charges things from one side to
another?
o Plasma membrane has a nonpolar interior. SO
charged substances cannot move through without
using a ton of energy. We achieve the ability to
move through the membrane by using proteins that
have uncharged and charged side chains. The
different types that neurons use are
Leak channels. These channels are just poles
that are always open. Stuff just leaks out
constantly.
Gated Channels prevents the movement
from one direction or the other
Chemically gated - Only allows a
certain size in, Moves through its
concentration gradient
o Ligand must bind to open
Voltage-gated channels change their
shape based on the difference of ions
o Dependent on the charges that
are present right outside of
them
o This is how neurons propagate
an action potential
Mechanically gated channels open and
close in response to physical
deformation to receptors
When gated channels open, ions travel
from areas of high concentration to
low concentration (down the
concentration gradient) causes
electrical current
Every neuron maintains a resting membrane potential (Vr)
o Made up in the differences of the extracellular and intracellular and
permeability of the plasma membrane
o This tells us that the inside of a neuron has a lower concentration of
sodium than the outside and it has a higher concentration of
potassium, negatively charged ions than the inside.
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Leakage channels allow potassium to constantly leak out. Some

sodium is lost, but for the most part is it blocked from leaving the cell.
If there is constantly a hole with these potassium ions leaking out, itll
continue to leak out until it reach equilibrium at which point there is no
concentration difference. If we had holes that only allow potassium,
neurons would be very negative (-90mV). So we need to expend
energy to maintain -70mV environment
Changes in membrane potential is used to integrate and receive
information by sending action potentials.
Types of signals we can send are
Graded potentials small signal, short distance, local
o Combine is a given space
o Can have a positive or negative signal
o Little area in membrane gets stimulated
Action potentials big signal, long-distance, global
o A brief period where the membrane potential is
changed from -70mV to 30mV.
o Does not decrease in magnitude over distance
(unless it is myelinated.
o Resting state (-70), depolarization state (up to 30),
repolarization, hyperpolarization (overshoot passed
-70)
o Resting State
Only leakage channels for Na+ and K+ are
open
All gated ion channels are closed
Depolarization is making the cell less polar. We get less negative
relative to the outside of the cell. We approach 0 and during an
action potential, overshoot.
Hyperpolarization makes the cell more negative. The more
hyperpolarized the cell is, the less likely itll fire an action
potential. If we make this strong enough, we can inhibit a neuron
from firing an action potential
Properties of Gated Channels
Activation Gates - Closed at rest, open with depolarization
Inactivation Gates open at rest, closed with
depolarization
Unlike sodium, potassium only has one voltage-sensitive gate
Opens slowly, in comparison to sodium
This slower opening causes the Absolute Refractory Period
allows spatial separate of action potentials.
During the depolarizing phase
Local currents open voltage-gated Na+ channels
o Local currents are synapses if we are regular
neuron
o Each synapse causes its own graded potential

If enough synapse activity is done at once, it can

cause an action potential
Sodium influx causes further depolarization. Threshold
level is -55 to -50mV is enough to send an action
potential. If the threshold level is not reached, an action
potential is not created
Repolarizing phase
Sodium channel slow inactivation gates close
Membrane permeability to sodium declines to resting
levels
Slow voltage sensitive K gates open
Hyperpolarization
Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump
During repolarization, pumps work to shuttle Na+ out of
the cell(neuron) and shuttles K+ into the cell
Sodium influx causes membranes to depolarize
Small changes in local areas will cause (if enough of them to
-50mV) but if a synapse fires to an area of a neuron, you might
get a small bit of sodium influx the channels get inactivated.
Threshold
Neurons are getting lots of signals all the time. They need
the right number in the right combination to stimulate the
neuron
Subthreshold weak local depolarization that does not
reach threshold
Threshold stimulus strong enough to put the membrane
in action potential
In hyperpolarization, we have the refractory period where the
neuron can no longer be stimulated
We can tell the difference by looking at the frequency of
the neuron
We code for signals by the number of times per second
that a neuron fires.
Absolutely Refractory Period ensures that firing is an all or
nothing event. Theres only one direction that an action potential
moves in. No matter what we do, after hyperpolarization we
cannot stimulate the neuron to fire again because it is in the
process of firing
Relative Refractory Period
Conduction Velocity
We have differences in conducting action potentials.
Myelin provides a complete change in the ability to fire
action potentials (speed increases greatly, 30x faster)
Schwann cells insulate and protects axons from leakage.
Voltages only change at node of ranvier
o