Mid-Term Interim Exam

Clifford Mario Kosasih

History, Theory and Culture II Spring 2014

1.

1000294

Francastels main thesis is that the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth

century did not occasion a fundamental rupture in the cultural sphere of the
Western world. He rejects Giedions idealism and trans-historicism. In
your own words, what is your understanding of Francastels and Giedions
notion of the Industrial Revolution?
As art historians of their time, both Pierre Francastel and Sigfried Giedion

commented on the one defining period in mankinds lifetime: industrial revolution. In

their books, Art and Technology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries and Building
in France, Building in Iron, Building in Ferro-Concrete respectively, they examine the
effects of industrial revolution to art and architecture, as well as how societys response
to it. Following a study of the two books, this paper will provide an assessment to
Francastel and Giedions notion of the industrial revolution.
Francastel believes that industrial revolution did not cause a significant change to
the aesthetic and cultural realm because art was seen as a higher value (Francastel
2000, 95). He further argued that industry and arts were carried out on two completely
different levels, thus there was no reason for industry to hinder the modern
development of the arts (Francastel 2000, 94). All these are supported by the fact that
although there is a growth in output of product due to the increase in efficiency,
industrialization does not give rise to new style or art forms. I believe that Francastels
notion of industrial revolution is a change that largely affected quantity rather than
quality. This means that the rise of mechanization and technological advancement only
affected the effectiveness of mass production, but they did not disrupt the fundamentals
of culture and aesthetics at that time.
Different from Francastel, Giedion believes that industry is changing the society
and how people live; it anticipates societys inner upheaval (Giedion 1995, 88).
Giedion elaborates further by providing some examples in which architecture and its
form is affected largely by the industrial revolution such as the use of wrought iron and
steel as construction material for market halls and railroad stations. I think Giedions
idea of industrial revolution revolves around the fact that technological advancement
propels the invention and discovery of new materials which is useful for creating new
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Mid-Term Interim Exam

Clifford Mario Kosasih

History, Theory and Culture II Spring 2014

1000294

designs and opening up new possibilities in art and architecture. It is a tool for
advancement not only in artistic value but also in functionality.
Not only that, Giedion also believes that industrial revolution took hold of mans
very nature and it was very impactful for the first few who experienced it. Industrial
revolution, as mentioned in his book, is an inner expression of the life process
(Giedion 1995, 88). This can be interpreted that Giedion sees industrial revolution as a
significant change, not only in the realm of art and architecture, but also in mans daily
life processes. Everything became much more efficient and societys well-being has
never been better. It has changed mans paradigm of life as it opens up new
possibilities in what can be done with their life.
I think Giedion offers an optimistic view of industrial revolution where there is a
boost in potential in various aspects of life, including construction and architecture.
While Francastel offers a slightly different opinion than Giedion, the former offers a
more practical view of industrial revolution in which it has affected more on the
effectiveness and productivity of mass production, rather than aesthetic value.

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Mid-Term Interim Exam

Clifford Mario Kosasih

History, Theory and Culture II Spring 2014

1000294

2. Adolf Loos idea of ornament is codified by Nikos Salingaros and Michael

Mehaffy in the essay How Modernism Got Square as
a) Geometrical fundamentalism
b) Tectonic determinism
c) Typological prejudice
d) Modernist exceptionalism
Explain Loos influences as understood in the essay. Taking a building or
the attitude of a particular architect, explain how Loos idea might have
played a role in modern architecture.
Adolf Loos might not have expected how phenomenal and influential his essay
Ornament and Crime is towards the development of architecture. In their essay How
Modernism Got Square, Salingraros and Mehaffy challenge and try to reorganize Loos
polemical essay to four systematic principles advocating the banishment of ornament.
Taking reference from a close reading of the two essays and further research, this
paper will first deconstruct the essays fundamental context, then thoroughly examine
Salingaros and Mehaffys interpretation towards Loos essay and the its greater
repercussions on Le Corbusiers attitude towards architecture.
In order to impartially dissect Loos essay, it must be understood that Loos
controversial stand against ornament followed a sequence of events that allowed him to
reflect upon the matter. His visit to the United States in the late 19th century and his
acquaintance with Louis Sullivan, who advocated the abandonment of ornament, have
influenced him to revisit upon the notion of ornament in architecture (Loos 1971, 19).
Moreover, a few historians have proposed that Loos failure to secure a commission to
decorate Viennese Secession whom he got estranged from council chamber may
have sparked this idea to oppose ornaments even further (Moffett, Fazio and
Wodehouse 2003, 477). Perhaps, all these incidents might be the motive behind such
an impassioned and subjective essay. Nonetheless, this essay has far reaching
consequences, driving Salingaros and Mehaffy, as urbanist, mathematician and ardent
followers of architecture theory, to comment upon the repercussions of this movement
towards Modernism with reference to Loos seminal essay.

Page 3 of 5

Mid-Term Interim Exam

Clifford Mario Kosasih

History, Theory and Culture II Spring 2014

1000294

Based on Salingaros and Mehaffy claim that the four principles derived from
Loos essay were largely unquestioned and built on an essentially racist worldview
(Salingaros and Mehaffy 2013), this paper will go further to study these thoughtful
interpretations of Loos essay. Geometrical fundamentalism and tectonic determinism
essentially consider technological progress towards mechanization and more efficient
processes to be the cause behind the elimination of ornamental and detailed features.
In Ornament and Crime, Loos mentioned that ornamentation is no longer a natural
product of our culture, so that it is a phenomenon either of backwardness or
degeneration (Loos 1971, 22). In this case, our culture may refer to the rise of
mechanization, automation and increase in efficiency, and to that respect ornamentation
clearly is not a natural product of mechanization. Therefore, simpler geometry that is
achievable and determined by machinery and technological advancement at that time is
the norm according to Loos. However, upon closer reading, Loos assumed that
technological progress and advancement on mechanization only allowed simpler,
angular geometry to be produced. In response to that, Salingaros and Mehaffy have
managed to point out one anomaly to this by citing the mass-produced Art Nouveau
silver jewelry box by P. A. Coon, in 1908. Additionally, in the 21st century, where
technology is even more advanced, mechanization allows a greater freedom in
geometry and the amount of detail that shape mass-produced items.
Furthermore, the third and fourth tenets, which read typological prejudice and
modernist exceptionalism, suggest many layers of racism and cultural supremacy
undertones in Loos essay. By asserting that a certain culture is the epitome of
degeneracy is not a very polite thing to do, but it is alas inevitable for him to do it in
order to support his argument. Also, with regards to his opposition with the Austrians
Viennese Secession and Austria in general, he sarcastically made a remark that
Austrian national economy relies heavily on taking advantage of the short life span of
many products due to ornaments. Additionally, he created a hypothetical example which
highlights his biasness towards Americans in general as he brought back Louis
Sullivans quote to heart (Loos 1971, 19). All these show how his essay and point of
view were heavily influenced by his identity and past experience. The fact that Loos
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Mid-Term Interim Exam

Clifford Mario Kosasih

History, Theory and Culture II Spring 2014

1000294

manifesto has significantly influenced the face of modern architecture goes to show that
society at large possesses subconscious notion of a cultural supremacy, abiding to
certain cultural standards that were set earlier.
Loos influence to modern architecture can be seen in the works and attitude of
architects such as Le Corbusier. The latter wrote in his LEsprit Nouveau Journal that
Loos is one of the predecessors of the new spirit. Around 1990, when the
enthusiasm for Jugendstil was high, in the time of excessive dcor, Loos began
his crusade against the redundancy of these tendencies (Corbusier 1920, 159).
Undeniably one of the most influential figures of modernism, Le Corbusier stripped
down his buildings to its essential geometries that illustrate its precision and purity, yet it
exposes the quality of its fabrication. Looking at Villa Stein-de Monzie by Corbusier, it
possesses those qualities that Loos Steiner Haus has: they both are mostly white in
color, with hardly any ornamentation, putting emphasis on the presence of windows and
openings on the faade. All these aspects of modernity are not only celebrated
throughout various works of both Loos and Le Corbusier, but also carried further by
various architects such as Louis Kahn and Phillip Johnson.

Bibliography
Corbusier, Le. "Ornement et Crime." L'Esprit Nouveau, 1920: 159.
Francastel, Pierre. Art and Technology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Translated
by Randall Cherry. New York, 2000.
Giedion, Sigfried. Building in France, building in iron, building in ferroconcrete. Santa Monica:
Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1995.
Loos, Adolf. "Ornament and Crime." In Programs and Manifestoes on 20th-century Architecture,
by Ulrich Conrads, translated by Michael Bullock, 19-24. Massachusetts: The MIT Press,
1971.
Moffett, Marian, Michael W. Fazio, and Lawrence Wodehouse. A World History of Architecture.
London: Laurence King Publishing, 2003.
Salingaros, Nikos A., and Michael. Mehaffy. Toward Resilient Architectures 3: How Modernism
Got Square. April 19, 2013. http://www.metropolismag.com/Point-of-View/April2013/Toward-Resilient-Architectures-3-How-Modernism-Got-Square/ (accessed March
16, 2014).
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