Inquiry and Connections

In Integrated Science
Content Courses for
Elementary Education Majoi
By Maria Vrelas, Roy Plotnick, Donald Wink,
Qian Fan. and Yvonne Harris

he 2000 National Survey of

Science and Mathematics Education showed that elementary
teachers feel less qualified to
teach science than any of the other
subjects for which they are responsible,
and that on a typical day, over 30% of
K-4 students have no science instaiction
at all (Smith et ai. 2002). Recently, the
National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) data, often called the
"Nation's Report Card" showed that
nearly two-thirds of Chicago fourth
graders who took NAEP last year
failed to show a basic level ofscience
knowledge and skills (with Chicago's
fourth-grade science scores being the
worst among 10 big-city school districLs), and by eighth grade, that figure
jumped to 72%. Although we are strong
believers that standardized test scores
tell only a small part ofthe story of
any education setting and its members,
these and many other data point toward
the importance of elementary-school
teacher education in science. In this
article, we share the concerted efTorts
of an interdisciplinary team ofscience
and education faculty at the University of Illinois at Chicago and several
Chicago-area community colleges in
developing and implementing a series
of four integrated science courses for
preservice elementary school teachers
(that are also open to other nonscience
majors). These courses foreground various connections (Branstbrd, Brown, and
Cocking 1999) that we will illustrate as
we share representative aspects of these
courses providing examples of inquiry
in sciencecollegeclassesforelementary
school teachers.

40

Journal ot College Science Teaching

We named three of the courses

"World" courses: the Physical World,
the Chemical World, and the Biological World. The use of the word
"world" indicates to students the
relevance of science to the world
around them. Additionally, we have
purposely integrated all science disciplines in each of the courses. For
example, the Physical World course is
not only a physics course, but a course
that examines the world primarily
with a physics lens. Furthermore,
Earth and environmental science
concepts are explored throughout
the three courses. The fourth course,
Project-Based Seminar in the Natural
Sciences, serves as a capstone course,
taken after all World courses, or concurrently with the last one. There,
students synthesize their knowledge
gained in the World courses by designing, conducting, and presenting
their own research study that involves
data collection and analysis.
All four courses are based on
guiding principles taken from the rich
literature on constructivist teaching
and leaming of science developed in
recent decades, and their content and
pedagogy align with national and state
standards (National Academy of Sciences 1997; NRC 1996. 1997). They
promote and cultivate a plethora of
connections and synergistic relationships, and the integration of concepts
developed and used in the various science disciplines. Students are involved
in much more than the traditional
lecture/lab cycle that often leaves
teacher candidates behind. There is a
rich blend of class discussions, field

experiences, laboratory activities,

long-term projects, in-class activities,
and lectures. "Driving questions" that
pay attention to not only science content, but also the nature ofthe sociocultural practice ofscience are used as a
guide to organize the courses. Student
reflection is constantly encouraged
as a tool for understanding students"
own knowledge construction. Assessment is included as an integral part
of instruction and multiple (exts and
audio-visual material are used.
Below, we describe each course
and elaborate on a particular principle, sharing representative examples
of how this principle is enacted in
that course (keep in mind that all
principles are enacted in all courses).
We also note that these courses have
been enriched from conversations
with faculty who have designed and
implemented science courses for
elementary education majors at the
University of Michigan at Dearborn
(Luera and Otto 2005).

The Physical World

In each course, attention is directed to
the nature ofscience itself as a way of
knowing and thinking; as a profession
and enterprise interacting with and
within society; and to systems theory
and its applications in science. Research
indicates that student undei-standing of
content should be accompanied with
fundamental understanding ofthe nature ofthe discipline and the variety of
methods that produce knowledge in that
particular field (Gabel 1999; Lederman
and Abd-EI-Khalick 1998; Schwab
1978; Spencer 1999). Thus, The Physi-

cal World course starts with a unit called

Ihc Enterprise of Science: How Do We
Know? that explores the concept of
theories and models in science, and continues with four more units: How Do We
Sense the Universe?; How Do Things
Move?; How Far and How Big?; and
How (^Id Are Things? Past and Euture
ofthe Earth and Universe.

FIGURE 1
Students measure incident radiation at different distances and angles.

Eurthermore, we use driving questions to help students develop an overall

structure that can support their development of specific concepts, processes,
and skills. These questions also help
students construct and appreciate connections among the various science
disciplines- allowing them to explore
how physics, chemistry, biology, and
Earth or space science are interconnected endeavors. Examples of driving
questions used in The Physical World
course appear in Table 1.
To further promote connectionmaking and meaningful leaming, the
labs become sites where concepts and
processes are explored and developed.
The Earth's Heat-Budget (http:

//nagt.org/nagt/programs/teaching
materials/9266.html) is a hands-on
investigation that offers students opportunities to construct understandings
about the Earth's climate. This laboratory' integrates the physics concepts of
heat and light; the astronomical concepts
of seasons and eccentricity ofthe Earth's
orbit; and the Earth-science concepts of
the polc-to-equator temperature gradient, the role of albedo, and differences
in heat capacity between continents and

oceans. The investigation is divided into

three sections. Eirst, students examine
the effect of distance and angle on the
radiation received on the globe, using
simple apparatus. They prediet and
calculate the change of radiation with
distance and, as a result, explore the
inverse-square law (Eigure 1). They
also determine the role ofthe angle of
incidence on radiative heating of the
Earth. Second, they measure the effect
of ditTerent albedos on heating of a
surface by comparing white and black
surfaces (Eigure 2). Third, they determine the relative heat capacities of water
and sand, and explore implications for
regional climates (Eigure 3).

The Chemical World

Assessment is an integral part of instruction in these courses, consisting
of a well-balanced system of tools that
can reveal and strengthen students'
scientific knowledge and dispositions
toward science. Student understanding is assessed both in a summative
way and in an ongoing, formative
way so as to guide instruction and
enhance student leaming. The assessment system includes a variety of oral,
written, and multimedia opportunities
so that students' various intelligences
can be tapped (Armstrong 2000; Angelo and Cross 1993; Lopez-Reyna
and Bay 1997; Nicoll, Erancisco,

TABLE 1
Examples of driving questions used in the Physical World.

How do we sense the universe?

Waves, sound, hearing, light, vision, optics

What causes landslides?!

Mass, force, acceleration, friction, gravity

Wh.ir makes ihe oceans and atmospheres move?

Heat, energy, Coriolis effect, tides, phases ofthe moon

What drives the movement ofthe continents?

Plate tectonics, convection, conduction

Wli.il i)o thi.' flows of rivers and blood have in common?

Fluid dynamics

What makes motors turn?

Electricity, magnetism

What is the size of the Earth, solar system, and universe?

Cosmic distance ladder

May/June 2008

41

FIGURE 2
Lab setup for comparing heat absorption by different surfaces.

FIGURE 3
Students measure the relative heat capacities of water and sand.

and Nakhleh 2001; Slater 1997).

Assessment opportunities arc sprinkled throughout the Chemical World
course, which starts with a unit on
Sociology ofScience that is followed
by three other units: The Chemistry
of Life, Chemical Composition and
Change, and Chemistry and Society.
Assessment emphasizes connections and understanding, and includes
various tbrms in The Chemical World
course: an introductory essay where
students discuss their histories as
learners of science, journals (approximately biweekly), unit and
final exams, lab reports, an assigned
topic-focused project (e.g.. nutrition,
weathering), a portfolio, and a "bigtheme" project. The journals have
four sections: (1) discussion of what
is known about a topic discussed in
class; (2) connections between the
concept(s) discussed in current journal and everyday life; (3) discussion
of a topic of interest to studentthe
individual's "big theme" project for
the course; and (4) an indication of
concepts or skills that are unclear to
the student. Connection making in
the student journals comes in various wayssome more subtle, some
more articulate, and some stretching
students' thinking more than others.
To help students develop connections further, think scientifically,
and use scientific knowledge to make
decisions in their everyday life as
individuals and as members of a
society and of the world, the courses
include exam questions that require
integration and application of various
topics. Examples of such questions
from The Chemical World include
the following:
Tf humans could metabolize propane, would it be a better source
of energy than carbohydrates?
Explain.
Can geologic minerals be the same
as the minerals in food? Explain.
A lawn sign reads: "This lawn is
chemical free, safe tor children
and groundwater." Comment on
the accuracy of this statement.
Demonstrate your understanding

42

Journal ot College Science Teaching

Inquiry and Connections in Integrated Science

FIGURE 4

Chalk in egg tempera painting

created by a student who used her
"big-theme" project in The Chemical World to learn about manufacturing paints for her own use.

of the relationship between atoms

and ionic bonds.
Draw a representation of a chemical change in the product box
below, given the reactants drawn
in the reactants box.
Complete the concept map by adding
statements that link the concepts.
Develop a concept map using the
following concepts: atom, polymer, bond, vitamin, protein, nylon,
compound, chemical reaction,
electrons, polar.
Primo Levi's essay "Carbon" was
about the changes that occur to an
atom of carbon over time. Most of
Ihe time, the carbon was locked
up in the mineral limestone. Why
did the atom spend so much time
in a mineral compared to the time
it spent in living things?

1 n order to allow students to show their

mastery of. and interest in, certain
topics in a difierent way, the exams in
The Chemical World include 200-300
word essays on any three of a list of
topics: periodicity; common bonding
patterns; acids and bases; proteins,
carbohydrates, fats; bonding; human
impact on ecosystems; stoichiometry;

FIGURE 5
Group A's Mars facility. Although cycles are sbown, the group did not show how
cycles are connected and are used to drive or fuel other cycles. Waste products, such
as carbon dioxide and beat, are not considered and nutrient cycles are absent.

element cycles; rocks and minerals;

and stmcture (form) and function of
molecules {link with metabolism).
in the semester-long, "big-theme"
project and in dialogue with the instructor (largely through journals and
portfolios), students explore ways in
which knowledge of chemistry may
help them understand something of
interest to them. Projects tailored to
students' identities are potentially
critieal in overcoming their alienation
from science. As an example, one
student used the "big-theme" project
to emphasize her strong semi-professional interest in painting. Her project
included creating a painting, making
her own tempera paints, and exploring the chemistry behind the various
materials that a painter uses: the pigment, the binder, and the substrate.
She learned how the binder converts
from a fluid to a hard surface, either
by drying or by oxidation. She then
used chalk in egg tempera as a way of
economically producing paints on her
own that she finally used in a painting she created (Figure 4). In one part
of her final exam she referred to this
projeet: "I can apply chemistry in my
life in many ways. I'm an artist and

participating in the 'big theme" project, I was able to learn that my paints
contain a lot of chemistry."

The Biological World

All courses focus on student understanding and students* own construction of knowledge. The courses attempt
to strike a balance between attention
to basic and key disciplinary concepts
of the fundamental sciences (physics,
chemistry, biology, and Earth and space
science) and presentation of science
in an exploratory, inquiry-oriented
way of finding out about the world.
Relating scientific knowledge to other
knowledge and everyday experiences
allows students to construct meaningful understandings (Bretz 2001; NRC
1996; Newmann and Associates 1996;
Stark and Lattuca 1997). In the Biological World course, these connections are
nurtured throughout the course, which
starts with a unit on Systems and the
Movement of Matter, Energy, and
Information, and continues with the
following units: Cells and Organisms;
Unity Within Diversity of Life; Inheritance and Genetics; and Evolution.
Collaborative projects afiord students experiences to engage in con-

May/June 2008

43

sensus building and communication of

data and claims as they attempt to solve
problems. In the Human Exploration,
Development of Space (NASA), and
Colonization of Mars project, students
are asked to design a facility on Mars
that will sustain 50 women and 50 men
indefinitely. As students engage in this
project, they use concepts, principles,
and facts explored in class related to
basic chemistry, ceil stnicture. cell metabolism, and energy utilization.
Together with student initiative
and engagement, instructors need to
facilitate the scaffolding and shaping of
students' exploration of ideas, concepts,
and experiences (Becker and Vrelas
1995; Driver et al. 1994; Farreli,Moog,
and Spencer 1999) so that students' own
spontaneous concepts come together
with the established, more elaborate
scientific concepts of the different disciplines (Vygotsky 1978. 1987). Thus,
for this project, students are given a set
of guidelines and a number of energy
sources and they must
research all energy sources;
discuss pros and cons and decide
upon one energy source;
define the problems associated

with the energy source;

brainstorm solutions;
figure out what must be done to
reach those solutions;
design a facility and demonstrate
how the energy will support the
facility and the 100 colonists;
agree on the goals and objectives
of the design;
discuss pros and cons of their
design;
adjust, compromise, and fine-tune
the agreed upon idea/solution so
that all group members are satisfied
with the result.
Using PowerPoint and specific
guidelines, student groups present
their projects to students of other
biology classes and to a panel of 3-5
other faculty, and they all evaluate
the projects and presentations based
on rubrics that capture the quality
of the oral presentation, the science
and scientific processes used, and
the PowerPoint presentation. Of
particular interest are the designs of
the facilities that students conceive
of, and the use of arrows to capture
matter and energy flow (Figures 5 and
6). The understanding that systems are

Group B's Mars facility. Although there are coupling cycles, this design does not
sbow a deep understanding of cycles. Ice is collected and melted into water and
stored in a water tank. Water,electricity,and oxygen flow in one direction.

44

Journal O College Science Teaching

cyclical, and are either closed (selfsustaining) or open (input/output),

is not always evident in students"
designs. Students who understand
the important differences between
closed and open systems design
closed-system facilities where all
systems are cyclical. Those who do
not understand seem to think thai only
certain elements of the facility are
cyclical, such as water or electrons.
However, at times, even students
who design their facility as a closed
system struggle with the idea that
the closed system must include the
100 colonists. Thus, their diseussion
of nutrient and energy How through
the colonists may be disconnected
from the matter and energy flow of
the facility. This gives the class the
opportunity to discuss and develop
these connections further.

Project-Based Seminar in the

Natural Sciences
As a capstone course, the seminar gives
students the opportunity to pull together their knowledge and understandings
from the World courses and apply them
in novel and creative ways in order to
engage in a scientific research project
from beginning to end as the instructors (a scientist and a science educator)
guide them through. In one iteration
of the seminar, the instructors use the
Enlighten Maryland Light Pollution
project as an opportunity lo model
for students the kind of questions.
issues, ideas, skills, problems, and
considerations that students need to be
addressing in their projects. Throughout the seminar, students discuss and
think about variables, relationships,
measurements, error, accuracy and
precision, data representation, and
analysis techniques, and they experience firsthand with their own designed
and executed projects the messiness.
nonlinearity. complexity, and constant
reshaping of scientific research as they
collaborate with their group members,
develop a research proposal, offer peer
review, give praetice talks of their
research, and finally submit a paper
and make their formal presentation of
their study.

Inquiry and Connections in Integrated Science

FIGURE 7
One group's concept map on Bryson's chapter "Getting the Lead Out."

these communities with a variety of experiences as studenLs or teachers, experiences that shape their expectations lor
the current classes. Students understand
nomis and ways of being in these classes
in the light of these expectations and of
the ways these new communities unfold
and evolve overtime. As we tried to capture and understand the ways in which
students experienced these courses, we
identified various strengths students
see in these courses, along with various
tensions and challenges.
Students noticed various instructional tools we use in these courses
(e.g., journals, concept maps, group
work, and projects) and how they
facilitated meaning and connection
making. However, some perceived
the same and other course features
as challenging for various reasons.
Some saw projects as "just another
assignment" instead of a way to pull
multiple ideas together, and others
struggled with journalingbecause
it was hard to express connections,
or they thought it was for those who
could not do well in exams, or it had
unclear grading and purpose.

Topics that student groups have

studied include mold formation in
organic vs. non-organic produce,
teeth staining, noncommercial agents
forcleaningstains, soil quality, water
quality, ozone pollution, air pollution,
exercise, water cleaning, tooth decay,
effect of sound on glass, and stability
of vitamin C in orange juice.
In this seminar, the nature of
scientillc practice, including ethical
considerations, along with epistemological. ontological. social, political,
cultural, and anthropological issues.
are not only addressed in the context
of the projects that students choose
and conduct, but also in the context
of the many vignettes of scientific
practice that Bill Bryson (2003) dis-

cusses in his book A Short History of

Nearly Everything, the book used in
the seminar To engage w ith the book,
we use approaches that model for
teacher candidates sound instructional
practices that they could use w ith their
own students. Figures 7 and 8 show
examples of two diferenl types of
artifacts (concept map and sketchto-stretch) that were produced and
presented by student groups as part of
the discussion on Bryson's chapters.

What students think about

the courses
Classroom communities are dynamic,
complex systems of people who constantly negotiate knowledge, behaviors,
attitudes, and actions. They come to

Furthermore, although these are

"content" and not "methods" courses,
students (preservice teachers) noticed
the particular curricular. instructional,
and assessment features and made connections with their own future teaching
practices. However, what was also interesting is that although the instructors
strived for greater student involvement
and responsibility in these courses,
some students still saw the teacher as
the primary contributor to student leaming both when they identitled positive
elements (e.g.. "[the teacher was] good
at explaining weU") and when they
identitled problematic aspects (e.g.,
'[she was] supposed to wrap up things
for students"). Such comments make us
ponder the delicate balances we need
to reach in courses that aim at making
students active and integral participants
in teaching and lcaming.
Acknowledgments

77ii. project has been supported by a

National Science Foundation (NSF)
Collaborative for Excellence in Teach-

May/June 2008

45

Three groups'sketch-to-stretch artifacts on Bryson's chapter'The Eartb Moves."

3.

46

Journal O College Science Teaching

Inquiry and Connections in Integrated Science

er Preparation Grant. DUE-9852167;
iiv an NSF Course.
Curriculum,
and Laboratoiy Improvement Grant.
DVE-031624: and by the University of Illinois at Chicago College of
Education. College of Liberal Arts and
Sciences, and Center for Learning.
Instruction, and Teacher Development.
The ideas, data, statements, views, and
recommendations presented are solely
ihe responsibilities of the authors and
do not neces.\arily reflect the views of
the NSF and the other funding entities. In addition to the authors, the
Integrated Science Content Courses
Team includes Mar}'Ashley (University
of Illinois at Chicago). Julie EllefsonKuelm (Harper Community College.
Palatine), Dennis Lehman (Harold
Washington Community
College,
Chicago). Marlynne Nishimura (University of Illinois at Chicago), Dana
Peny (Hamid Washington Community
College. Chicago). Sanghamitra Saha
(Harold Washington Community College. Chicago). Stacy Wenzel (University of Illinois at Chicago), and David
Zoller (Olive Harvey Community
College. Chicago).
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