Nutrition for

Competitive Dogs

Proceedings from a Symposium Presented

to Breeders, Handlers, and Trainers
February 2000

Nutrition for
Competitive Dogs

Proceedings from a Symposium Presented

to Breeders, Handlers, and Trainers
February 2000

Copyright 2000 The Iams Company, Dayton, OH 45414, USA

All rights reserved.
Internet address: www.iams.com
Printed in the United States of America.
Item #RD 0022

Contents
Author Profiles....................................................................................5
Conditioning the Performance Dog............................................................6
Martin Coffman, DVM

Growing Pains: Successfully Raising the Large Breed Puppy............................12

Daniel P. Carey, DVM; Allan J. Lepine, PhD

Nutritional Influences on Skeletal Growth of the Large Breed Puppy..................16

Allan J. Lepine, PhD

Author Profiles
Martin Coffman, DVM
The Iams Company
Dr. Coffman received his DVM in 1970 from Auburn University. He was in private small animal
practice for thirty years in Jackson, TN and Grove Hill, AL. He is currently Manager of Enthusiast
Communications for The Iams Companys Research and Development Division. Dr. Coffman
is on the Advisory Panel for Auburns Sports Medicine Program. A sporting dog enthusiast, he
owns Briarmaster Kennels and is active in Beagle field trials.

Daniel P. Carey, DVM

The Iams Company
Dr. Carey received his BA degree in biology from Illinois Wesleyan University in 1973. He
continued graduate studies in biochemistry at the University of Missouri-Columbia where he also
received his DVM in 1978. Dr. Carey has been in private and clinical practice, including three
years in the United States Air Force as base veterinarian. He joined The Iams Company in 1986
and is currently Director of Technical Communications for the Research and Development
Division. Dr. Carey has been directly involved in nutrition research on a wide variety of animals
and has experience in clinical, surgical, diagnostic, and nutritional research.

Allan J. Lepine, PhD

The Iams Company
Dr. Lepine received his PhD in nonruminant nutrition from Cornell University in 1987, after
which he joined the faculty at The Ohio State University as an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Animal Science. In 1993, he accepted a position in Research and Development at
The Iams Company where he is currently Principal Research Nutritionist. His research interests
include neonatal nutrition, growth, and development as well as the effects of nutrition on
reproduction in companion animals. Dr. Lepine has published more than 60 scientific papers and
abstracts in peer- reviewed journals.

Martin Coffman, DVM

Research and Development Division
The Iams Company, Lewisburg, Ohio, USA

dogs have extraordinary exposure to disease-causing agents

at crowded events. Veterinarians are knowledgeable about
newer vaccines and their appropriate use in individual
breeds. Owners and trainers should ask their veterinarian
to outline a long-term comprehensive health care plan
incorporating vaccinations, parasite control, skin care,
dental care, and periodic hands-on examinations by the
doctor to avoid sickness that can sabotage a canine
performers career.

exercise conditioning before field trials or hunting because

unconditioned dogs usually only handle one days work
before faltering. It is not uncommon for field dogs to tire
after only two hours work. Well-conditioned dogs will
perform for much longer periods. Jogging or walking
briskly is fine for humans, but this level of exercise is
insufficient for the performance dog. Pulling carts or sleds
is effective especially if building muscle mass is desired.
Roading is popular because it is convenient and easy for
the trainer and very effective for the dog. A motorized
vehicle like an all-terrain cycle is ideal, but an automobile
or even a bicycle will work. Choose a dirt road or soft area.
Concrete and asphalt are devastating to pads. Keep in
mind that your dog cannot notify you that he or she needs
to stop for urination. Do not be guilty of ignoring your dog
while roading.
Roading, like all new skills, takes some training for the
dog. Start slowly and go only about one-half mile. The dog
should be loosely attached to the vehicle with enough
slack in the leash to insure safety. Build the distance up to
three miles per day five days per week and increase speed
to allow a loaping gate for the dog.1
For some enthusiasts, a mechanical treadmill may
be a better choice. These devices vary in price from $1,000
to about $1,700 depending on size and features. The ideal
exercise level is a 10-mph speed at an 11-degree slope.
Gradually increase time on the treadmill up to three miles
per day.

Table 1. Vaccination recommendations

VACCINATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
ADULT PERFORMANCE DOGS
Vaccinations should be administered in the off season to
allow time for immune response before exposure at events.

Rabies

Distemper
Adenovirus
Parvo
Parainfluenza
Bordetella
Lyme

Annual or triennial boosters administered

by veterinarian

Anuual boosters up to age 7

Annual intranasal booster

Annual booster if there is exposure to ticks

SOURCES OF TREADMILLS
Jog A Dog: 1(800) JogADog
DW Treadmills; 3617 W. Oak Avenue; Enid OK 73703

Table 2. Parasite control program

PARASITE CONTROL PROGRAM FOR
ADULT PERFORMANCE DOGS

Avoid hard, heavy pulling in a harness. This kind of

conditioning exercise can alter a normal, fluid gait. It has
been compared to putting a weight lifter on the tennis
court.4 Pulling a light cart is acceptable as is roading off
horseback if the pace in fast enough.
Swimming is another excellent method of exercising
the dog. Some dogs are reluctant to swim or insist on
playing in the pool. True conditioning exercise usually
occurs on a leash with the trainer directing the dogs
swimming efforts.

Heartworm prevention administered every 30 days year-round

if mosquitoes are present.
Fenbendazole 10% suspension or granules administered daily
for 3 straight days every 60 days year round.
Cestex or Droncit administered if immature tapeworms seen
in stool

Exercise
Most sporting dog owners think of exercise when
conditioning is discussed. Law enforcement dogs and sled
dogs must have a solid exercise program if they are to
complete their tasks. Agility dogs are athletic by design
and get exercise as a requirement for their work.
Increasingly, show dogs are being exercised to increase
stamina, build muscle tone and definition, and to decrease
pent up nervous energy.
Exercising the performance dog can take many forms.
Sporting dog trainers have long used concentrated

Common sense must prevail during exercise programs. Monitor the dogs
weight and appearance. Think gradual. Performance dogs cannot be
conditioned from scratch in the two weeks before entering their event.

Mental Preparation

Exposure to varied stimuli and return to a daily stable

routine allow performance dogs to handle stress better.
Early mental preparation and socialization is important in
conditioning both conformation and field dogs.

Prior to competition, performance dogs should have a

standard, rarely-varied routine for several weeks. They
should be fed at a certain time with a certain food,
exercised at a certain time, and groomed at a certain time.
Daily training should occur at the same time each day.
Dogs thrive on stability and routine.6
When dogs get on the circuit a similar routine
should be attempted though it is difficult to duplicate this
schedule between events due to rigorous travel requirements.
Most owners and handlers underestimate the stress
placed on show dogs and other performance dogs. Signs of
too much stress for an individual animal are: reluctance to
compete, hanging back on the lead, and failing to respond
to the handler. Physical signs like dropping coat,
whimpering for no reason, or failure to eat can be stress
related.6 Some animals can become truly ill and require

NUTRITION
Performance dog enthusiasts are very interested in
canine nutrition. Their rationale is simple: You can buy
the best-bred puppy in North America, send it to the
finest trainer in North America, and have it in top
physical condition, but if the dog is not fed for maximum
performance, it cannot win at the highest level.
Modification of nutrition is one of the most
convenient steps a competitor can take to improve
performance. Yet, there are many misconceptions about
the characteristics of the best ration for performance dogs.
For decades, protein
has been the component of
diet in human and canine
athletes that gets the
most credit for increased
performance.2 There is
evidence that protein
requirements do increase
with exercise. During intense
conditioning, athletes produce more protein and they
utilize more of this component. Athletes actually have
a larger volume of blood
and a higher level of red
blood cells during training
which reflects increased
protein usage.2 Very-lowprotein levels increase the
chance of injury to performance dogs and increasing the level of protein
decreases the incidence of
injury.2
However, it is important
in a performance dog ration
that nutritional factors other than protein are at high
levels. This insures that protein is not used for energy but
reserved for tissue building and replacement.
Protein is actually one of the least desirable muscle
fuels.2 The body cannot store it and every protein has a
job to do in the dogs body. If we ask our performance dogs
to use the protein in their ration for energy, some of these
functions can be impaired. This explains the increase in
injuries in dogs on low-protein diets.
Nutritionists have known for years that the main
source of energy for the performance dog must come from
fat or carbohydrate. The debate has been which of these
two components is most important in increasing

veterinary attention due to stress. Maintaining a reasonable

routine can prevent many problems. Time spent taking
prospects to shows or field trials to acclimate them to
crowds and the chaos of a dog event can prepare them for
their time in competition.
Socialization is especially important in performance
dogs coming from very successful kennels. As success
increases, kennels tend to grow. As the number of dogs
increases, outdoor kennels are built and daily personal
interaction becomes less likely. Most show breeders are
women and less than 40 percent of breeders have children
at home. Many show dogs benefit from purposeful exposure
to youngsters and men.7

performance and endurance. Most of us are familiar with

the popular carbohydrate loading done by marathon
runners prior to a race. A large plate of pasta and bread
the day before an endurance run increases the stored
carbohydrate (glycogen) in the runners muscles and
allows for better performance.
Many dog trainers have merely transposed the success
of carbohydrate loading in humans to the canine athlete.
But, the effect in dogs has not been the same.
In the early seventies, it was observed that sled dogs
fed high-carbohydrate rations actually had poor endurance
and even a stiff gait while racing.2 It was theorized that
excess glycogen led to increased lactic acid build up in
muscle tissue and decreased the dogs performance. He
switched the dogs to a high-protein, high-fat diet and
performance increased while the stiff gait disappeared.
The nutritionist never got to prove his lactic acid theory
because the sled dog owners would not let him put their
dogs back on the high-carbohydrate ration for research
purposes. They were sold on the high-fat food!
Continued research showed that dogs actually have a
very low requirement for carbohydrate and that, indeed,
fat was the preferred fuel for endurance in the performing
dog. The question often arises: If carbohydrates help
people, why dont they help canine athletes? The reasons
are complex and involve differences in gait,
cardiovascular physiology and energy metabolism. Dogs
and humans just have differences.
Researchers have studied the effect of high-fat diet on
dogs in intensive training.2 One of the important facts
discovered was that the high-fat
diets begin to help the dogs
High-fat diets prepare for the training season
begin to help weeks before increased activity
the dogs actually begins. The principle
product of fat metabolism used for
prepare for energy is fatty acids (FA). The
the training level of FA must be high for the
season weeks performance dog to have extra
energy. Long before actual hard
before increased work begins, the dogs fed high-fat
activity actually diets have high levels of FA in
blood stream. This early
begins. their
high FA level is extremely
important in performance dogs.
Just like with exercise, trainers should not wait until
one week before hunting season or a big show to begin the
high-fat ration. Owners of large kennels of hard working
dogs are tempted to feed a normal less expensive dog
food during the off season. They switch to the high-fat
food at the last minute before the competitive season
begins. A better strategy would be to feed a good ration
until eight weeks before performance is required and
begin the performance ration at that point. Beginning
the high-fat product early allows maximum FA in the
blood stream weeks before beginning stressful activity.

This primes the metabolic pump in the dog and gives

the animal a head start on other entrants. Of course, if
one is feeding a high-fat ration prior to training,
monitoring of weight gain and food intake is important.
Table 3. Dietary recommendations
Dietary Recommendations for Performance Dogs
Energy Density

4500 kcal ME/kg or greater

Fat

50 60% of calories

Protein

30 35% of calories

Carbohydrate

10 15% of calories

Total Dietary Fiber

3 7% of calories

Fatty Acid Profile: omega-6:omega-3 ratio between 5-10:1

From a practical standpoint, many enthusiasts want to

know just why dogs on high-fat rations perform better.
Simply put, dogs fed this type of ration prior to training and
competition are better able to utilize oxygen. As they run
or work or show, they inhale air and absorb oxygen. If
muscles of dogs fed the high-fat ration are examined under
the microscope, a large increase in the number
mitochondria are found. These little cell furnaces are the
source of energy for the dog. An increase in the size and
number of these tiny cell components allows for increased
oxygen utilization, which translates to more energy and
increased stamina. In fact, research in different breeds
points to the conclusion that a high-fat diet can increase
performance and endurance as much as selective breeding.2
Competitors might be tempted to just add fat to the
ration currently being fed. There are several disadvantages
to this and some safety factors.
Here are the important facts about fat supplementation:
Fatty acid supplements are very unstable without
antioxidant stabilization
Most fatty acid supplements contain high levels of the
wrong type of fatty acid, making it difficult to achieve
the correct FA ratio.
Administration of a pill every day to a kennel
of performance dogs is not practical.
Extra supplements add to kennel costs.
Too much of some FAs may cause bleeding disorders.4
In a large kennel of sporting dogs or show dogs with a
long-term breeding program in place, it is essential that
a manageable feeding program be utilized that combines
economy with a nutritional plane that allows maximum
performance. Competition at most dog events is at an all
time high. Regardless of class size, the quality of the
animals presented is excellent. As a result, every nuance of

preparation must be used for success. Newer research

allows the enthusiast to understand the special nutritional
requirements of the highly bred performance dog as never
before and to provide competitive dogs with the best
nutrition ever available.
The challenge is to design a feeding program that
meets all the needs of the animal: high energy demands,
high water turnover, special protein requirements, correct
fat adjustments, and overall health.5

1,600 kcal of energy in a one-day hunt. To supply this

much energy requires a very dense dog food. It is crucial
that you analyze the food your dog is getting to insure an
adequate level of calories is being provided. The protein
requirements of dogs in training and those on the easy
list do not change. About 35% of total calories should
come from a meat protein source. Fresh meat has
disadvantages as a supplement. It can spoil making storage
a problem and food poisoning a possibility. It contains a
lot of water thus making it a less
dense food source. High-quality
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FEEDING PROGRAM FOR THE PERFORMANCE KENNEL
premium dog foods have meat
protein readily available to the
animal. The ration should contain
A nutrient-dense diet that allows enough energy in a small quantity of food
enough fat to provide the required
energy and in the correct fatty acid
ratios. Fiber sources should help
Protein balanced to the dietary calories
maintain good hydration and a
functional intestinal tract.
A fat profile that maximizes energy and glycogen repletion while minimizing problems
A food with a total dietary
fiber level of 37% of a moderately
fermentable fiber does this and
A fiber source that allows for the healthiest dog
allows the performance dog to
have quick, clean, healthy bowel
Excellent palatability
movements during work and allows
better control of evacuations under
stress.
Convenient to purchase and easy to prepare
Trainers and handlers must
be aware of water needs of hard
Stable and safe to store while traveling from event to event.
working dogs. Big running dogs
can drink 5 liters of water per day.
Convenient, portable water
Dogs in heavy training often do not want to eat large
containers should be utilized for frequent watering stops.
quantities of food. As opposed to dogs used for sporadic
Consumption should be modest at each stop.
hunting or other part-time work that may have increased
In the throes of show or field competition, handlers
appetites, pressured competition dogs may develop a
and owners need a quick, convenient source of maximum
numbed desire for food. In field
nutrition. This allows more time for checking cuts,
trial Beagles, it is not unusual
grooming, and personal rest. The best answer is an
It is crucial for dogs to decrease food extremely high-quality commercial ration in a durable
that you consumption by 50% while being container that, when mixed with water, produces a
on a daily basis. The
complete, tasty food for the dog and allows the animal to
analyze the campaigned
combination of lowered appetite,
perform to its genetic and trained potential.
food your dog uncomfortable, unfamiliar housOwning, breeding, and training high - quality
ing
at
events
and
the
daily
work
of
performance
dogs is a labor of love. Seeing great dogs
is getting to
competition can lead to weight
work and gain recognition is gratifying as in few other
insure that loss. They are just too tired to eat. endeavors. There are no shortcuts to success.
an adequate
These dogs that become finicky
Conditioning and nutrition are examples of the need to
require
a
highly
palatable
food
forego the easy or cheap route. The competition is stiff,
level of
to help them maintain an
the work is hard and the stakes are too high for taking
calories
adequate caloric consumption.
chances. Find the best breeding available. Provide the best
is being Food products chosen for the training. Then, get your dog in top condition to compete,
provided. competition dog must taste good work, or hunt and feed a high-quality food with the correct
enough to entice these reluctant
levels of fat and protein. Then, you can enjoy the
eaters.
accomplishment and respect you and your performance
The ration should supply adequate nutrition in a
dog deserve.
compact manner. A 53-pound English Pointer can burn

10

REFERENCES
1. Mueller, Larry: Speed Train Your Own Bird Dog, Stackpole Books 1990.
2. Reynolds, Arleigh et al: The Effect of Diet on Sled Dog Performance,
Oxidative Capacity, Skeletal Muscle Microstructure, and Muscle
Glycogen Metabolism in Proceedings of the 1996 Iams International
Nutrition Symposium, 1996.
3. Whele, Robert G. : Snakefoot: The Making of a Champion; The
Country Press; 128-129; 1996.
4. Reinhart, Gregory: Fat for the Performance Dog; Performance Dog
Nutrition Symposium; Colorado State University, April 1995.

5. Reinhart, Gregory: Practical Recommendations for Feeding

Performance Dogs; Performance Dog Nutrition Symposium, Colorado
State University, April 1995.
6. Grossman, Alvin; Every Dog Has His Day, on Internet @ cyberpet.com;
1996.
7. Dunbar, Ian: quoted by Grossman from AKC Gazette, 1990 on
Internet @ cyberpet.com, 1996.

11

140
130# Great Dane
120

100
75# German
Shepherd

80

62# Setter
60
42# Bulldog
40
28# Human
23# Cocker

20

10# Pekingese

Daniel P. Carey, DVM

Allan J. Lepine, PhD

0
0

Research and Development Division

The Iams Company, Lewisburg, Ohio, USA

12

18

24

30

Figure 1 Representative growth curves of a

variety of breeds. Adapted from Current
Veterinary Therapy V, 1974. (Reprinted
from Lepine AJ, Nutritional management of
the large breed puppy. In: Reinhart GA,
Carey DP, eds. Recent Advances in
Canine and Feline Nutrition,Vol II: 1998
Iams Nutrition Symposium Proceedings.
Wilmington, OH: Orange Frazer Press, 1998,
p54. Used with permission).

12

DEVELOPMENTAL BONE DISEASES

Osteochondrosis
Osteochondrosis is a common cause of lameness in
growing large and giant breeds with a high incidence in
the Great Dane, Labrador Retriever, Newfoundland, and
Rottweiler. Osteochondrosis is the degeneration or
breakdown of bone and cartilage of certain joints. It
commonly is followed by regeneration or calcification of
the tissues of the joint while it attempts to heal. It typically

N O R M A L

A B N O R M A L

Hip Dysplasia

N O R M A L

Of all the skeletal diseases of dogs, hip dysplasia is the

most well known. It is a developmental disease of the hip
joint where luxation of the femur from the socket
(acetabulum) of the pelvis causes remodeling of this joint.
The acetabulum becomes shallow with flattening of the
head of the femur. The mismatch of the ball and socket
leads to arthritis. Early cases of hip dysplasia may have signs
of mild discomfort after exercise or a general mild lameness.
As the condition progresses, lameness, pain, abnormal gait,
reluctance to rise and a thinning of muscling of the thighs
may occur. Hip dysplasia is a polygenic disease (involves
many genes) that can be influenced by diet. Rapid growth
or rapid weight gain can aggravate the lameness of hip
dysplasia.

A B N O R M A L

occurs in growing dogs between 5 and 9 months of age and

is often associated with rapid growth. Dogs with
osteochondrosis usually present to their veterinarian with
pain, lameness, and swelling of the shoulder, elbow, hock,
or stifle joints. It is considered a systemic disease and
affects more than one or 2 joints at a time although it may
show in only one. When the breakdown of the cartilage
occurs in some of these joints, occasionally small sections
of tissue can break loose inside the joint forming a calcified
joint mouse. This is more commonly known to breeders
then as osteochondrosis dessicans or as OCD.

Hypertrophic Osteodystrophy
N O R M A L

Hypertrophic osteodystrophy is another common

cause of lameness of puppies in breeds such as Great
Danes, Saint Bernards, Boxers, Dalmatians, Irish Setters,
German Shepherds, Labrador Retrievers, Collies, and
other rapidly growing large breeds at 3 to 8 months of age.
It is a condition characterized by abnormal bone growth of
the lower front leg (of the
radius or ulna the area
just above the carpus).
This results in large
wrists and, sometimes,
bowed legs. These puppies
may also have an elevated
body temperature and/or
become anorexic or not
interested in eating their
food.

A B N O R M A L

Panosteitis
Panosteitis is another commonly discussed bone disease in
the breeder arena. This condition is also known as eosinophilic
panosteitis, Pano or Eo Pan, which is the most common
terminology used by breeders. It is a disease of the long bones of
the forelimb such as the humerus, radius or of the hind leg
including the femur or tibia of large and giant breeds of dogs.
German Shepherds seem to have a higher incidence of this
condition. However, any breed can be plagued by this condition
especially puppies with extremely large bone. Although this
condition can cause extreme lameness and be alarming to the
average breed or owner, it is self-limiting, and there is no
permanent damage or aftermath of the condition. It is most
often seen during growth spurts with affected pups usually losing
their appetite in addition to showing lameness.

13

Energy Density

Most commonly puppies will have acute onset of lameness

with no history of trauma. Male puppies are 4 times more
affected than females.1 Puppies with panosteitis will often
carry or favor the limb that is affected for just a few days or
many weeks. Often, the puppy will appear to have a shifting
leg lameness, that is, they appear to be lame on one leg one day
and another leg the next. Such puppies usually have panosteitis
of multiple bones and limp on the one that hurts the most.
What influences the developmental bone diseases? Where
does diet fit in? What can be done to avoid these problems in
puppies?
It is known that all skeletal development is affected by four
major areas:

Genetics

Nutrition

Environment

However, research done by Hedhammer did find a

nutritional factor that does influence the incidence of certain
developmental bone diseases. This researcher investigated the
issue of dietary energy intake (how many calories a puppy ate
each day) by feeding either (1) as much as the puppy wanted to
eat [ad libitum] or (2) a restricted amount of food [66% of the
ad libitum amount]. This research was also done on Great
Dane puppies which were fed until the puppies were 60 weeks of
age (approximately 15 months old). He found that the puppies
fed as much as they wanted (ad libitum) had a significantly
higher incidence of skeletal abnormalities than those puppies
who were fed a restricted amount of food (meal fed).4
Another researcher (Dammrich) in 1991 confirmed this
fact by doing research on Great Dane puppies fed ad libitum
or a restricted diet of 70-80% of the ad libitum fed puppies.5
His research was done from weaning until 6 months of age. He
proved that puppies fed as much as they wanted had weaker
bone and inadequate support of the joint cartilage. Thus,
those puppies fed as much as they wanted had a significantly
higher frequency of developmental bone diseases.5
Iams research has also shown that the number of dogs
showing the radiographic changes of osteochondrosis and
HOD increases as the number of calories consumed increases.
In other words, pups that get too many calories grow fast and
are more likely to have developmental bone problems.

Trauma

GENETICS
As we all know, the genes make the dog. Therefore
genetics can play a significant role in the development of
certain bone diseases. Puppies from very large boned parents
may have large bones and be more apt to develop
panosteitis. Puppies from dysplastic parents are much more
likely of becoming dysplastic. Puppies from parents who
were rapidly growing are more likely to grow rapidly, too.
When considering genetics and nutrition together, there
are 2 well-known nutritional truths. The first is that growth
rate and adult size are programmed in the genes for every
puppy. The second is that increasing the energy intake
(supplying more calories) to a puppy can push the growth
rate to its upper limit and thus increase the likelihood of
certain skeletal diseases. This leads to the next topic of
discussion nutrition.

Calcium
The amount of calcium in a diet has also been
demonstrated to have significant effects on the
development of the skeleton of the large or giant breed
puppy. Research done by Hazewinkel et al. showed that
diets too high in calcium have been shown to have
detrimental effects on puppies endocrine systems, blood
levels of calcium and skeletal development and will increase
the risk of developmental bone diseases. Specifically, high
levels of calcium affected bone development by causing
retained cartilage cones, increased bone mineral, and
delayed bone remodeling. These puppies had more
abnormalities seen on their radiographs (x-rays) with more
osteochondritic lesions (osteochondrosis).6,7
Another research project done by The Iams Company
evaluated 3 diets containing 26% protein and 14% fat, but
differing in the calcium and phosphorus levels:

NUTRITION
Nutrition can influence the development of certain
developmental bone diseases in 3 areas: protein content of a
diet, energy content or calories fed, and calcium intake
(whether as part of the diet or as a supplement).

Dietary Protein
In the past, some diets were said to be too hot (ie,
contained high levels of dietary protein) and promoted rapid
growth rate predisposing large and giant breed dogs to
skeletal problems. However, controlled research done in
1991 by Nap et al.,2 showed that protein was uninvolved.
Great Dane puppies were fed identical diets except for the
protein content from weaning for 18 weeks. These diets had
a broad range of dietary protein compositions of 31.6%,
23.1% and 14.6%. This research demonstrated that skeletal
development problems were NOT related to variations of
the dietary protein content. Thus, protein in and of itself
does not effect bone development or influence the incidence
of developmental bone diseases.2,3 (The low-protein diet did
have some problems keeping weight on the pups.)

Test Diet

Ca:P Levels

2.70% calcium to 2.20% phosphorus

0.80% calcium to 0.67% phosphorus

0.48% calcium to 0.40% phosphorus

Great Danes puppies were fed the various diets from preweaning until 18 months of age. During this research
growth rate, body composition, bone mineral density or
composition, and skeletal integrity were evaluated. This
research demonstrated that diets with 0.8% calcium and
0.67% phosphorus level provided ideal mineral levels for

14

Dietary protein has little impact on skeletal disease. Feed

a diet with about 26% protein to support muscle
development.
Mature size is genetically programmed.

healthy bone growth and development for large breed dogs.

Puppies fed the diet with these levels had better
conformational or skeletal structure. These puppies also had
a lower prevalence of developmental bone disease or
clinical signs of lameness.8-11

Support healthy bone development

Appropriate dietary calcium and phosphorus
concentrations are essential. The diet should have a
calcium level of 0.8 to 0.9% and be balanced with
phosphorus.
Calcium supplementation or high calcium diets can
increase the incidences of certain developmental bone
diseases. Any supplementation whether as calcium, bone
meal or dairy products will increase the calcium intake and
increase the puppy's likelihood of developmental bone
disease.

Environment
Environment also can influence the incidence of certain
types of developmental bone diseases occuring in our large
breed dogs. Environmental influences are anything that can
effect an animal from non-genetic sources. Space for
exercise and exercise (or lack of) and conditioning are
considered environmental influences. Dogs that are not
exercised properly do not develop adequate muscling or
tendon strength, and thus these things can alter bone
density and development. Slippery floors or awkward
footing can lead to abnormal gait and altered bone
development, particularly in very young puppies.

Breeders CAN influence the frequency of certain bone

diseases occurring in their kennel by implementing proper
feeding management of their puppies, considering the
genetic potential of the heritage of their dogs, exercising and
conditioning properly, as well as preventing trauma or
damage to growing bones and cartilage of their puppies.

Trauma
Any type of trauma, especially to the rapidly growing
large or giant breed dog can effect both bone and joint
development. Broken bones, slipped growth plates, or
injured joint cartilage can all be factors that determine
whether dogs can be predisposed to developing bone or
joint problems in the future. Thus it is important to allow
for proper exercise and conditioning of large breed dogs, but
not to stress their delicate, young skeletons which may cause
injury that could be permanent. Puppies should not be
pushed to perform. A puppy with an otherwise unnoticeable
osteochondrosis often has a history of running and pulling
up lame. The combination of a developmental bone disease
and trauma created the lameness. Surfaces and conditions
should be carefully evaluated to avoid dangerous structures
for dogs. Trauma-related injury can be avoided by using
common sense and light exercise.

REFERENCES
1. Barrett RB, Schall WD, Lewis RE: Clinical and radiographic features of
canine eosinophilic panosteitis. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 1968; 4:94-104.
2. Nap RC, Hazewinkel HAW, Voorhout G, Van De Brom WE,
Goedegebuure SA, Van'T Klooser ATh. Growth and skeletal
development in Great Dane pups fed different levels of protein intake.
J Nutr 1991; 121:S107-S113.
3. Nap RC, Hazelwinkel HAW, Voorhout G, Biewenga WJ, Koeman JP,
Goedegebuure SA, Van't Klooser ATh. The influence of dietary protein
content on growth in giant breed dogs. J Vet Comp Orth Traumatolo
1993; 1-8.
4. Hedhammer A, Wu F, Krook L, Schryver HF, Delahunta A, Whalen JP,
Kallfelz FA, Numez EA, Hintz HF, Sheffy, Ryan GD. Overnutrition and
skeletal disease. An experimental study in Great Dane dogs. Cornell
Vet 1974; 64 (suppl. 1): 1-160.
5. Dammrich K. Relationship between nutrition and bone growth in large
and giant dogs. J Nutr 1991; 121(11 Suppl):S114-21
6. Hazelwinkel HAW, Goedegebuure SA, Poulos PW, Wolvekamp WThC.
Influences of chronic calcium excess on the skeletal development of
growing Great Danes. JAAHA 1985; 21:377-391
7. Goedegebuure SA, Hazewinkel HAW. Morphological findings in young
dogs chronically fed a diet containing excess calcium. Vet Pathol 1986;
23:594-605.
8. Lauten SD, Brawner Jr WR, Goodman SA, Lepine AJ, Reinhart GA,
Baker HJ. Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry measurement of body
composition and skeletal development in giant breed dogs fed diets
differing in calcium and phosphorus. FASEB J 1997; A388.
9. Lauten SD, Brawner Jr WR, Goodman SA, Lepine AJ, Reinhart GA,
Vaughn DM, Baker HJ. Body composition of growing Great Dane
puppies fed diets varying in calcium and phosphorus concentrations
evaluated by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. ACVR 1996; 1-8.
10. Brawner Jr WR, Hathcock JT, Goodman SA, Lauten SD, Cox NR,
Kincaid SA, Baker HJ, Lepine AJ. Radiographic lesions observed in
growing Great Dane puppies fed diets varying in mineral content: a
preliminary report. ACVR 1996; 1-9.
11. Goodman SA, Montgomery RD, Lauten SD, Hathcock JT, Brawner
Jr WR, Cox NR, Kincaid SA, Reinhart GA, Lepine AJ, Baker HJ.
Orthopedic observations in Great Dane puppies fed diets varying in
calcium and phosphorus content: a preliminary report. Veterinary
Orthopedic Society 24th Annual Conference Proceedings; 1997; 51.

Practical Implications
Large and giant breed dogs can be plagued by the
occurrence of certain bone diseases during their early and
adolescent growth stages. Genetics, environment, and
nutrition can influence the development of these conditions.
Based on recent research, nutrition can play a key role in
decreasing the occurrence and severity of these diseases.
Some of the concepts we know now exist are:
Managed growth rate is important in reducing the
incidence of skeletal disease
The ideal diet for growing
Rapid rate of growth
large breed puppies
contributes to the incidence
from weaning to
of skeletal abnormalities.
adulthood contains
Feed a diet with around
26% protein
15% fat to provide enough
15% fat
calories for growth but not
0.80% calcium
so much as to fuel rapid
0.67% phosphorus
growth.

15

Nutritional
Influences on
Skeletal Growth
of the Large
Breed Puppy

Three dietary
components
the dietary
concentration
of energy,
protein, and
calcium (and
phosphorus)
have been
implicated
as primary
contributors to
an increased
incidence of
skeletal disease
in the growing
large breed
puppy.

Allan J. Lepine, PhD

Research and Development Division
The Iams Company, Lewisburg, Ohio

16

development, morphology, and pathology of the skeleton

in the large-breed puppy. Hazewinkel and colleagues5 and
Goedegebuure and Hazewinkel6 evaluated the effect of
feeding either a typical calcium diet (1.10% Ca/0.90% P)
or a high-calcium diet (3.30% Ca/0.90% P) to Great Dane
puppies from weaning through 6 months of age. The effect
of the high-calcium diet on endocrine status
(hypercalcemia, hypophosphatemia, less active parathyroid
glands, increased activity of thyroid C cells), skeletal
development (increased osteoblasts, decreased osteoclasts,
decreased osteoclast activity, more retained cartilage cones,
increased bone mineral mass, delayed bone remodeling),
and skeletal disease (increased radiographic irregularities,
more osteochondritic lesions) clearly demonstrated the
negative impact of excess dietary calcium on skeletal
health of the large-breed puppy. This conclusion was
further supported by the finding that the large-breed puppy
was ineffective in reducing intestinal calcium absorption
when provided a high-calcium diet and was therefore
unable to protect itself from a chronic high dietary calcium
intake.7 In contrast, intestinal calcium absorption was
increased to greater than 90% of calcium intake when a
low-calcium diet was consumed.

CURRENT RESEARCH
Research published to date clearly documents that (1)
maximal growth rate supported by elevated energy intake
increases the incidence of skeletal disease, (2) dietary
protein level has little influence on the incidence of
skeletal disease, and (3) high dietary calcium concentration
interferes with normal skeletal development and promotes
skeletal pathology in the large-breed puppy. Nevertheless,
data on which to base specific dietary recommendations for
dietary energy and calcium concentrations for the largebreed puppy are lacking. A comprehensive research effort is
underway to provide this essential information. In brief, a
total of 36 Great Dane puppies were assigned to three
treatment diets differing in calcium and phosphorus
concentration: 0.48% Ca/0.40% P (LC), 0.80% Ca/0.67%
P (MC), and 2.70% Ca/2.20% P (HC). These levels of
calcium and phosphorus were selected to allow evaluation
of the hypothesis that a calcium and phosphorus
concentration lower than found in typical premium puppy
diets (e.g., 1.20% Ca/1.00% P) would enhance skeletal
health when provided in a dietary matrix of reduced energy
density designed to manage growth rate and decrease the
slope of the growth curve. To achieve the reduced energy
density, all diets were formulated to contain 14% fat,
compared to 20% to 21% fat in the typical premium puppy
food. Dietary protein concentration was also lowered to
26% to maintain an appropriate dietary protein:energy
ratio. The three diets were fed to growing Great Danes from
preweaning through 18 months of age. Briefly reported here
are the results published to date for body weight, body
composition, bone mineral density, and skeletal integrity
(based on radiographic and orthopedic examinations).

Figure 1 Relative body size of Great Danes consuming a diet containing either high calcium (HC; top), medium calcium (MC; middle)
or low calcium (LC; bottom).

Puppies consuming the MC diet grew more rapidly and

had increased body weights relative to puppies fed the HC
and LC diets (Figure 1).8 Nevertheless, no differences in
bone lengths were apparent across treatment groups by 6
months of age. Lean body mass and fat tissue were equal
across treatments at weaning, but by 4 months of age,
puppies fed the MC diet had a higher percentage of fat
tissue and lower lean body mass as compared to the other
two treatment diets.9 Differences in bone mineral content
(BMC), as measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry
(DEXA), were evident by 8 weeks of age and continued to

17

LC

LC

4.00 -

MC

3.50 -

HC

MC

0.8 -

HC

3.00 -

Grams/cm2

Percentage

1.0 4.50 -

2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 -

0.6 0.4 0.2 -

4
Age (Months)

0.0

0.00

0.50 -

Age (Months)

Figure 2 Percentage of bone mineral content of Great Danes

consuming a diet containing high calcium (HC), medium calcium
(MC), or low calcium (LC).

Figure 3 Percentage of bone mineral content of Great Danes

consuming a diet containing high calcium (HC), medium calcium
(MC), or low calcium (LC).

diverge through 6 months of age.9 BMC, as a percentage of

body weight, was 1.07% (LC), 1.42% (MC), and 1.85%
(HC) at 2 months of age and increased to 2.91% (LC),
3.45% (MC), and 3.84% (HC) by 6 months of age (Figure
2). Furthermore, bone mineral density (BMD) values were
likewise different by 8 weeks of age: 0.442 g/cm2 (LC),
0.456 g/cm2 (MC), and 0.482 g/cm2 (HC; Figure 3).10
Differences in BMD across treatment groups continued
through 6 months of age, after which time the magnitude
of the response began to decrease. By 12 months of age,
BMD values were 0.976 g/cm2 (LC), 1.046 g/cm2 (MC),
and 1.054 g/cm2 (HC).10 Orthopedic examination
revealed that 6 of the 15 dogs consuming the HC diet
exhibited clinical signs of lameness through the first 6
months of the study.11 Three of these dogs exhibited
clinical signs of hypertrophic osteodystrophy.
Conformation of dogs fed the high mineral diet was
considered inferior to those receiving the other diets.

The altered body composition of puppies fed the MC diet

may reflect that 0.80% calcium is a more appropriate
level of supplementation, supporting the modestly
restricted growth velocity
resulting from a lower energy
density. Puppies fed the MC
The results
diet may therefore be placed
of ongoing
on a relatively more advanced
research clearly
position on the growth curve
compared to puppies fed the
document that
HC and LC diets, while
the unique
maintaining a more gradual
nutritional
growth curve relative to the
genetic potential.
demands of the

large breed
puppy are
best provided
by a dietary
matrix
containing
26% protein,
14% fat,
0.80% calcium,
and 0.67%
phosphorus.

The results of this ongoing research clearly document

that the unique nutritional demands of the large-breed
puppy are best provided by a dietary matrix containing
26% protein (high quality, animal-based source), 14% fat,
0.80% calcium, and 0.67% phosphorus.
Support for this recommendation is based on the
following research observations:

BMC and BMD were lower

in puppies fed the LC diet
(0.48% calcium), indicating
an inadequate level of
supplementation in this
dietary matrix. Furthermore,
BMC and BMD responses
occurred very early in the
growth phase, indicating the
need to address the
nutritional requirements
of the large-breed puppy
immediately after weaning.

A reduced dietary energy density, which is typically

found in puppy foods, provides for easier management of
growth rate and will moderately restrict the growth rate
relative to the genetic potential. Mature body size is
genetically determined and will simply be attained at a
slightly older age with a more gradual growth rate.

Orthopedic examination
revealed a higher incidence
of abnormalities in the
puppies consuming the HC diet (2.70% calcium),
indicative of calcium oversupplementation in this dietary
matrix containing a reduced energy density.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

18

REFERENCES
8. Goodman SA, Montgomery RD, Lauten SD, et al: Orthopedic
observations in Great Dane puppies fed diets varying in calcium and
phosphorus contentA preliminary report. Vet Comp Orthopaed
Trauma 1997; 10:75.
9. Lauten SD, Brawner WR, Goodman SA, et al: Changes in body
composition of growing Great Danes fed diets varying in Ca and P
level evaluated by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. ACVR
Proceedings 1996; 1-8, (Abstract).
10. Lauten SD, Brawner WR, Goodman SA, et al: Dual energy x-ray
absorptiometry measurement of body composition and skeletal
development in giant breed dogs fed diets differing in calcium and
phosphorus. FASEB J 1997; 11:A388.
11. Brawner WR, Hathcock JT, Goodman SA, et al: Clinical and
radiographic observations of growing Great Danes fed diets varying in
mineral content: A preliminary report. ACVR Proceedings, 1996; 1-9
(Abstract).

1. American Kennel Club: The Complete Dog Book: Official Publication

of the American Kennel Club 1992; ed 18. New York, Macmillan.
2. Hedhammer A, Wu F, Krook L, et al: Overnutrition and skeletal
disease. An experimental study in Great Dane dogs. Cornell Vet
1974; 64(Suppl 1):1160.
3. Dammrich K: Relationship between nutrition and bone growth in
large and giant dogs. J Nutr 1991; 121:S114S121.
4. Nap RC, Hazewinkel HAW, Voorhout G, et al: Growth and skeletal
development in Great Dane pups fed different levels of protein
intake. J Nutr 1991; 121:S107S113.
5. Hazewinkel HAW, Goedegebuure SA, Poulos PW, Wolvekamp
WThC: Influences of chronic calcium excess on the skeletal
development of growing Great Danes. JAVMA 1985; 21:377391.
6. Goedegebuure SA, Hazewinkel HAW: Morphological findings in
young dogs chronically fed a diet containing excess calcium. Vet
Pathol 1986; 23:594605.
7. Hazewinkel HAW, Van Den Brom WE, Van T Klooster ATh, et al:
Calcium metabolism in Great Dane dogs fed diets with various
calcium and phosphorus levels. J Nutr 1991; 121:S99S106.

This article was originally published in Canine Skeletal Development and Soundness.
A Proceedings from a Symposium at the North American Veterinary Conference, January 13, 1998.

19

Innovative Research in Dog and Cat Nutrition

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