Glossary

A |B|C|D|E |F |G|H |I|J|K|L |M|N |O|P |Q |R|S |T|U |V|W|X|Y|Z

A
95% confidence intervals An estimate of scores that the true value lies within. In 95%
confidence intervals the probability of the true value falling within the limits is 95%.
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) Assesses the impact of independent variables on a
dependent variable whilst controlling for the effects of extraneous variables that may have an
impact on the dependent variable.
analysis of variance (ANOVA) A statistical technique that is used in difference studies with
more than two groups. ANOVA calculates the F ratio to determine whether between group
variance is larger or smaller than the within group variance.
APA format Results written in accordance with the guidelines published by the American
Psychological Association.
assumption of equal variance Assumes that the variability in scores on continuous variables is
equal in all categories of discrete variables.
assumption of homoscedasticity Homoscedasticity is also known as homogeneity of variance.
Assumption that variance on variable x is equal at all values of variable y.
assumption of independence Assumes that scores on one case are not affected by scores from
any other cases.
assumption of multicollinearity Assumes that the independent variables are not highly
correlated with one another.
assumption of normality Assumes that data is normally distributed.
assumption of singularity Assumes that one independent variable is not a combination of scores
on other independent variables.
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B
Beta values Show the magnitude and direction of the unique relationship between each
independent variable and the dependent variable in a multiple regression.
bivariate correlation Tests the relationship between two variables.
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C
categorical data Also referred to as nominal data. Data belonging to this group can be sorted
into categories according to its value.
causality See cause and effect. Establishing causality seeks to identify a cause and effect
relationship.
cause and effect Establishing that changes in one variable caused a change in another.
central tendency A measure of the average score within a set of data, can be calculated in
several ways.
chi-square goodness-of-fit test Also referred to as the one-sample chi-square. A non-parametric
test used to compare the frequency distribution of cases on a single, categorical variable to
hypothesised values.
chi-square test for independence Also known as a chi-square contingency table analysis. A
non-parametric test used to establish whether there is a relationship between two categorical
variables.
confounding variable A variable that may impact upon your variables of interest.
continuous variable A variable that is measured on a scale rather than by placing cases into
categories or rank order.
correlation A relationship between two variables.
covariates A variable that is possibly predictive of an outcome. It has a relationship to the
variables of interest in your research design.
critical value The value that the test statistic must exceed in order for the result to be classed as
significant. The critical value varies depending upon the number of degrees of freedom and the
desired alpha level.

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D
data Measurements and/or observations made during research.
degrees of freedom The number of values that are free to vary in a statistical calculation. When
conducting inferential tests the degrees of freedom have an impact upon the critical value of the
test.
dependent variable The variable(s) in a research project that will be measured.
descriptive statistics Summaries or research data, normally includes measures of central
tendency and distribution of data.
dichotomous A variable that has two categories.
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E
effect size An estimate of the magnitude of the relationship between variables.
expected values The number of cases you expect within a particular category if the null
hypothesis is true. These are based on hypothesised values specified by the researcher. The
hypothesised values may come from known values within the population, or be based on
theoretical values.
experimental hypothesis Proposes a relationship or difference between scores.
extraneous variable A variable that may have an impact upon the outcome of your test that you
wish to control for.
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F
frequency distribution A tally of how many time each data point occurs in a set of data.
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H
hierarchical multiple regression A parametric test used to assess how well a set of independent
variables predicts a dependent variable. Allows for control of variables and assessment of

whether additional independent variables improve prediction of the dependent variable.

histogram Graphical display of the distribution of scores on a continuous variable.
homogeneity of variance Equality of the extent to which scores vary in two or more
distributions.
hypothesis A testable research question generated from theory and previous research.
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I
independence of observations Assumes that data collected from one case is not influenced in
any way by the data from other cases.
independent-samples t-test A parametric test used to assess whether two groups differ in terms
of scores on a continuous variable. Cases in the two groups are different.
independent variable The variable(s) in a research project that are manipulated by the
researcher.
interval level data Scale where the measurement points are evenly distributed. Negative values
can be used. Temperature is an example.
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L
level of measurement How a variable is measured. Variables may be measured on nominal,
ordinal, interval or ratio level scales.
Likert scale A form of measurement often used in questionnaires. Sum of scores on Likert items.
Likert items typically measure variables on a 5- or 7-point scale.
linear relationship A relationship between two variables that when plotted on a scatterplot is
best represented by a straight line.
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M
matched cases Matched cases are used when it would be ideal to use the same participants in
each group, but some aspect of the research design precludes this. Every participant will have a

counterpart in the other group, i.e. someone with the same profile as them on key variables.
mean A measure of central tendency, the arithmetic average of a set of scores.
median A measure of central tendency, the middle number in a set of scores.
mode A measure of central tendency, the most frequently occurring number in a set of scores.
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) A statistical procedure used to look at group
differences when there is more than one dependent variable in the research design.
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N
nominal data See Categorical data.
non-parametric data Nominal, ordinal or interval/ratio level data that is not normally
distributed or does not possess homogeneity of variance is referred to as non-parametric.
non-parametric test Statistical analyses that do not require data to be interval level, be normally
distributed or have homogeneity of variance.
non-significant Used to suggest that the outcome of a statistical test shows an alpha level above
the accepted level.
normal distribution A distribution of scores which are mathematically defined and when
graphed appears symmetrical like a bell curve. Most scores are concentrated around the mean,
with very few cases at the extremes.
normality plots Graphical techniques for assessment of normality.
null hypothesis Hypothesises that there is no effect in the data, any patterns seen are due to
chance factors.
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O
one-tailed hypothesis A hypothesis that predicts an effect in a particular direction.
ordinal data Scale where the relative position of points is given, but measurement points are not
evenly distributed. Position in a race is an example.
outliers Data points that vary from the general trend of the data. For example, singular very high

or very low scores.

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P
p value Also known as the alpha value, or significance level. Indicates the statistical probability
that the data you have occurred by chance.
paired-samples t-test Also known as a repeated-measures t-test. A parametric test used to
establish whether there is a difference between two groups in terms of scores on a continuous
variable. Cases in the two groups are the same, or matched on key variables.
parallel form A second version of a psychometric test that has the same psychometric properties
as the first, but uses different items.
parametric data Interval or ratio level data that is normally distributed and possesses
homogeneity of variance is referred to as parametric.
parametric test Statistical analyses that require data to be at least interval level, be normally
distributed and have homogeneity of variance.
partial correlation analysis A parametric test that assesses the relationship between two
variables whilst controlling for the influence of other variables.
participants The people who take part in research studies.
Pearsons correlation analysis Also known as a Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient. A parametric test used to assess whether there is a relationship between two
variables. The results of the test describe the strength and direction of the relationship, as well as
determining its significance.
power Refers to the likelihood that a statistical test will detect an effect, if there is one there to
find.
psychometric measure A validated measure of a psychological variable.
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Q
qualitative Qualitative methods are based on words, for example interview transcripts or diary
studies.
quantitative Quantitative methods are those based on numeric variables or with numeric

outputs.
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R
random sampling Each case in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
range The difference between the highest and lowest score.
ranked data See Ordinal data.
ratio level data Scale where the measurement points are evenly distributed. Negative values are
not possible. Weight is an example.
residuals Difference between actual values and estimated values.
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S
sample size Number of cases used in your study.
scatterplot A graph showing the distribution of scores on two variables for a data set. Each data
point shows the score for that case on both variables.
significant Used to suggest that the outcome of a statistical test shows an alpha level below the
accepted level. For example, in psychology the accepted alpha level is usually 0.05, giving a 5%
probability of the results being due to chance factors. Any test that returns the 0.05 or a lower
alpha level is termed a significant result.
skewed A data set is skewed if scores are clustered towards one or other end of the distribution.
Skews can be positive or negative.
Spearmans rho correlation analysis A non-parametric test used to establish whether there is a
relationship between two ranked or ordinal variables.
standard deviation A measure of the distribution of the scores around the mean.
standard error of the mean An estimate of the standard deviation of all possible population
means.
standard multiple regression A parametric test used to assess whether scores on a dependent
variable can be predicted from scores on multiple independent variables. Also allows assessment

of the unique variance accounted for by each independent variable.

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T
transforming data Using mathematical calculations to change the values of a variable.
two-tailed hypothesis A hypothesis that predicts an effect but does not specify the direct of that
effect.
type I error Falsely accepting the experimental hypothesis.
type II error Falsely accepting the null hypothesis.
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U
unique variance Variance shared between two variables, after the removal of any variance
shared with other variables.
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V
variability Differences in the scores for each case on a variable.
variables Anything that can be measured or split into groups or over time.
variance The average of the squared differences from the mean.
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Z
zero order correlation Produced as part of a partial correlation analysis. Shows the correlation
between the two variables of interest before the impact of confounding variables have been
removed.

Try the multiple choice questions below to test your knowledge of this Chapter.
Once you have completed the test, click on 'Submit Answers' to get your results.

This activity contains 15 questions.

Question 1.
Graphs which present the values on the horizontal axis and the number of times this
occurs on the vertical axis are known as what?

Line graph
Box-plot
Cluster graph
Scatter graph
Frequency distribution
None of these

End of Question 1

Question 2.
What would you use to compare the frequency distributions of more than one set of
data?

Frequency distribution
Frequency polygon
Scatter graph

Bar chart
Box-plots
Line graph

End of Question 2

Question 3.
What shape is a normal distribution?

Inverted (U)
Descending line
Bell shaped
Ascending line
Flat
Bi-modal

End of Question 3

Question 4.
What type of distribution is observed when most of the scores cluster around the
lower end of the scale?

A related distribution
A positively skewed distribution
A bi-modal distribution
A normal distribution
A flat distribution
A negatively skewed distribution

End of Question 4

Question 5.
What type of distribution is observed when most of the scores cluster around the
higher end of the scale?

A bi-modal distribution
A normal distribution
A flat distribution
A related distribution
A positively skewed distribution
A negatively skewed distribution

End of Question 5

Question 6.
What type of distribution has two peaks?

None of these
A positively skewed distribution
A bi-modal distribution
A normal distribution
A negatively skewed distribution
A flat distribution

End of Question 6

Question 7.
Which measure of central tendency is derived from the most common value?

Variance
Range
Distribution
Median
Mean
Mode

End of Question 7

Question 8.s
Which measure of central tendency is obtained using the middle score when all
scores are organized in numerical order?

Range
Sum
Mode
Mean
Median
Variance

End of Question 8

Question 9.
Which measure of central tendency is obtained by calculating the sum of values and
dividing this figure by the number of values there are in the data set?

Range

Mean
Sum
Median
Mode
Dispersion

End of Question 9

Question 10.
Which measure is the most unreliable indicator of central tendency if data are
skewed?

Mean
Mode
Distribution
Median
Range
None of these

End of Question 10

Question 11.
Calculating the difference between the largest and smallest figure produces which
figure?

Variance
Mode
Mean
Median
Range
Sum

End of Question 11

Question 12.
Which two measures use the mean as a baseline and identify the extent to which
scores differ from this?

Mode and median

Standard deviation and median
Sum and variance
All of these
Variance and standard deviation
Standard deviation and range

End of Question 12

Question 13.
What does a large standard deviation suggest?

Scores are not normally distributed

The scores are not widely distributed and the median would be an unreliable
measure of central tendency
Scores are bi-modal
All of the measures of central tendency would be reliable
Scores are widely distributed and that the mean may not be a reliable
measure of central tendency
Scores are not widely distributed and the mean is a reliable measure of
central tendency

End of Question 13

Question 14.
Which percentage of scores falls within 1 standard deviation from the mean?

50%

68%
30%
99.7%
95%
9%

End of Question 14

Question 15.
What percentage of scores falls within three standard deviations from the mean?

95%
68%
15%
99.7%
50%
None of these
Chapter 5: Multiple Choice Questions

Try the multiple choice questions below to test your knowledge of this Chapter.
Once you have completed the test, click on 'Submit Answers' to get your results.

This activity contains 16 questions.

Question 1.
By what alternative name is Pearson's Correlation Analysis also known?

None of these
Mann-Whitney U Test
Pearson's Product-Moment
Spearman's Correlation Analysis
Kruskal-Wallis Correlational Analysis
Chi-Squared Product-Moment

End of Question 1

Question 2.
What does a Pearson's product-moment allow you to identify?

Whether there is a significant difference between variables

Whether there is a significant difference between groups
Whether there is a significant effect and interaction of independent variables
Whether there is a significant effect and interaction of dependent variables
Whether there is goodness of fit for one categorical variable

Whether there is a relationship between variables

End of Question 2

Question 3.
What type of data is required for a Pearson's analysis which does not include a
dichotomous variable?

Nominal or ordinal
Categorical or ratio
Ordinal or interval
Ratio or nominal
Interval or ratio
Interval or nominal

End of Question 3

Question 4.
What type of relationships does a Pearson's product-moment assess?

It finds differences not relationships

It can only assess a linear relationship

Curvilinear relationships
Bi-modal relationships
Quadratic relationships
Cubic relationships

End of Question 4

Question 5.
What must data be in order for a Pearson's product-moment to be conducted?

Parametric
All of these
Homoscedasticity
Free from outliers
Homogeneity of variance
Normally distributed

End of Question 5

Question 6.
Homoscedasticity can be checked using which type of graph?

Histogram
Pie chart
Scatter graph
Bar chart
Box-plot
Line graph

End of Question 6

Question 7.
A bell shaped curve to a scatter graph would suggest what?

None of these
There would be a non-linear relationship and a Pearson's product-moment
should be used
There would be a non-linear relationship and a Pearson's product-moment
should not be used
There is an outlier but a Pearson's product moment can still be used
There would be a linear relationship and a Pearson's product-moment should
be used
There would be a linear relationship but a Pearson's product-moment should
not be used

End of Question 7

Question 8.
If all points cluster in an ascending line this would suggest what?

There would be a strong positive relationship

There would be a non-linear relationship
There would be a strong negative relationship
There would be a weak positive relationship
There would be no significant relationship
There would be a weak negative relationship

End of Question 8

Question 9.
If most points depict a dispersed descending line this would suggest what?

There would be a weak negative relationship

There would be a strong negative relationship

There would be no significant relationship

There would be a strong positive relationship
There would be a weak positive relationship
There would be a non-linear relationship

End of Question 9

Question 10.
How should a significance level of 0.000 ideally be reported in APA format?

P > 0.01
P < 0.05
P > 0.05
0.000
P < 0.5
P < 0.001

End of Question 10

Question 11.

A Pearson test statistic of .876 with a significance level of P < 0.01 would suggest
what?

This would suggest that there is a significant, weak, positive relationship

This would suggest that there is a significant, strong, positive relationship
This would suggest that there is a significant, strong, negative relationship
None of these
This would suggest that there is a non-significant, weak, positive relationship
This would suggest that there is a non-significant, weak, negative relationship

End of Question 11

Question 12.
When reporting a Pearson's product-moment in APA format, what letter do you use
to indicate which test you used?

This would be
This would be N
This would be F
This would be r
This would be P
This would be x

End of Question 12

Question 13.
What correlation can you use if your data do not meet the assumptions of normal
distribution?

Mixed ANOVA
Paired samples t-test
ANCOVA
Independent samples t-test
Spearman's rho
Chi-square

End of Question 13

Question 14.
A Spearman's test statistic of -.207 with a p = 0.057 would suggest what?

This would suggest a strong, significant, positive relationship

This would suggest a weak negative relationship which is approaching
significance
This would suggest a weak, non-significant, positive relationship

This would suggest strong negative relationship which is approaching

significance
This would suggest a weak, significant, positive relationship
This would suggest strong , significant, negative relationship

End of Question 14

Question 15.
When reporting a Spearman's Rho in APA format, what letter do you use to indicate
which test you used?

This would be
This would be P
This would be F
This would be x
This would be r
This would be N

End of Question 15

Question 16.

What does a partial correlation analysis allow you to do which Pearson's and/or
Spearman analyses do not?

It allows you to use data which is not normally distributed

It allows you to use ratio data
It allows you to use dichotomous variables
None of these
It allows you to control covariates
It allows you to use interval data