The Sautrntika Theories of LifeContinuum in Light of Karma

Tse-fu Kuan
Introduction
The doctrine of non-self (antman) is unique to Buddhism,
and plays an important part in the Buddhist understanding of the
nature of existence. According to the Buddhist tradition, while the
Buddha accepted the conventional usage of the term tman (att in
Pali) to refer to oneself, myself or himself according to
context, or to mean ones character, etc. (Harvey 1995: 1920), he
did not accept anything to be an tman in the sense of a permanent,
autonomous self as a separate entity.1 The concept of karma (Skt.
karman), which literally means action, predated Buddhism and
was modified by the Buddha to explain the phenomena of suffering
and inequality in the world. Gombrich (1988: 46) points out: It
was the Buddha who first completely ethicized the concept. The
Buddha says: It is volition that I call karma.2 Ones volition,
which can be ethically good or bad, determines the result one will
experience in the round of rebirths (sasra).
Dessein (2008: 17) observes: The notions of selflessness
(antmaka) and karman are two key concepts in Buddhist
philosophy. The question how karman functions with respect to the
rebirth of a worldling who is, actually, devoid of a self, was a
major philosophical issue in early Buddhist doctrine. The non-self
doctrine denies the existence of an eternal personal entity, whereas

College of General Studies, Yuan Ze University, 135 Yuan Tung Road,

Chung-li, Taiwan.

Cf. Gombrich (1988: 63) and Kuan (2009: 155156).

AN III 415: cetan ha bhikkhave kamma vadmi.

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karmic responsibility seems to require a permanent individual

transmigrating in the round of rebirths to be the agent of actions
and the experiencer of their results. Thus a paradox exists between
these two ideas, and it has caused difficulties since the time of the
Buddha. For instance, an account is recorded in a sutta (Skt. stra)
of the Majjhima Nikya in Pali as follows (abridged):
In reply to a question raised by one of the monks
surrounding him, the Buddha taught that one sees each of
the five aggregates, as it really is, thus: This is not mine,
this I am not, this is not my self. A monk among them
thought: So, it seems, material form is not self, feeling is
not self, perception is not self, volitional activities are not
self, consciousness is not self. What self, then, will actions
(kamma, Skt. karman) done by the non-self affect? 3
Evidently it was difficult for that monk, or even for many
others, to comprehend the matter of karmic responsibility given
that there is no self. Various propositions for solving this problem
were put forward throughout the development of different schools
of thought. The Sautrntikas formulated sophisticated theories that
substitute the life-continuum (satati) for the self. Such theories
are often expounded in the light of karma so as to reconcile the two
seemingly contradictory concepts in Buddhism: karma and nonself. No texts that can be identified as affiliated to the Sautrntikas
survive until today, so the following question arises:
Who were the Sautrntikas?
A simple answer is given by Yaomitra (7th or 8th century
CE)4 in his commentary on the Abhidharmakoabhya: What is
the meaning of Sautrntika(s)? Those who take the stras as the
3

MN III 1819: Ya kici, bhikkhu, rpa sabba rpa: N eta

mama, n eso ham asmi, na m eso (according to Vism-w 547; me so PTS)
att ti, evam eta yathbhta sammappaya passati. Y kci
vedanpe Y kci sa pe Ye keci sakhr pe Ya kici
via Atha kho aatarassa bhikkhuno eva cetaso parivitakko
udapdi: Iti kira, bho, rpa anatt, vedan anatt, sa anatt,
sakhr anatt, via anatt, anattakatni kammni kam attna
phusissantti? My translation mostly follows that of amoli & Bodhi
(2001: 890).

See Anacker (2005: 490) and Warder (2000: 451).

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

51

standard but do not take the stras as the standard are the
Sautrntikas.5 As Kritzer (2003a: 202) suggests, while
Sautrntika is generally considered to be another school that
developed within the Sarvstivda sect, the term may be better
understood as referring to a variety of ideas that deviate from the
mainstream Sarvstivda rather than referring to a consistent and
formal school.6 The orthodox Sarvstivdins, the Vaibhikas,
relied heavily on the authority of the Abhidharma and stras,
which tend to take an ontological position of realism. In contrast,
the so-called Sautrntikas were those Sarvstivdins who refused
to accept such authority and such an ontological position.
As Cox (1995: 38) sums up, Kat (1989: 101119)
contends that although the *Mahvibh (T 1545, composed in
2nd or 3th century CE7) translated by Xuanzang (7th century
CE)8 and Xuanzangs translation of the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra (T 2031,9 composed in around 100 CE10) refer to the term
Sautrntika, these references result from mistakes Xuanzang
made while translating those texts and hence should not be
understood to refer to the same group that was to be identified later
by Vasubandhu (4th century CE)11 as the Sautrntikas. According
to Kat, therefore, the earliest reference to the Sautrntikas as a
distinct group would be in the Abhidharmakoabhya by
Vasubandhu.
Kritzer (2003b) finds that many passages attributed to the
Sautrntikas in Vasubandhus Abhidharmakoabhya and

AK-s 15: ka Sautrntikrtha? ye stra-prmik na tu straprmiks te Sautrntik.

6
7

Cf. Cox (1995: 4041) and Kat (1989: 8990).

According to Hirakawa (1990: 135). Willemen et al. (1998: 166, 232) point
out the difficulties in dating this text.

See FDC 20242025 and Willemen et al. (1998: 233).

Two other versions of this text, T 2032 and T 2033, were translated into
Chinese by others earlier than Xuanzang.
According to Sujato (2012: 66). Liang (1972: 28) also points out that this
text cannot be later than the *Mahvibh.
Anacker (2005: 10) dates him between 316 and 396. Kat (1989: 63) dates
him between 320 and 400.

10

11

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Karmasiddhiprakaraa12 also correspond to passages in the

Yogcrabhmi. He (p. 376) concludes: I have previously
speculated that Vasubandhu was a Yogcra when he wrote the
Abhidharmakoabhya and I have not changed my mind. In
response to a stance like Kritzers, Fukuda (2003: 259) says:
A number of scholars suspect that Vasubandhu already
was a Yogcra when he composed the Koa [i.e.
Abhidharma-koabhya], and that his appellation
Sautrntika was only a disguise for his actual affiliation.
The aim of this paper is to reconsider this issue by
examining the thought of another Sautrntika master
contemporary with Vasubandhu, Bhadanta Rma. His
opinions are fragmentarily referred to in the
*Nyynusra, and Saghabhadra [i.e. author of the
*Nyynusra] says that he is a disciple of rlta. On the
other hand, as is mentioned below, some of his arguments
are adopted in the Koa.
In this research, Fukuda (2003: 283) concludes: In brief,
the doctrine of Rma is a blend of the views of the Drntikas in
the *Vibh and rlta the Sthavira in the *Nyynusra as well
as some Yogcra ideas. This fact suggests that the Sautrntikas are
definitely descended from the Drntika lineage. He goes on to
cite Yinshuns (1968: 572573) opinion thus: It seems that in the
period of Bhadanta Rma, the Yogcra Mahynists flourished, so
they would have influenced the Sautrntika-Drntikas.
Accordingly, Fukuda comments: The Sautrntika positions of
Vasubandhu in the Abhidharmakoa should also be considered in
this context. This is a plausible approach to the tenets attributed to
the Sautrntikas by Vasubandhu. Even Kritzer (2003b) shows that
several of the positions ascribed to the Sautrntikas in
Vasubandhus Abhidharmakoabhya and Karmasiddhiprakaraa
have
parallels
in
the
*Jnakya-prodbhtopadea
(*Tattvasiddhi,13 T 1646) by Harivarman (ca 300 CE),14 a disciple
12

13

(T 1609 ) and Vimokaprajari

). The former translation will be referred to in
The Sanskrit title of the Chengshi lun (T 1646) has usually been
Translated by Xuanzang
(T 1608
this paper.

conjectured to be Tattvasiddhi or Satyasiddhi[stra]. Willemen (2006)

demonstrates that the correct form of its title could be Jnakyaprodbhtopadea.

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

53

of Kumralta,15 who was a Sautrntika master according to the

tradition.16 In addition, some positions identified as Sautrntika by
Vasubandhu are attributed to the Drntikas in the *Vibh
compendia composed centuries before Vasubandhu. There is no
doubt that the Sautrntikas can be traced back to the Drntikas,
who began to be active long before Vasubandhu. According to
Willemen (2008: 4546), the Sautrntikas and Drntikas were
the same people, i.e. the non-Vaibhika Sarvstivdins. The fact
that many passages attributed to the Sautrntikas in Vasubandhus
works also correspond to passages in the Yogcrabhmi may be
understood as meaning that the later Sautrntikas, e.g. Rma, were
influenced by some prevalent Yogcra concepts at that time. It is
also possible that certain Yogcra concepts were inspired by the
Sautrntikas or Drntikas.
Even if the term Sautrntika cannot be attested before
Vasubandhu as argued by Kritzer (2003a: 214) and likewise by
Kat (see above), the ideas ascribed to the Sautrntikas in
Vasubandhus works do not necessarily represent the opinions of
Vasubandhu himself as a Yogcra Mahynist. Kat (1989: 147)
concedes the possibility that the founder of the Sautrntikas or the
first one to use the term Sautrntika could be rlta, who was a
teacher of Vasubandhu (Kat 1989: 6162). Rather than just being
a few individuals, the Sautrntikas formed a prominent group to
such an extent that in Hindu and Jain accounts they were ranked
among the four principal schools of Buddhism, viz. the
Mdhyamikas, the Yogcras, the Sautrntikas and the Vaibhikas
(Yamakami 2009: 105). Accordingly, the Sautrntikas were
evidently distinguishable from the Yogcras.
In sum, it is not easy to identify the authentic
Sautrntika doctrines. Nonetheless, I will attempt to explore the
various Sautrntika ideas concerning life-continuum based
14

See Willemen (2008: 54) and Yinshun (1985: 132).

15

See the Chu sanzang ji ji

(445~518) at T LV 78c:

16

(T 2145) by Sengyou

Xuanzangs Datang xiyu ji

(T 2087 LI 884c) says:
. Dessein (2003: 229301) identifies Kumralta as a
Sautrntika whose opinion is cited in Upantas *Abhidharmahdaya
(
, T 1551) in order to refute the Vaibhika doctrine.

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largely on the traditional views, which are still generally valid in

view of the above discussions. This research will refer frequently to
Vasubandhus works as well as others, and will show that some
notions attributed to the Sautrntikas by Vasubandhu may have
evolved from certain ideas ascribed to the Sautrntikas or similar
groups in some earlier texts.
Karma and Life-continuum
In the Pali canon of the Theravda school, verse 666 of the
Sutta-nipta reads: For no ones action (kamma) disappears
[completely]; truly it comes back. Its owner assuredly obtains it.
The doer of wrong, the fool, sees misery for himself in the next
world.17 (Tr. Norman 1995: 77) A similar verse ascribed to the
Buddha by the Sarvstivdins runs as follows: Actions (karmas)
do not disappear, even after hundreds of aeons. When the
conditions gather, the fruits will ripen for the doers themselves.18
As stated in the Karmasiddhiprakaraa, the orthodox
Sarvstivdins interpret this verse in such a literal way as to hold
that past actions exist in reality.19 The Sautrntikas disagree with
this Sarvstivdin view on the nature of karma, and contend that
actions do not disappear in this verse simply means that a
completed action is not without fruit, as the latter half of the verse
demonstrates this meaning.20 In the Prasannapad, a commentary
on the Mlamadhyamakakrik, Candrakrti (6th century CE)21
elucidates the Sautrntika position as follows:
17

Sn 666, p.128:
Na hi nassati kassaci kamma, eti ha ta, labhat eva suvm/
dukkha
mando
paraloke,
attani
passati
kibbisakr //

18

This verse recurs in the Mlasarvstivda Vinaya (e.g. T XXIII 657c):

It also recurs in the
Divyvadna (e.g. Divy 131):
Na praayanti karmi kalpakoiatair api /
smagr prpya kla ca phalanti khalu dehinm //.

19

20
21

Hiraoka (1998) demonstrates that the Divyvadna draws heavily on the

Mlasarvstivda Vinaya.
T XXXI 783a:

T XXXI 783a:
See Lamotte (1988b: 593) and Anacker (2005: 145).

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

55

If one supposes: an action which has arisen remains in its

own nature until the time of its result, then all this time it
is permanent, for it is free from destruction. The fact
that it is free from destruction leads to its being
unconditioned. And the unconditioned things, being
devoid of result, always remain without result. Then it
should be admitted thus: actions disappear immediately
after they have arisen.22
According to the Sautrntikas, actions must perish as soon
as they are accomplished in order to avoid suspicion that actions
are permanent, unconditioned and thus unable to bring about
results. From the Sautrntikas point of view, past actions do not
really exist. As the above case shows, the orthodox Sarvstivdins
has a propensity to take stra passages literally and to consider
many things mentioned in the stras to be ontologically real, but
the Sautrntikas are critical of such literalism and are inclined to
interpret many things in the stras as nominally true. To justify
their positions, the Sautrntikas often present their theories by
using similes or examples.
In order to explain how result can arise when its cause,
karma (action), no longer exists, the Sautrntikas set up the theory
of the seed (bja). According to the Abhidharmakoabhya, they
compare karma to the seed, and result to the fruit. Just as the fruit
does not arise directly from the seed that no longer exists, but
rather arises from the last stage of the flower produced in the series
of the sprout, the stem, the leaf, etc., and thus the seed passes on to
the flower the efficacy to produce the fruit; so too, the result
(literally fruit) does not arise from the action that no longer
exists, nor immediately after it, but from the culmination of the
transformation23 in the life-continuum [affected by the action24]
22

Prp 311: yady utpanna sat karmvipkakla svarpevatihata iti

parikalpyate, tad iyanta klam asya nityatpadyate vinarahitatvt /
vinarahitasya csasktatvaprasagd asasktn ca vipkdarand
avipkatvena sadaiv[va]sthnn athotpdnantaravinitvam eva
karmam evam abhyupeta /

23

Yaomitra glosses: [The culmination of the transformation] is that which is

able to cause the fruit to arise immediately. It is the culmination of the
transformation because it is the last [stage of] the transformation, which is
distinctive. (AK-s 1230: sa punar yo nantara phalotpdanasamartha.
so ntyaparimaviiatvt parima-viea /)

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(tat-satati-parima-viea).25 This theory is attributed to the

Sautrntikas by Fabao , a disciple of Xuanzang, in his
commentary on the Abhidharmakoabhya, the Jshelun shu
(T 1822).26 According to this theory, an action, before
disappearing, generates an effect that causes the life-continuum to
undergo a transformation, which culminates in the experience of a
corresponding karmic result. This theory sets up the karmic linkage
without positing a transmigrating self or an intermediate action,
like the unmanifested action (avijapti-karman)27 of the orthodox
Sarvstivdins, between the moment when an action is performed
and the time of experiencing its result.
Life-continuum consisting of Mental and Material Elements
In Vasubandhus exposition (bhya) of verse 36 in chapter
two of his Abhidharmakoabhya, the life-continuum (satati) is
defined as the saskras of the present, the past and the future,
existing in cause and effect.28 Fabao attributes this definition of
the life-continuum to the Sautrntikas in his commentary on the
Abhidharmakoabhya.29 In this case cause and effect may
denote the principle of dependent origination (prattyasamutpda), and the life-continuum here could have originated
from the life-continuum (satna) conceived by the orthodox
Sarvstivdins, which is also described as existing in line with the
principle of dependent origination spanning the past, the present,
and the future life. According to the orthodox Sarvstivdins, the
aggregates (skandha) form a continuum, which is what enters the

karma, action.
(T
(T XXIX 310b).

24

Both Xuanzang and Paramrtha translate tat as

Xuanzang translates tat-satati-parima-viet as
XXIX 159a). Paramrtha translates it as

25

AK 477: yath bjt phalam utpadyata ity ucyate / na ca tad vinad bjd
utpadyate / npy anantaram eva / ki tarhi ? tat-satati-parima-vied
akurakapatrdikramanipannt pupvasnt / tadhita hi tat
paray pupe smarthyam / eva karmaa phalam utpadyata ity ucyate
/ na ca tad vinat karmaa utpadyate, npy anantaram eva / ki tarhi ?
tat-satati-parima-viet /

26

T XLI 812a:

27

See Hirakawa (1990: 190191).

28

AK 64: k ceya santati? hetuphalabhts traiyadhvik saskr.

29

T XLI 537a:

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

57

mothers womb30 although the aggregates themselves are

momentary and cannot transmigrate. The twelve-fold dependent
origination can be divided into three sections (tri kdni), i.e.,
the past life, the future life and the present life. Moreover, each of
the twelve links in the dependent origination formula embraces the
five aggregates,31 so the continuum of the aggregates
transmigrates, so to speak, through the past, the present and the
future life, i.e. the round of rebirths (sasra), under the sway of
the dependent origination principle.
Therefore saskras here, for both the Sautrntikas and the
orthodox Sarvstivdins, may cover all of the five aggregates just
like the saskras (Pali sakhr) in the three characteristics
(ti-lakkhaa) formula32 rather than the saskras as one of the five
aggregates.33 If the saskras that form the life-continuum
referred to one of the five aggregates, namely volitional activities,
they would be too narrow in meaning to explain the continuity of
an individual in the round of rebirths. Besides, volitional activities
cannot be the experiencer of a karmic result.
In the same context where the life-continuum is defined as
the saskras of the present, past and future, existing in cause
and effect, the theory of seed (bja) is introduced, and the seed is
said to be name-and-form that is able to produce fruit immediately
or gradually through the culmination of the transformation in the
30

AK 129: kleakarmbhisaskta skandhn satno mtu kukim

padyata iti /

31

AK 133: vasthiko dvdaa pacaskandhik avasth agam aga

paca skandh.

32

This formula describes the three aspects of the nature of things. See e.g.
verses 277279 of the Dhammapada: All conditioned things are
impermanent (sabbe sakhr anicc). All conditioned things are
unsatisfactory (sabbe sakhr dukkh). All things are non-self (sabbe
dhamm anatt). This formula is called ti-lakkhaa (three characteristics) in
later Pali literature such as Ja I 48, 275; Vism-w 530ff.
Rahula (2000: 57, note 2) states that in the ti-lakkhaa formula sakhr
(Skt. saskra) means all conditioned or compounded things, including all
the Five Aggregates. Hamilton (1996: 6667) also indicates that the
meaning of sakhra in the ti-lakkhaa formula is significantly different
from that in the dependent origination formula or the meaning of sakhra
as a khandha (aggregate). Her translation of sakhr (plural) in the tilakkhaa formula is conditioned phenomena.

33

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life-continuum.34 Jaini (1959: 243) interprets name-and-form

here as the complex of the five skandhas and therefore reinforces
my argument that the life-continuum defined as the saskras
must cover the five aggregates (skandhas). Fabao says the
following to explain this passage in his commentary on the
Abhidharmakoabhya:
This is alluding to the views of two teachers in the
Sautrntika school. One [view is that] material form
(*rpa, referring to form above) holds the seeds. The
other [is that] the mind (*citta, referring to name above)
holds the seeds. Here [some] combine [these two views
and] say that material form and the mind hold the seeds.35
This explanation suggests that the life-continuum, together
with the seeds stored therein, can be either material or mental; or
alternatively it may consist of both material form and the mind.
This idea is corroborated by the following passages in the
Abhidharmakoabhya and the Karmasiddhiprakaraa.
The Abhidharmakoabhya reads:
In this case [i.e., the meditative attainment of nonconception and the meditative attainment of cessation],36
how can the mind arise again from the mind that has
ceased for a long time? Some others say: For those
who have been born in a non-material [sphere], how can
their material form arise again when material form has
ceased for a long time? It arises only from the mind, not
from material form. In the same way, the mind also arises
from this body possessing organs, not from the mind
[when one emerges from either of the above meditative
attainments without mind]. The ancient masters say:

34

35
36

AK 64: ki punar ida bja nma? yan nmarpa phalotpatau

samartha skt pra paryea v / satati-parima-viet /

In this case idn, rendered by Xuanzang as now in the two

absorptions (T XXIX 25c: ). The two absorptions refer back to
T XLI 537a:

the attainment of non-conception (asaji-sampatti) and the attainment of

cessation (nirodha-sampatti) stated earlier in the same paragraph (AK 71:
ubhe api tv ete asajinirodhasampatt.

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59

These two, the mind and the body possessing organs, are
the seeds (bja) for each other.37
According
to
Fabaos
commentary
on
the
Abhidharmakoabhya, some others (apare) refer to the
Sautrntikas, and the ancient masters (prvcry) refer to the
ancient masters of the Sautrntikas.38 Similarly, Yaomitra regards
some others as the Sautrntikas, while the ancient masters are
identified as the Sautrntikas by Pravardhana or as the ancient
Sautrntikas by Sthiramati.39
With regard to the above issue: For those who have been
born in a non-material [sphere], how can their material form, i.e.
physical body, arise again when material form has ceased for a
long time? It arises only from the mind, another passage in the
Abhidharmakoabhya further explains it by virtue of a karmic
mechanism: The arising of material form is simply from the mind
which was perfumed by the cause of the result in that [material
form]40 and which has acquired the efficacy [to produce material
form now41].42 In other words, the resumption of material form or
physical body after rebirth from a non-material sphere into a lower
material sphere is regarded as a karmic result whose cause, a
certain action, etc., should ripen into material form.43 This cause in
terms of karma had perfumed the mind, and therefore the mind
37

AK 72: katham idn bahukla niruddhc cittt punar api citta jyate?
apare punar hu / katha tvad rpyopapannn ciraniruddhe pi
rpe punar api rpa jyate? cittd eva hi taj jyate na rpt / eva cittam
apy asmd eva sendriyt kyt (AK-s 246, ky AK) jyate na cittt /
anyonyabjaka hy etad ubhaya yad uta citta ca sendriya ca kya iti
prvcry /

38

T XLI 545b:

39

Cited from Kat (1989: 261).

40

In this long compound tad, that, is translated as

material form,
referring to rpa, by both Paramrtha (T XXIX 297c:
for tad-vipkahetu) and Xuanzang (T XXIX 146b:
for tad-vipka-hetu).

41

42

43

Words added according to Paramrthas translation:

(T XXIX 297c)
AK 435: rpasya cittd
evotpattis tadvipkahetuparibhvitl
labdhavttita.
Cf. the interpretation by de La Valle Poussin (1990: 1225).

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eventually acquired the efficacy to produce material form. This is

how a sentient being regains a physical body after having lived in a
non-material sphere, where he had no material form but only
possessed the mind. It is interesting to note that in this case the
karma is non-material in nature and the mind perfumed by the
karma is also non-material, but this karma is able to bring about a
result pertaining to material form. Although no seed is
mentioned in this theory, it tallies with the foregoing theory of the
seed, which is said to be name-and-form that is able to give rise to
the fruit through the culmination of the transformation in the lifecontinuum. In this case, the seed that is able to give rise to the
material fruit is stored in the mind; and the transformation in the
life-continuum, formerly non-material, culminates in the arising of
material form, i.e. a physical body, from the seed stored in the
mind.
In a similar vein, a passage in the Karmasiddhiprakaraa
echoes the question and answer in the Abhidharmakoabhya
quoted above: how can the mind arise again from the mind that
has ceased for a long time? the mind arises from this body
possessing organs, not from the mind [when one emerges from the
meditative attainments without mind]. This passage reads:
Some say that the mind that is posterior [to the meditative
attainments without mind] arises again owing to the power
of seeds that rest on the material organs; for the seeds
capable of giving rise to the mind and mental factors rest
on two continuums, viz. the mental continuum and the
continuum of the material organs.44
From the foregoing quotations from the two works by
Vasubandhu, it can be inferred that some Sautrntikas posit a
theory that the mental continuum and the continuum of the material
organs contain each others seeds, or the two continuums can serve
as each others seeds. When one continuum is interrupted, its seeds
are preserved in the other continuum. This theory explains, on the
one hand, how the life-continuum can resume the mental activities
after they are suspended during the meditative attainments without
mind, and, on the other hand, how material form can arise again in
the life-continuum of one who once lived in the non-material
44

XXXI 783c:

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

61

(rpya) sphere when reborn in a lower sphere endowed with

material form. Therefore, this type of life-continuum could be
defined as the saskras (conditioned things) of the present, past
and future, existing in cause (karma) and effect (result) According
to this theory, the life-continuum consists of both mental and
material elements or potential, which is the seed defined as nameand-form that is able to produce fruit immediately or gradually
through the culmination of the transformation in the lifecontinuum.
Purely Mental Life-continuum
Alternatively, the life-continuum (satati) is defined in
chapter nine of the Abhidharmakoabhya as the arising of one
mind-event after another preceded by actions (karmas).45 This
divergence in the definition of the life-continuum reflects the
various ideas conceived by different Sautrntika thinkers. This
alternative definition may account for another kind of idea held by
some other Sautrntikas. According to the Karmasiddhiprakaraa,
Vasumitra46 holds that an individual is endowed with a subtle mind
even during the meditative attainment of cessation (nirodhasampatti) because the stra says that the consciousness does not
leave the body of one who stays in the attainment of cessation.47 As
stated in the Karmasiddhiprakaraa, a certain group that takes the
stras as the standard (), apparently certain
Sautrntikas, calls this subtle mind the result-fruit-consciousness
(, *vipka-phala-vijna). This group holds that this
consciousness continues uninterrupted even during the states
without mind such as the attainment of cessation. These states are

45
46

AK 477: ya karmaprva uttarottaracittaprasava s satatis.

This Vasumitra, a Sautrntika, was not the Vasumitra who composed the
*Samayabhedoparacanacakra. See Liang (1972: 2728).

47

T XXXI 784a:

. This stra passage appears in

the Chinese translation of the Madhyama gama (T I 791c). Besides,
Lamotte (1988a: 109, note 78) points out that a similar idea is also implied
in the Pali Majjhima Nikya I 296.

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called without mind because the six consciousnesses48 based on

the six sense organs cease to function in these states. This group
proposes two kinds of mind. One is the gathering mind (),
which is the result-fruit-consciousness, where innumerable seeds
are gathered together. The other is called the multiple mind
(), which functions in dependence on different sense objects
and ceases during the states without mind such as the attainment
of cessation, hence this mind refers to the six consciousnesses. The
seeds of various dharmas, which are stored in the result-fruitconsciousness, are perfumed by the other six consciousnesses
together with the wholesome and unwholesome dharmas
accompanying these consciousnesses. Consequently, the power of
the seeds is growing. Through the culmination of the
transformation in this life-continuum (, *satatiparima-viea), following the maturity of the power of the seeds
and the gathering of the conditions, the result-fruit-consciousness
experiences desirable and undesirable fruits in the future.49
In this context, karma (action) is explained in terms of the
six consciousnesses and their accompanying good and bad
dharmas perfuming the seeds contained in the result-fruitconsciousness,50 while the experiencer of karmic result is
48

They refer to eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,

tongue-consciousness, tactile-organ-consciousness and mental-organconsciousness.

49

T XXXI 784bc:

50

How to interpret this theory is controversial. Yinshun (1970: 187188)

suggests that this theory is different from the seed-theory in the
Abhidharmakoabhya, according to which the seeds are perfumed and
produced by actions. He holds that according to the Karmasiddhiprakaraa, the seeds have originally existed in the subtle mind before the
mind is perfumed. Here to perfume does not mean to produce the seeds,
but the meaning is that when the seeds stored in the mind are perfumed by
the six consciousnesses and the accompanying dharmas, their power
increases. In his opinion, actions in terms of the six consciousnesses and the
accompanying dharmas do not produce the seeds according to the
Karmasiddhiprakaraa. However, Lamotte (1988a: 31) interprets this
theory thus: The active-consciousnesses and the dharma which is

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

63

explained in terms of the subtle mind, i.e. the result-fruitconsciousness. Therefore, the karmic linkage between action and
result is constructed on the continuum of the mind consisting of
different kinds of consciousness without postulating the self
(tman). In this connection, we may raise a question: As this
theory seems to associate karma with consciousness rather than
with volition, does this contradict the following statement by the
Buddha: It is volition (cetan) that I call karma51 as recorded in
the stra? In chapter four of the Abhidharmakoabhya,
Vasubandhu acknowledges this teaching and states: The stra
says: There are two kinds of action (karma): volition and the
action after having been willed.52 In my opinion, the
Sautrntikas must have also been aware of such stra teachings,
and they did associate karma with volition according to
Vasubandhu. In chapter four of the Abhidharmakoabhya, he
quotes the ancient masters as saying:
As the recipients enjoy whatever the givers give, even
the givers have minds different [from the minds of
giving], the life-continuums of the givers, perfumed by the
volition of giving with the [recipients]53 as its object,
undergo a subtle ascending transformation, whereby the

simultaneous to them, good and bad, perfume the subtle mind: they deposit
therein the seeds of the different consciousness and of the different
dharmas. This interpretation suggests that the seeds arise from the six
consciousnesses and the accompanying dharmas. I regard this theory in the
Karmasiddhiprakaraa as being consistent with that in the
Abhidharmakoabhya on the grounds that the Karmasiddhiprakaraa also
contains the idea of producing seeds as expressed in the following
passage: Because of this volition, two kinds of special seeds are perfumed
and produced. (T XXXI 786b:
)

51
52

53

AN III 415: cetan ha bhikkhave kamma vadmi.

AK 192: stra ukta dve karma cetan karma cetayitv ce ti.
Translation based on de La Valle Poussin (1988: 551).
The word tad, that, is translated by Xuanzang and Paramrtha as former
( at T XXIX 69b;
at T XXIX 227a), which denotes the former object
(lambana). The former object apparently refers to the recipients, who
were formerly the objects perceived by the givers when the act of giving
took place. This passage is rendered by de La Valle Poussin (1988: 563) as
the volition of giving which has for its object the person who receives
.

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life-continuums are capable of yielding abundant fruits in

the future.54
In his commentary on the Abhidharmakoabhya, Fabao
identifies the ancient masters here as the ancient masters of the
Sautrntikas.55 In his study of the word prvcrya (ancient
master), Hakamaya (1986: 864) also suggests that the foregoing
theory ascribed to the ancient masters by Vasubandhu could be
that of a Sautrntika group prior to him. In this passage even the
givers have minds different [from the minds of giving] means that
a giver may have bad or neutral thoughts after the act of giving
which was associated with good mind, but even if this happens, his
life-continuum was already perfumed by the volition of giving
which had the recipient as its object. This implies that the volition
of giving is based on cognition of an object.
Buddhist texts are rich in describing cognitive processes, as
exemplified by the following passage in the Sayutta Nikya:
In dependence on the eye and forms there arises eyeconsciousness. The concurrence of these three things is
called eye-contact. Contacted one feels, contacted
one intends, contacted one perceives. [The same applies to
the ear and sounds, the nose and odours, the tongue and
tastes, the tactile organ and tactile objects, the mental
organ and mental objects.] (Translation based on Bodhi
2000: 1172)56
Here we have the six sense organs and their corresponding
objects. It is due to the consciousnesses depending on the senses
and their corresponding objects that a person feels, intends and
perceives. It should be noted that intends (ceteti) is the verbal
54

AK 197: yath yath dt dy paribhujyante tath tath bhokt

guavied
anugrahaviec
cnyamanasm
api
dt
tadlambanadnacetanbhvit satataya skma parimaviea
prpnuvanti yenyaty bahutaraphalbhinipattaye samarth bhavanti.

55

T XLI 633a:

56

SN IV 6769: Cakkhu ca paicca rpe uppajjati cakkhuvia Y

kho bhikkhave imesa tia dhammna sagati sannipto samavyo
aya vuccati bhikkhave cakkhusamphasso Phuho bhikkhave vedeti,
phuho ceteti, phuho sajnti. The same teaching is also found in the
Sayukta gama (T II 87c):

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

65

form of volition (cetan). Therefore the six consciousnesses, i.e.

eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc., lead to volition, or
karma. This explains why the Sautrntikas set up the karmic
linkage between action and result on the mental continuum
consisting of various kinds of consciousness. The six ordinary
consciousnesses account for the arising of volition or karma
(action), while the result-fruit-consciousness is that which
experiences the result of karma.
The seeds stored in the result-fruit-consciousness serve as
the carrier of karmas effect and ensure that karma (action) will
eventually bring about corresponding result as soon as the seeds
efficacy to produce the fruit becomes mature when the proper
conditions are present. It is noteworthy that, as Kritzer (2003b:
332) points out, according to Vasubandhu the seeds (bja) are
merely prajapti, that is only provisional or nominal rather than
substantially real. The karma theory of this Sautrntika group,
established on the basis of the mind or mental continuum, is quite
different from the karma theory of the orthodox Sarvstivdins,
who laid stress on the material aspect while explaining the karmic
mechanism. For example, both manifest action (vijaptirpa) and
unmanifest action (avijaptirpa)57 are classed in the category of
material form (rpa).58
According to this Sautrntika group, owing to diverse
causes of results, i.e. karma, the result-fruit-consciousness
continues in a series from existence to existence until Nirvana,
where it completely ceases.59 This concept is fairly close to that of
the self (tman) which transmigrates from life to life. It may well
have developed from the idea of the pudgala (person) in an
ultimate sense (*paramrtha-pudgala) at an earlier stage of the
Sautrntikas. The reason is as follows. Xuanzangs translation of
the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra () states:
57

These two terms in English and Sanskrit are quoted from Willemen et al.
(1998: 226), who refer to these two categories of action as discussed in the
Jnaprasthna
(T 1544), a Sarvstivdin Abhidharma text. Cf. also
Hirakawa (1990: 190).

58

See also AK 65: vijaptirpasya ; AK 8: vijaptisamdhisabhta

kualkuala rpam avijapti /

59

T XXXI 784bc:

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The doctrine held in common by the original Sautrntikas

is thus: Regarding the aggregates, there is some that
transfers from a previous life to the next. The name
Proclaiming the Transference (, *Sakrntivda) is
set up. There are the aggregates at the edge of the root
(, *mlntika-skandha) and the aggregate of one
taste (, *eka-rasa-skandha). They hold that there
is the pudgala in an ultimate sense (,
*paramrtha-pudgala).60
This treatise does not provide any further information about
these three technical terms at the end of this passage. We cannot
even tell whether aggregate in the two terms quoted above is
singular or plural from this Chinese translation. Kat (1989: 111)
points out that in the Tibetan translation, the first aggregate is
plural (phu po rnams), while the second is not. Therefore, the
original text is likely to have the aggregates at the edge of the
root in plural and the aggregate of one taste in singular. These
two terms are explained by Kuiji , a disciple of Xuanzang, in
his
commentary
on
the
*Samayabhedoparacanacakra
() as follows:
The [aggregate of] one taste is what transmigrates in
such a way as to coalesce in one taste continuously from
time immemorial. It is the subtle consciousness, which is
uninterrupted. The root refers to the aforementioned
subtle consciousness. Since it is the root of [sentient
beings] abiding in the round of rebirths (, sasra), it
is called the root. From this root arise the five
aggregates, which are the same five aggregates spoken of
by [other] sects. Thus the aggregate of one taste is the
root, so it is not called the edge. The remaining
dharmas, the intermittent five aggregates, arise at the tip,
so they are called the aggregates at the edge of the
root.61
60

61

DZ 233:

T XLIX 17b:

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

67

As discussed above, the result-fruit-consciousness held

by a certain group that takes the stras as the standard is a subtle
mind, which is also uninterrupted even in meditative states
designated as without mind and continues from life to life until
Nirvana. Consequently, the concept of result-fruit-consciousness
is probably derived from the aggregate of one taste in the
original
Sautrntika
doctrine
as
stated
in
the
*Samayabhedoparacanacakra. In this text regarding the
aggregates, there is some that transfers from a previous life to the
next apparently refers to the aggregate of one taste, which is the
root of transmigration in the round of rebirths from time
immemorial, as opposed to the intermittent five aggregates or
aggregates at the edge of the root.
As for the pudgala in an ultimate sense, it is explained in
Kuijis commentary on the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra thus: It
is subtle and is difficult to express. It is the real self.62 Moreover,
in order to explain regarding the aggregates, there is some that
transfers from a previous life to the next, i.e. the aggregate of
one taste, Kuijis commentary says: There is a real dharma, the
self, which may transfer from a previous life to the next.63 In view
of his interpretations of the aggregate of one taste and his
interpretation of the pudgala in an ultimate sense, these two
things are quite similar inasmuch as they are both described as
being subtle and as the real self. The resemblance between the two
is even more remarkable if we take into account that the expression
one taste implies a sense of personal identity, comparable to
pudgala, retained in the round of rebirths. Masuda (1925: 69)
remarks that the pudgala in an ultimate sense seems to be
identical to the aggregate of one taste or the subtle
consciousness. Jaini (1959: 248) and Kat (1989: 111) also treat
these two terms, the pudgala in an ultimate sense and the
aggregate of one taste, as referring to the same thing.
However, Yinshun (1970: 159160) expresses a different
opinion. He disagrees with Kuijis interpretation of the aggregate
of one taste, and claims that an appropriate explanation can be
found in the *Mahvibh (T 1545), a text of the
62
63

:
DZ 233:
DZ 233

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orthodox Sarvstivdins or the Vaibhikas. This text describes the

doctrine of an unknown school as follows:
Some hold that there are two types of aggregate: one is
the root-aggregate, and the other is the functioningaggregate. The former is permanent, while the latter is
impermanent. They say that although these two types of
aggregate, namely the root[-aggregate] and the
functioning[-aggregate], are different, they coalesce to
form a sentient being, and thus it is possible to remember
what was done before. For what was done by the
functioning-aggregate can be remembered by the rootaggregate.64
Yinshun (1970: 160) points out that although this doctrine
is meant to explain how memory works, memory in effect shares
something significant in common with the continuous sequence of
karma and result with regard to preserving past experiences. He
argues that this doctrine about the two types of aggregate is in full
accord with that of the original Sautrntikas, i.e. the
Sakrntivdins, as stated in the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra.
His argument suggests that the root-aggregate is equivalent to the
aggregate of one taste, and the functioning-aggregate is
equivalent to the aggregate at the edge of the root. Kat (1989:
111) also makes the same correspondence between these two pairs
of aggregates, and likewise suggests that this unknown group could
be related to the Sakrntivdins. In another of his works, Yinshun
(1985: 155) further maintains that the combination of the
aggregate of one taste and the aggregate at the edge of the root
can be said to be the pudgala in an ultimate sense.65 This view is
probably inspired by the above-mentioned doctrine of an unknown
school recorded in the *Mahvibh: the root-aggregate and the
functioning-aggregate coalesce to form a sentient being. Therefore,
Yinshuns opinion is different from the foregoing opinion of
Masuda, who considers the pudgala in an ultimate sense to be
the aggregate of one taste on the basis of inference from Kuijis
interpretation.

64

T XXVII 55b:

65

Cf. also Wong (1995: 189191).

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

69

In any case, it is likely that the aggregate of one taste or

the pudgala in an ultimate sense proposed by the original
Sautrntikas or the Sakrntivdins evolved into the result-fruitconsciousness held by the later Sautrntikas called a certain
group that takes the stras as the standard. Yinshun (1970: 161)
regards the root-aggregate, or the aggregate of one taste, as a
forerunner of the seed theory. In this doctrinal development, a
sense of the self or personal identity still remains in the resultfruit-consciousness containing seeds since something similar to an
enduring entity with its own identity is implicit in such
consciousness. This could be why Vasubandhu emphasizes the
nominal (prajapti) aspect of this theory, and in his
Karmasiddhiprakaraa he quotes a verse ascribed to the Buddha
from the Sadhinirmocana Stra as follows: The atuona (
*dna, clinging) consciousness, deep and subtle, with all its
seeds, is like a waterfall. I do not expound it to ordinary and
foolish people for fear that they should take it as the self.66 In
addition, the Sautrntikas try to explain away the similarity
between their theory of the life-continuum and the notion of self
by claiming that the result-fruit-consciousness keeps changing at
every moment.67
Conclusion
The orthodox Sarvstivdins tend to take stra passages
literally and to consider many things (dharmas) mentioned in the
stras to be ontologically real. By contrast, the Sautrntikas are
critical of such literalism and are inclined to interpret these things
as nominally true. This is exemplified in their theories of karma
and the round of births. The Sautrntikas are good at employing
examples or similes, such as the seeds, the root and one taste, to
justify their interpretations. This genre of exegesis is typical of
their predecessors (or perhaps synonym), the Drntikas.
The Sautrntikas proposes the idea of life-continuum
(satati) to replace the concept of self (tman) as the agent
responsible for karma and its consequence. They developed two
66

67

XXXI 784c:
(quoted from the Sadhinirmocana Stra at T XVI 692c)
T XXXI 784c:
T

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types of theory concerning the life-continuum. According to one

type of theory, the life-continuum consists of both mental and
material elements. The mental continuum and the material
continuum contain each others seeds, or the two continuums serve
as each others seeds. When one continuum is interrupted, its seeds
are preserved in the other continuum. This ensures that the lifecontinuum as a whole continues uninterrupted in all circumstances,
including meditative states without mind and rebirth in a material
sphere from a non-material sphere. In the latter case, a sentient
being in a non-material sphere has no material form but mind. Then
certain karma, bound to ripen into material form, may perfume the
mind so that the mind will eventually acquire the efficacy to
produce material form, which is the karmic result from the
culmination of the transformation in the life-continuum.
According to the other type of theory, the life-continuum is
defined as the arising of one mind-event after another preceded by
actions (karmas). This is a subtle mind called the result-fruitconsciousness. The seeds contained in this consciousness are
constantly perfumed by the six sensory consciousnesses associated
with the arising of volition or karma (action). In other words, the
seeds in the result-fruit-consciousness are affected by the karmic
perfuming, so that their power, while getting mature, causes the
life-continuum to undergo a transformation, which culminates in
the karmic result. That which experiences the karmic effect is the
result-fruit-consciousness, the purely mental life-continuum. This
differs from the above theory of the life-continuum, which also
allows the material continuum to take karmic consequences.
Another significant difference between the two theories is as
follows: In the former theory, the meditative states without mind
are regarded as altogether lacking any mind; when one emerges
from such states, the mind arises again from the material body on
the grounds that the mental continuum and the material continuum
contain each others seeds. In the latter theory, however, the lifecontinuum in the form of a subtle mind or consciousness constantly
persists even during the meditative states without mind; they are
called without mind simply because the six sensory
consciousnesses cease to function.
The theory of seed is introduced into both types of the lifecontinuum. This accounts for how the life-continuum continues
uninterrupted and explains why the Buddha says: actions (karmas)

The Sautrntika Theories of Life-Continuum in Light of Karma

71

do not disappear. The life-continuum, instead of the self, is thus

set up as the agent of actions and the experiencer of their results.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. William Pruitt for offering helpful
advice and improving the English of this paper. I am also grateful
to the referees for their valuable suggestions.
Abbreviations
References to Pali texts are to the Pali Text Society
editions, unless otherwise noted.
AK

= P. Pradhan (ed.), Abhidharmakoabhya, Patna: K. P.

Jayaswal Research Institute, 1967.

AK-s = Swm Dwrikds str (ed.), Abhidharmakoa &

Bhya of crya Vasubandhu with Sphurth
Commentary of crya Yaomitra, Varanasi: Bhauddha
Bharati, 1987.
AN

= Aguttara Nikya

Divy

= Divyvadna, ed. E.B. Cowell and R.A. Neil, Cambridge:

The University Press, 1886.

DZ

= Dainihon Zokuzky
12.

FDC

= Foguang Da Cidian
, 1988.

Ja

= Jtaka

MN

= Majjhima Nikya

Prp

PTS

= Pali Text Society edition

Skt.

= Sanskrit

, Kyoto: , 1905

, ed. Ciyi , Kaohsiung:

Mlamadhyamakakriks de Ngrjuna, avec la

Prasannapad commentaire de Candrakrti, ed. Louis de
La Valle Poussin, St. Ptersbourg: Acadmie impriale
des sciences, 1903.

72

The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 14, 2013

SN

= Sayutta Nikya

Sn

= Sutta-nipta

= Taish Shinshu Daizky , Tokyo:

, reprinted: 1978.

Vism-w = Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghoscariya, ed. Henry

Clarke Warren, reprint, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers. (First published 1950 Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press)
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