Albert Einstein - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

2/13/2016
AlbertEinsteinWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
AlbertEinstein
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
AlbertEinstein(/anstan/[3]German:[alb
t
antan]14March187918April1955)wasa
Germanborntheoreticalphysicist.Hedevelopedthe
generaltheoryofrelativity,oneofthetwopillarsof
modernphysics(alongsidequantum
mechanics).[2][4]:274Einstein'sworkisalsoknownfor
itsinfluenceonthephilosophyofscience.[5][6]Einstein
isbestknowninpopularcultureforhismassenergy
equivalenceformulaE=mc2(whichhasbeendubbed
"theworld'smostfamousequation").[7]Hereceived
the1921NobelPrizeinPhysicsforhis"servicesto
theoreticalphysics",inparticularhisdiscoveryofthe
lawofthephotoelectriceffect,apivotalstepinthe
evolutionofquantumtheory.[8]
Nearthebeginningofhiscareer,Einsteinthoughtthat
Newtonianmechanicswasnolongerenoughto
reconcilethelawsofclassicalmechanicswiththelaws
oftheelectromagneticfield.Thisledtothe
developmentofhisspecialtheoryofrelativity.He
realized,however,thattheprincipleofrelativitycould
alsobeextendedtogravitationalfields,andwithhis
subsequenttheoryofgravitationin1916,hepublished
apaperongeneralrelativity.Hecontinuedtodealwith
problemsofstatisticalmechanicsandquantumtheory,
whichledtohisexplanationsofparticletheoryandthe
motionofmolecules.Healsoinvestigatedthethermal
propertiesoflightwhichlaidthefoundationofthe
photontheoryoflight.In1917,Einsteinappliedthe
generaltheoryofrelativitytomodelthelargescale
structureoftheuniverse.[9][10]
HewasvisitingtheUnitedStateswhenAdolfHitler
cametopowerin1933and,beingJewish,didnotgo
backtoGermany,wherehehadbeenaprofessoratthe
BerlinAcademyofSciences.HesettledintheU.S.,
becominganAmericancitizenin1940.[11]Ontheeve
ofWorldWarII,heendorsedalettertoPresident
FranklinD.Rooseveltalertinghimtothepotential
developmentof"extremelypowerfulbombsofanew
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
AlbertEinstein
AlbertEinsteinin1921
Born
14March1879
Ulm,KingdomofWrttemberg,
GermanEmpire
Died
18April1955(aged76)
Princeton,NewJersey,UnitedStates
Residence
Germany,Italy,Switzerland,
Austria(today:CzechRepublic),
Belgium,UnitedStates
Citizenship
Fields
Institutions
KingdomofWrttemberg
(18791896)
Stateless(18961901)
Switzerland(19011955)
AustriaoftheAustro
HungarianEmpire(1911
1912)
Germany(19141933)
UnitedStates(19401955)
Physics,philosophy
SwissPatentOffice(Bern)
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type"andrecommendingthattheU.S.beginsimilar
research.Thiseventuallyledtowhatwouldbecome
theManhattanProject.Einsteinsupporteddefending
theAlliedforces,butlargelydenouncedtheideaof
usingthenewlydiscoverednuclearfissionasa
weapon.Later,withtheBritishphilosopherBertrand
Russell,EinsteinsignedtheRussellEinstein
Manifesto,whichhighlightedthedangerofnuclear
weapons.EinsteinwasaffiliatedwiththeInstitutefor
AdvancedStudyinPrinceton,NewJersey,untilhis
deathin1955.
(19021909)
UniversityofBern(1908
1909)
UniversityofZurich(1909
1911)
CharlesUniversityinPrague
(19111912)
ETHZurich(19121914)
PrussianAcademyof
Sciences(19141933)
HumboldtUniversityof
Berlin(19141917)
KaiserWilhelmInstitute
(director,19171933)
GermanPhysicalSociety
(president,19161918)
LeidenUniversity(visits,
1920)
InstituteforAdvancedStudy
(19331955)
Caltech(visits,193133)
Einsteinpublishedmorethan300scientificpapers
alongwithover150nonscientificworks.[9][12]On5
December2014,universitiesandarchivesannounced
thereleaseofEinstein'spapers,comprisingmorethan
30,000uniquedocuments.[13][14]Einstein'sintellectual
achievementsandoriginalityhavemadetheword
"Einstein"synonymouswith"genius".[15]
Contents
Almamater
1 Biography
1.1 Earlylifeandeducation
1.2 Marriagesandchildren
1.3 Patentoffice
1.4 Academiccareer
1.5 19211922:Travelsabroad
1.6 19301931:TraveltoU.S.
1.7 1933:EmigrationtotheU.S.
1.7.1 Refugeestatus
1.7.2 Residentscholaratthe
InstituteforAdvanced
Study
1.7.3 WorldWarIIandthe
ManhattanProject
Thesis
ETHZurich
UniversityofZurich
EineneueBestimmungder
Molekldimensionen[1] (1905)
Doctoral
advisor
AlfredKleiner
Otheracademic HeinrichFriedrichWeber
advisors
Knownfor
Generalrelativityandspecial
relativity
Photoelectriceffect
E=mc2
TheoryofBrownianmotion
Einsteinfieldequations
BoseEinsteinstatistics
BoseEinsteincondensate
Gravitationalwave
Cosmologicalconstant
Unifiedfieldtheory
EPRparadox
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Influenced
ErnstG.Straus
NathanRosen
LeSzilrd
Notableawards
1.8.2 AssistingZionistcauses
BarnardMedal(1920)
NobelPrizeinPhysics
(1921)
MatteucciMedal(1921)
1.8.3 Loveofmusic
ForMemRS(1921)[2]
1.7.4 U.S.citizenship
1.8 Personallife
1.8.1 Supporterofcivilrights
CopleyMedal(1925)[2]
MaxPlanckMedal(1929)
TimePersonoftheCentury
(1999)
1.8.4 Politicalandreligiousviews
1.9 Death
2 Scientificcareer
2.1 1905AnnusMirabilispapers
2.2 Thermodynamicfluctuationsand
statisticalphysics
2.3 Generalprinciples
Spouse
MilevaMari(19031919)
ElsaLwenthal(19191936)
Children
"Lieserl"(19021903?)
HansAlbert(19041973)
Eduard"Tete"(19101965)
Signature
2.4 TheoryofrelativityandE=mc
2.5 Photonsandenergyquanta
2.6 Quantizedatomicvibrations
2.7 Adiabaticprincipleandactionangle
variables
2.8 Waveparticleduality
2.9 Theoryofcriticalopalescence
2.10 Zeropointenergy
2.11 Generalrelativityandthe
equivalenceprinciple
2.11.1 Gravitationalwaves
2.12 HoleargumentandEntwurftheory
2.13 Cosmology
2.14 Modernquantumtheory
2.15 BoseEinsteinstatistics
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2.15 BoseEinsteinstatistics
2.16 Energymomentumpseudotensor
2.17 Unifiedfieldtheory
2.18 Wormholes
2.19 EinsteinCartantheory
2.20 Equationsofmotion
2.21 Otherinvestigations
2.22 Collaborationwithotherscientists
2.22.1 EinsteindeHaas
experiment
2.22.2 Schrdingergasmodel
2.22.3 Einsteinrefrigerator
2.23 BohrversusEinstein
2.24 EinsteinPodolskyRosenparadox
3 Nonscientificlegacy
4 Inpopularculture
5 Awardsandhonors
6 Publications
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks
Biography
Earlylifeandeducation
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AlbertEinsteinwasborninUlm,intheKingdomofWrttemberginthe
GermanEmpireon14March1879.[16]HisparentswereHermannEinstein,
asalesmanandengineer,andPaulineKoch.In1880,thefamilymovedto
Munich,whereEinstein'sfatherandhisuncleJakobfounded
ElektrotechnischeFabrikJ.Einstein&Cie,acompanythatmanufactured
electricalequipmentbasedondirectcurrent.[16]
TheEinsteinswerenonobservantAshkenaziJews,andAlbertattendeda
Catholicelementaryschoolfromtheageof5forthreeyears.Attheageof
8,hewastransferredtotheLuitpoldGymnasium(nowknownastheAlbert
EinsteinGymnasium),wherehereceivedadvancedprimaryandsecondary
schooleducationuntilheleftGermanysevenyearslater.[17]
In1894,HermannandJakob'scompanylostabidtosupplythecityof
Munichwithelectricallightingbecausetheylackedthecapitaltoconvert
theirequipmentfromthedirectcurrent(DC)standardtothemoreefficient
alternatingcurrent(AC)standard.[18]ThelossforcedthesaleoftheMunich
factory.Insearchofbusiness,theEinsteinfamilymovedtoItaly,firstto
MilanandafewmonthslatertoPavia.WhenthefamilymovedtoPavia,
EinsteinstayedinMunichtofinishhisstudiesattheLuitpoldGymnasium.
Hisfatherintendedforhimtopursueelectricalengineering,butEinstein
clashedwithauthoritiesandresentedtheschool'sregimenandteaching
method.Helaterwrotethatthespiritoflearningandcreativethoughtwas
lostinstrictrotelearning.AttheendofDecember1894,hetravelledto
ItalytojoinhisfamilyinPavia,convincingtheschooltolethimgoby
usingadoctor'snote.[19]DuringhistimeinItalyhewroteashortessaywith
thetitle"OntheInvestigationoftheStateoftheEtherinaMagnetic
Field".[20][21]
Einsteinattheageof3in
1882
In1895,attheageof16,Einsteinsattheentranceexaminationsforthe
AlbertEinsteinin1893(age
SwissFederalPolytechnicinZrich(latertheEidgenssischeTechnische
14)
Hochschule,ETH).Hefailedtoreachtherequiredstandardinthegeneral
partoftheexamination,[22]butobtainedexceptionalgradesinphysicsand
mathematics.[23]OntheadviceoftheprincipalofthePolytechnic,heattendedtheArgoviancantonal
school(gymnasium)inAarau,Switzerland,in189596tocompletehissecondaryschooling.Whilelodging
withthefamilyofProfessorJostWinteler,hefellinlovewithWinteler'sdaughter,Marie.(Albert'ssister
MajalatermarriedWintelers'sonPaul.)[24]InJanuary1896,withhisfather'sapproval,Einsteinrenounced
hiscitizenshipintheGermanKingdomofWrttembergtoavoidmilitaryservice.[25]InSeptember1896,he
passedtheSwissMaturawithmostlygoodgrades,includingatopgradeof6inphysicsandmathematical
subjects,onascaleof16.[26]Thoughonly17,heenrolledinthefouryearmathematicsandphysics
teachingdiplomaprogramattheZrichPolytechnic.MarieWintelermovedtoOlsberg,Switzerland,fora
teachingpost.
Einstein'sfuturewife,MilevaMari,alsoenrolledatthePolytechnicthatyear.Shewastheonlywoman
amongthesixstudentsinthemathematicsandphysicssectionoftheteachingdiplomacourse.Overthe
nextfewyears,EinsteinandMari'sfriendshipdevelopedintoromance,andtheyreadbookstogetheron
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extracurricularphysicsinwhichEinsteinwastakinganincreasinginterest.
In1900,EinsteinwasawardedtheZrichPolytechnicteachingdiploma,but
Marifailedtheexaminationwithapoorgradeinthemathematics
component,theoryoffunctions.[27]TherehavebeenclaimsthatMari
collaboratedwithEinsteinonhiscelebrated1905papers,[28][29]but
historiansofphysicswhohavestudiedtheissuefindnoevidencethatshe
madeanysubstantivecontributions.[30][31][32][33]
Marriagesandchildren
Thediscoveryandpublicationin1987ofanearlycorrespondencebetween
EinsteinandMarirevealedthattheyhadhadadaughter,called"Lieserl"in
theirletters,borninearly1902inNoviSadwhereMariwasstayingwith
herparents.MarireturnedtoSwitzerlandwithoutthechild,whosereal
nameandfateareunknown.Einsteinprobablyneversawhisdaughter.The
contentsofhislettertoMariinSeptember1903suggestthatthegirlwas
eitheradoptedordiedofscarletfeverininfancy.[34][35]
EinsteinandMarimarriedinJanuary1903.InMay1904,theirfirstson,
HansAlbertEinstein,wasborninBern,Switzerland.Theirsecondson,
Eduard,wasborninZrichinJuly1910.In1914,thecoupleseparated
EinsteinmovedtoBerlinandhiswiferemainedinZrichwiththeirsons.
Theydivorcedon14February1919,havinglivedapartforfiveyears.
Eduard,whomhisfathercalled"Tete"(forpetit),hadabreakdownatabout
age20andwasdiagnosedwithschizophrenia.Hismothercaredforhimand
hewasalsocommittedtoasylumsforseveralperiods,includingfulltime
afterherdeath.
Einstein'smatriculation
certificateattheageof17,
showinghisfinalgrades
fromtheArgoviancantonal
school(Aargauische
Kantonsschule,onascaleof
16,with6beingthehighest
possiblemark)
Inlettersrevealedin2015,Einsteinwrotetohisearlylove,MarieWinteler,
abouthismarriageandhisstillstrongfeelingsforMarie.In1910hewrote
toherthat"Ithinkofyouinheartfeltloveeveryspareminuteandamso
unhappyasonlyamancanbe"whilehiswifewaspregnantwiththeir
secondchild.Einsteinspokeabouta"misguidedlove"anda"missedlife"
regardinghisloveforMarie.[36]
EinsteinmarriedElsaLwenthalon2June1919,afterhavinghada
relationshipwithhersince1912.Shewasafirstcousinmaternallyanda
secondcousinpaternally.In1933,theyemigratedtotheUnitedStates.In
1935,ElsaEinsteinwasdiagnosedwithheartandkidneyproblemsshedied
inDecember1936.[37]
AlbertEinsteinin1904(age
25)
Patentoffice
Aftergraduating,Einsteinspentalmosttwofrustratingyearssearchingforateachingpost.Heacquired
SwisscitizenshipinFebruary1901,[38]butwasnotconscriptedformedicalreasons.Withthehelpof
MarcelGrossmann'sfather,EinsteinsecuredajobinBernattheFederalOfficeforIntellectualProperty,
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OlympiaAcademyfounders:Conrad
Habicht,MauriceSolovineand
Einstein.
thepatentoffice,[39][40]asan
assistantexaminer.[41][42]He
evaluatedpatentapplications
foravarietyofdevices
includingagravelsorterand
anelectromechanical
typewriter.[42]In1903,
Einstein'spositionatthe
SwissPatentOfficebecame
permanent,althoughhewas
passedoverforpromotion
untilhe"fullymastered
machinetechnology".[43]:370
EinsteinwithhiswifeElsa
Muchofhisworkatthepatentofficerelatedtoquestionsabouttransmissionofelectricsignalsand
electricalmechanicalsynchronizationoftime,twotechnicalproblemsthatshowupconspicuouslyinthe
thoughtexperimentsthateventuallyledEinsteintohisradicalconclusionsaboutthenatureoflightandthe
fundamentalconnectionbetweenspaceandtime.[43]:377
WithafewfriendshehadmetinBern,Einsteinstartedasmalldiscussiongroup,selfmockinglynamed
"TheOlympiaAcademy",whichmetregularlytodiscussscienceandphilosophy.Theirreadingsincluded
theworksofHenriPoincar,ErnstMach,andDavidHume,whichinfluencedhisscientificand
philosophicaloutlook.[44]
Academiccareer
In1900,Einstein'spaper"FolgerungenausdenCapillarittserscheinungen"
("ConclusionsfromtheCapillarityPhenomena")waspublishedinthe
prestigiousAnnalenderPhysik.[45][46]On30April1905,Einstein
completedhisthesis,withAlfredKleiner,ProfessorofExperimental
Physics,servingasproformaadvisor.Asaresult,Einsteinwasawardeda
PhDbytheUniversityofZrich,withhisdissertationentitled,"ANew
DeterminationofMolecularDimensions."[1][47]Thatsameyear,whichhas
beencalledEinstein'sannusmirabilis(miracleyear),hepublishedfour
groundbreakingpapers,onthephotoelectriceffect,Brownianmotion,
specialrelativity,andtheequivalenceofmassandenergy,whichwereto
bringhimtothenoticeoftheacademicworld,attheageof26.
By1908,hewasrecognizedasaleadingscientistandwasappointed
lecturerattheUniversityofBern.Thefollowingyear,aftergivingalecture
onelectrodynamicsandtherelativityprincipleattheUniversityofZurich,
AlfredKleinerrecommendedhimtothefacultyforanewlycreated
professorshipintheoreticalphysics.Einsteinwasappointedassociate
professorin1909.[48]
Einstein'sofficial1921
portraitafterreceivingthe
NobelPrizeinPhysics
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EinsteinbecameafullprofessorattheGermanCharlesFerdinandUniversityinPragueinApril1911,
acceptingAustriancitizenshipintheAustroHungarianempiretodoso.[49][50]DuringhisPraguestay
Einsteinwrote11scientificworks,5ofthemonradiationmathematicsandonquantumtheoryofthesolids.
InJuly1912hereturnedtohisalmamaterinZrich.From1912until1914hewasprofessoroftheoretical
physicsattheETHZurich,wherehetaughtanalyticalmechanicsandthermodynamics.Healsostudied
continuummechanics,themoleculartheoryofheat,andtheproblemofgravitation,onwhichheworked
withmathematicianandhisfriendMarcelGrossmann.[51]
In1914,hereturnedtotheGermanEmpireafterbeingappointeddirectoroftheKaiserWilhelmInstitute
forPhysics(19141932)[52]andaprofessorattheHumboldtUniversityofBerlin,butfreedfrommost
teachingobligations.HesoonbecameamemberofthePrussianAcademyofSciences,andin1916was
appointedpresidentoftheGermanPhysicalSociety(19161918).[53]
BasedoncalculationsEinsteinmadein1911,abouthisnewtheoryofgeneralrelativity,lightfromanother
starwouldbebentbytheSun'sgravity.In1919thatpredictionwasconfirmedbySirArthurEddington
duringthesolareclipseof29May1919.Thoseobservationswerepublishedintheinternationalmedia,
makingEinsteinworldfamous.On7November1919,theleadingBritishnewspaperTheTimesprinteda
bannerheadlinethatread:"RevolutioninScienceNewTheoryoftheUniverseNewtonianIdeas
Overthrown".[54]
In1920,hebecameForeignMemberoftheRoyalNetherlandsAcademyofArtsandSciences.[55]In1921,
EinsteinwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysics"forhisservicestoTheoreticalPhysics,andespeciallyfor
hisdiscoveryofthelawofthephotoelectriceffect".WhileGeneralTheoryofRelativitywasstill
consideredsomewhatcontroversial,thecitationalsodoesnottreatthecitedworkasanexplanationbut
merelyasadiscoveryofthelaw,astheideaofphotonswasconsideredoutlandishanddidnotreceive
universalacceptanceuntilthe1924derivationofthePlanckspectrumbyS.N.Bose.Einsteinwaselecteda
ForeignMemberoftheRoyalSociety(ForMemRS)in1921.[2]HealsoreceivedtheCopleyMedalfromthe
RoyalSocietyin1925.[2]
19211922:Travelsabroad
EinsteinvisitedNewYorkCityforthefirsttimeon2April1921,
wherehereceivedanofficialwelcomebyMayorJohnFrancis
Hylan,followedbythreeweeksoflecturesandreceptions.He
wentontodeliverseverallecturesatColumbiaUniversityand
PrincetonUniversity,andinWashingtonheaccompanied
representativesoftheNationalAcademyofScienceonavisitto
theWhiteHouse.OnhisreturntoEuropehewastheguestofthe
BritishstatesmanandphilosopherViscountHaldaneinLondon,
wherehemetseveralrenownedscientific,intellectualand
politicalfigures,anddeliveredalectureatKing'sCollege
London.[56][57]
EinsteininNewYork,1921,hisfirst
visittotheUnitedStates
Healsopublishedanessay,"MyFirstImpressionoftheU.S.A.,"
inJuly1921,inwhichhetriedbrieflytodescribesome
characteristicsofAmericans,muchashadAlexisdeTocqueville,whopublishedhisownimpressionsin
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DemocracyinAmerica(1835).[58]Forsomeofhisobservations,Einsteinwasclearlysurprised:"What
strikesavisitoristhejoyous,positiveattitudetolife...TheAmericanisfriendly,selfconfident,
optimistic,andwithoutenvy."[59]:20
In1922,histravelstookhimtoAsiaandlatertoPalestine,aspartofasixmonthexcursionandspeaking
tour,ashevisitedSingapore,CeylonandJapan,wherehegaveaseriesoflecturestothousandsof
Japanese.Afterhisfirstpubliclecture,hemettheemperorandempressattheImperialPalace,where
thousandscametowatch.Inalettertohissons,EinsteindescribedhisimpressionoftheJapaneseasbeing
modest,intelligent,considerate,andhavingatruefeelforart.[60]
BecauseofEinstein'stravelstotheFarEast,hewasunabletopersonallyaccepttheNobelPrizeforPhysics
attheStockholmawardceremonyinDecember1922.Inhisplace,thebanquetspeechwasheldbya
Germandiplomat,whopraisedEinsteinnotonlyasascientistbutalsoasaninternationalpeacemakerand
activist.[61]
Onhisreturnvoyage,hevisitedPalestinefor12daysinwhatwouldbecomehisonlyvisittothatregion.
Einsteinwasgreetedasifhewereaheadofstate,ratherthanaphysicist,whichincludedacannonsalute
uponarrivingatthehomeoftheBritishhighcommissioner,SirHerbertSamuel.Duringonereception,the
buildingwasstormedbypeoplewhowantedtoseeandhearhim.InEinstein'stalktotheaudience,he
expressedhappinessthattheJewishpeoplewerebeginningtoberecognizedasaforceintheworld.[62]
19301931:TraveltoU.S.
InDecember1930,EinsteinvisitedAmericaforthesecondtime,originallyintendedasatwomonth
workingvisitasaresearchfellowattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.Afterthenationalattentionhe
receivedduringhisfirsttriptotheU.S.,heandhisarrangersaimedtoprotecthisprivacy.Although
swampedwithtelegramsandinvitationstoreceiveawardsorspeakpublicly,hedeclinedthemall.[63]
AfterarrivinginNewYorkCity,Einsteinwastakentovarious
placesandevents,includingChinatown,alunchwiththeeditorsof
theNewYorkTimes,andaperformanceofCarmenatthe
MetropolitanOpera,wherehewascheeredbytheaudienceonhis
arrival.Duringthedaysfollowing,hewasgiventhekeystothecity
byMayorJimmyWalkerandmetthepresidentofColumbia
University,whodescribedEinsteinas"therulingmonarchofthe
mind."[64]HarryEmersonFosdick,pastoratNewYork'sRiverside
Church,gaveEinsteinatourofthechurchandshowedhimafull
sizestatuethatthechurchmadeofEinstein,standingatthe
entrance.[64]AlsoduringhisstayinNewYork,hejoinedacrowdof
15,000peopleatMadisonSquareGardenduringaHanukkah
celebration.[64]
CharlieChaplinandEinsteinatthe
HollywoodpremierofCityLights,
January1931
EinsteinnexttraveledtoCaliforniawherehemetCaltechpresident
andNobellaureate,RobertA.Millikan.Hisfriendshipwith
Millikanwas"awkward",asMillikan"hadapenchantforpatriotic
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militarism,"whereEinsteinwasapronouncedpacifist.[65]DuringanaddresstoCaltech'sstudents,Einstein
notedthatsciencewasofteninclinedtodomoreharmthangood.[66]
ThisaversiontowaralsoledEinsteintobefriendauthorUptonSinclairandfilmstarCharlieChaplin,both
notedfortheirpacifism.CarlLaemmle,headofUniversalStudios,gaveEinsteinatourofhisstudioand
introducedhimtoChaplin.Theyhadaninstantrapport,withChaplininvitingEinsteinandhiswife,Elsa,to
hishomefordinner.ChaplinsaidEinstein'soutwardpersona,calmandgentle,seemedtoconceala"highly
emotionaltemperament,"fromwhichcamehis"extraordinaryintellectualenergy."[67]:320
ChaplinalsoremembersElsatellinghimaboutthetimeEinsteinconceivedhistheoryofrelativity.During
breakfastonemorning,heseemedlostinthoughtandignoredhisfood.Sheaskedhimifsomethingwas
botheringhim.Hesatdownathispianoandstartedplaying.Hecontinuedplayingandwritingnotesfor
halfanhour,thenwentupstairstohisstudy,whereheremainedfortwoweeks,withElsabringinguphis
food.Attheendofthetwoweekshecamedownstairswithtwosheetsofpaperbearinghistheory.[67]:320
Chaplin'sfilm,CityLights,wastopremierafewdayslaterinHollywood,andChaplininvitedEinsteinand
Elsatojoinhimashisspecialguests.WalterIsaacson,Einstein'sbiographer,describedthisas"oneofthe
mostmemorablescenesintheneweraofcelebrity."EinsteinandChaplinarrivedtogether,inblacktie,
withElsajoiningthem,"beaming."Theaudienceapplaudedastheyenteredthetheater.[66]Chaplinvisited
EinsteinathishomeonalatertriptoBerlin,andrecalledhis"modestlittleflat"andthepianoatwhichhe
hadbegunwritinghistheory.Chaplinspeculatedthatitwas"possiblyusedaskindlingwoodbythe
Nazis."[67]:322
1933:EmigrationtotheU.S.
InFebruary1933whileonavisittotheUnitedStates,Einstein
knewhecouldnotreturntoGermanywiththerisetopowerofthe
NazisunderGermany'snewchancellor,AdolfHitler.[68][69]
WhileatAmericanuniversitiesinearly1933,heundertookhisthird
twomonthvisitingprofessorshipattheCaliforniaInstituteof
TechnologyinPasadena.HeandhiswifeElsareturnedtoBelgium
byshipinMarch,andduringthetriptheylearnedthattheircottage
wasraidedbytheNazisandhispersonalsailboatconfiscated.Upon
landinginAntwerpon28March,heimmediatelywenttothe
Germanconsulateandturnedinhispassport,formallyrenouncing
hisGermancitizenship.[70]Afewyearslater,theNazissoldhisboat
andturnedhiscottageintoaHitlerYouthcamp.[71]
Refugeestatus
InApril1933,EinsteindiscoveredthatthenewGermangovernment
hadpassedlawsbarringJewsfromholdinganyofficialpositions,
includingteachingatuniversities.[70]HistorianGeraldHolton
CartoonofEinstein,whohasshedhis
"Pacifism"wings,standingnexttoa
pillarlabeled"WorldPeace."Heis
rollinguphissleevesandholdinga
swordlabeled"Preparedness"(by
CharlesR.Macauley,c.1933).
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describeshow,with"virtuallynoaudibleprotestbeingraisedbytheircolleagues,"thousandsofJewish
scientistsweresuddenlyforcedtogiveuptheiruniversitypositionsandtheirnameswereremovedfromthe
rollsofinstitutionswheretheywereemployed.[59]
Amonthlater,Einstein'sworkswereamongthosetargetedbyNazibookburnings,withNazipropaganda
ministerJosephGoebbelsproclaiming,"Jewishintellectualismisdead."[70]OneGermanmagazineincluded
himinalistofenemiesoftheGermanregimewiththephrase,"notyethanged",offeringa$5,000bounty
onhishead.[70][72]InasubsequentlettertophysicistandfriendMaxBorn,whohadalreadyemigratedfrom
GermanytoEngland,Einsteinwrote,"...Imustconfessthatthedegreeoftheirbrutalityandcowardice
cameassomethingofasurprise."[70]AftermovingtotheU.S.,hedescribedthebookburningsasa
"spontaneousemotionaloutburst"bythosewho"shunpopularenlightenment,"and"morethananything
elseintheworld,feartheinfluenceofmenofintellectualindependence."[73]
Einsteinwasnowwithoutapermanenthome,unsurewherehe
wouldliveandwork,andequallyworriedaboutthefateofcountless
otherscientistsstillinGermany.HerentedahouseinDeHaan,
Belgium,wherehelivedforafewmonths.InlateJuly1933,he
wenttoEnglandforaboutsixweeksatthepersonalinvitationof
BritishnavalofficerCommanderOliverLockerLampson,whohad
becomefriendswithEinsteinintheprecedingyears.Toprotect
Einstein,LockerLampsonhadtwoassistantswatchoverhimathis
secludedcottageoutsideLondon,withthepresspublishingaphoto
ofthemguardingEinstein.[74]
LockerLampsontookEinsteintomeetWinstonChurchillathis
home,andlater,AustenChamberlainandformerPrimeMinister
EinsteinsurroundedbyOliver
[75]
LloydGeorge. EinsteinaskedthemtohelpbringJewish
LockerLampson(seated)and
scientistsoutofGermany.BritishhistorianMartinGilbertnotesthat
assistantsassignedtoprotecthim
Churchillrespondedimmediately,andsenthisfriend,physicist
FrederickLindemanntoGermanytoseekoutJewishscientistsand
placetheminBritishuniversities.[76]ChurchilllaterobservedthatasaresultofGermanyhavingdriventhe
Jewsout,theyhadloweredtheir"technicalstandards"andputtheAllies'technologyaheadoftheirs.[76]
Einsteinlatercontactedleadersofothernations,includingTurkey'sPrimeMinister,smetnn,towhom
hewroteinSeptember1933requestingplacementofunemployedGermanJewishscientists.Asaresultof
Einstein'sletter,JewishinviteestoTurkeyeventuallytotaledover"1,000savedindividuals."[77]
LockerLampsonalsosubmittedabilltoparliamenttoextendBritishcitizenshiptoEinstein,duringwhich
periodEinsteinmadeanumberofpublicappearancesdescribingthecrisisbrewinginEurope.Thebill
failedtobecomelaw,however,andEinsteinthenacceptedanearlierofferfromthePrincetonInstitutefor
AdvancedStudy,intheU.S.,tobecomearesidentscholar.[78]
ResidentscholarattheInstituteforAdvancedStudy
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InOctober1933EinsteinreturnedtotheU.S.andtookupaposition
attheInstituteforAdvancedStudy(inPrinceton,New
Jersey),[78][79]notedforhavingbecomearefugeforscientists
fleeingNaziGermany.[80]Atthetime,mostAmericanuniversities,
includingHarvard,PrincetonandYale,hadminimalornoJewish
facultyorstudents,asaresultoftheirJewishquotawhichlasted
untilthelate1940s.[80]
Einsteinwasstillundecidedonhisfuture.Hehadoffersfrom
severalEuropeanuniversities,includingOxfordwherehestayedfor
threeshortperiodsbetweenMay1931andJune1933,[81][82]butin
1935hearrivedatthedecisiontoremainpermanentlyintheUnited
Statesandapplyforcitizenship.[78][83]
Einstein'saffiliationwiththeInstituteforAdvancedStudywould
Portraittakenin1935inPrinceton
lastuntilhisdeathin1955.[84]Hewasoneofthefourfirstselected
(twooftheothersbeingJohnvonNeumannandKurtGdel)atthe
newInstitute,wherehesoondevelopedaclosefriendshipwithGdel.Thetwowouldtakelongwalks
togetherdiscussingtheirwork.BruriaKaufman,hisassistant,laterbecameaphysicist.Duringthisperiod,
Einsteintriedtodevelopaunifiedfieldtheoryandtorefutetheacceptedinterpretationofquantumphysics,
bothunsuccessfully.
WorldWarIIandtheManhattanProject
In1939,agroupofHungarianscientiststhatincludedmigrphysicistLeSzilrdattemptedtoalert
WashingtontoongoingNaziatomicbombresearch.Thegroup'swarningswerediscounted.[85]Einsteinand
Szilrd,alongwithotherrefugeessuchasEdwardTellerandEugeneWigner,"regardeditastheir
responsibilitytoalertAmericanstothepossibilitythatGermanscientistsmightwintheracetobuildan
atomicbomb,andtowarnthatHitlerwouldbemorethanwillingtoresorttosuchaweapon."[86][87]
TomakecertaintheU.S.wasawareofthedanger,inJuly1939,a
fewmonthsbeforethebeginningofWorldWarIIinEurope,Szilrd
andWignervisitedEinsteintoexplainthepossibilityofatomic
bombs,whichEinstein,apacifist,saidhehadneverconsidered.[88]
Hewasaskedtolendhissupportbywritingaletter,withSzilrd,to
PresidentRoosevelt,recommendingtheU.S.payattentionand
engageinitsownnuclearweaponsresearch.AsecretGerman
facility,apparentlythelargestoftheThirdReich,covering75acres
inanundergroundcomplex,wasbeingreexcavatedinAustriain
December2014andmayhavebeenplannedforuseinnuclear
researchanddevelopment.[89]
FirstIndianPrimeMinister
JawaharlalNehruwithEinsteinat
Einstein'shouseinPrinceton,1949
Theletterisbelievedtobe"arguablythekeystimulusfortheU.S.
adoptionofseriousinvestigationsintonuclearweaponsontheeve
oftheU.S.entryintoWorldWarII".[90]Inadditiontotheletter,Einsteinusedhisconnectionswiththe
BelgianRoyalFamily[91]andtheBelgianqueenmother[85]togetaccesswithapersonalenvoytotheWhite
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House'sOvalOffice.[85]PresidentRooseveltcouldnottaketheriskofallowingHitlertopossessatomic
bombsfirst.AsaresultofEinstein'sletterandhismeetingswithRoosevelt,theU.S.enteredthe"race"to
developthebomb,drawingonits"immensematerial,financial,andscientificresources"toinitiatethe
ManhattanProject.ItbecametheonlycountrytosuccessfullydevelopanatomicbombduringWorldWar
II.
ForEinstein,"warwasadisease...[and]hecalledforresistancetowar."BysigningthelettertoRoosevelt
hewentagainsthispacifistprinciples.[92]In1954,ayearbeforehisdeath,Einsteinsaidtohisoldfriend,
LinusPauling,"ImadeonegreatmistakeinmylifewhenIsignedthelettertoPresidentRoosevelt
recommendingthatatombombsbemadebuttherewassomejustificationthedangerthattheGermans
wouldmakethem..."[93]
U.S.citizenship
EinsteinbecameanAmericancitizenin1940.Notlongaftersettling
intohiscareerattheInstituteforAdvancedStudy(inPrinceton,
NewJersey),heexpressedhisappreciationofthemeritocracyin
AmericanculturewhencomparedtoEurope.Herecognizedthe
"rightofindividualstosayandthinkwhattheypleased",without
socialbarriers,andasaresult,individualswereencouraged,hesaid,
tobemorecreative,atraithevaluedfromhisownearly
education.[94]
Personallife
Supporterofcivilrights
EinsteinacceptingU.S.citizenship
certificatefromjudgePhillipForman
Einsteinwasapassionate,committedantiracistandjoinedNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementof
ColoredPeople(NAACP)inPrinceton,wherehecampaignedforthecivilrightsofAfricanAmericans.He
consideredracismAmerica's"worstdisease,"[72]seeingitas"handeddownfromonegenerationtothe
next."[95]Aspartofhisinvolvement,hecorrespondedwithcivilrightsactivistW.E.B.DuBoisandwas
preparedtotestifyonhisbehalfduringhistrialin1951.[96]:565WhenEinsteinofferedtobeacharacter
witnessforDuBois,thejudgedecidedtodropthecase.[97]
In1946EinsteinvisitedLincolnUniversityinPennsylvaniawherehewasawardedanhonorarydegree.
LincolnwasthefirstuniversityintheUnitedStatestograntcollegedegreestoblacks,includingLangston
HughesandThurgoodMarshall.Toitsstudents,EinsteingaveaspeechaboutracisminAmerica,adding,"I
donotintendtobequietaboutit."[98]AresidentofPrincetonrecallsthatEinsteinhadoncepaidthecollege
tuitionforablackstudent,[97]andblackphysicistSylvesterJamesGatesstatesthatEinsteinhadbeenoneof
hisearlyscienceheroes,laterfindingoutaboutEinstein'ssupportforcivilrights.[97]
AssistingZionistcauses
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EinsteinwasafigureheadleaderinhelpingestablishtheHebrew
UniversityofJerusalem,whichopenedin1925,andwasamongits
firstBoardofGovernors.Earlier,in1921,hewasaskedbythe
biochemistandpresidentoftheWorldZionistOrganization,Chaim
Weizmann,tohelpraisefundsfortheplanneduniversity.[99]Healso
submittedvarioussuggestionsastoitsinitialprograms.
Amongthose,headvisedfirstcreatinganInstituteofAgriculturein
ordertosettletheundevelopedland.Thatshouldbefollowed,he
suggested,byaChemicalInstituteandanInstituteofMicrobiology,
tofightthevariousongoingepidemicssuchasmalaria,whichhe
calledan"evil"thatwasunderminingathirdofthecountry's
development.[100]:161EstablishinganOrientalStudiesInstitute,to
includelanguagecoursesgiveninbothHebrewandArabic,for
scientificexplorationofthecountryanditshistoricalmonuments,
wasalsoimportant.[100]:158
Einsteinin1947
ChaimWeizmannlaterbecameIsrael'sfirstpresident.Uponhis
deathwhileinofficeinNovember1952andattheurgingofEzriel
Carlebach,PrimeMinisterDavidBenGurionofferedEinsteinthepositionofPresidentofIsrael,amostly
ceremonialpost.[101][102]TheofferwaspresentedbyIsrael'sambassadorinWashington,AbbaEban,who
explainedthattheoffer"embodiesthedeepestrespectwhichtheJewishpeoplecanreposeinanyofits
sons".[103]Einsteindeclined,andwroteinhisresponsethathewas"deeplymoved",and"atoncesaddened
andashamed"thathecouldnotacceptit.[103]
Loveofmusic
Einsteindevelopedanappreciationofmusicatanearly
age.Hismotherplayedthepianoreasonablywelland
wantedhersontolearntheviolin,notonlytoinstillin
himaloveofmusicbutalsotohelphimassimilateinto
Germanculture.AccordingtoconductorLeonBotstein,
Einsteinissaidtohavebegunplayingwhenhewas5,
althoughhedidnotenjoyitatthatage.[106]
IfIwerenotaphysicist,Iwouldprobablybea
musician.Ioftenthinkinmusic.Ilivemy
daydreamsinmusic.Iseemylifeintermsof
music...Igetmostjoyinlifeoutofmusic.
AlbertEinstein[104][105]
Whenheturned13hediscoveredtheviolinsonatasofMozart,whereupon"Einsteinfellinlove"with
Mozart'smusicandstudiedmusicmorewillingly.Hetaughthimselftoplaywithout"everpracticing
systematically",hesaid,decidingthat"loveisabetterteacherthanasenseofduty."[106]Atage17,hewas
heardbyaschoolexaminerinAarauasheplayedBeethoven'sviolinsonatas,theexaminerstating
afterwardthathisplayingwas"remarkableandrevealingof'greatinsight'."Whatstrucktheexaminer,
writesBotstein,wasthatEinstein"displayedadeeploveofthemusic,aqualitythatwasandremainsin
shortsupply.Musicpossessedanunusualmeaningforthisstudent."[106]
MusictookonapivotalandpermanentroleinEinstein'slifefromthatperiodon.Althoughtheideaof
becomingaprofessionalhimselfwasnotonhismindatanytime,amongthosewithwhomEinsteinplayed
chambermusicwereafewprofessionals,andheperformedforprivateaudiencesandfriends.Chamber
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musichadalsobecomearegularpartofhissociallifewhilelivingin
Bern,Zrich,andBerlin,whereheplayedwithMaxPlanckandhis
son,amongothers.Heissometimeserroneouslycreditedastheeditor
ofthe1937editionoftheKchelcatalogueofMozart'sworkthat
editionwasactuallypreparedbyAlfredEinstein,whomayhavebeena
distantrelation.[107][108]
In1931,whileengagedinresearchattheCaliforniaInstituteof
Technology,hevisitedtheZoellnerfamilyconservatoryinLos
Angeles,whereheplayedsomeofBeethovenandMozart'sworkswith
membersoftheZoellnerQuartet.[109][110]Neartheendofhislife,
whentheyoungJuilliardQuartetvisitedhiminPrinceton,heplayed
hisviolinwiththem,andthequartetwas"impressedbyEinstein'slevel
ofcoordinationandintonation."[106]
Politicalandreligiousviews
Einstein'spoliticalviewwasinfavorofsocialismandcriticalof
capitalism,whichhedetailedinhisessayssuchas"Why
Socialism?".[111][112]Einsteinofferedandwascalledontogive
judgmentsandopinionsonmattersoftenunrelatedtotheoretical
physicsormathematics.[78]Hestronglyadvocatedtheideaofa
democraticglobalgovernmentthatwouldcheckthepowerofnation
statesintheframeworkofaworldfederation.[113]
Einstein'sviewsaboutreligiousbeliefhavebeencollectedfrom
interviewsandoriginalwritings.Hecalledhimselfanagnostic,while
disassociatinghimselffromthelabelatheist.[114]Hesaidhebelievedin
the"pantheistic"GodofBaruchSpinoza,butnotinapersonalgod,
abeliefhecriticized.[115][116]Einsteinoncewrote:"Idonotbelieve
inapersonalGodandIhaveneverdeniedthisbutexpressedit
clearly".[117]
AlbertEinsteinplayingviolin
Einsteinwithwriterandmusician
andNobellaureateRabindranath
Tagore,1930
Death
On17April1955,AlbertEinsteinexperiencedinternalbleeding
causedbytheruptureofanabdominalaorticaneurysm,whichhad
previouslybeenreinforcedsurgicallybyRudolphNissenin
1948.[118]Hetookthedraftofaspeechhewaspreparingfora
televisionappearancecommemoratingtheStateofIsrael'sseventh
anniversarywithhimtothehospital,buthedidnotlivelongenough
tocompleteit.[119]
AlbertEinsteinwithhiswifeElsa
EinsteinandZionistleaders,
includingfuturePresidentofIsrael
ChaimWeizmann,hiswifeVera
Weizmann,MenahemUssishkin,and
BenZionMossinsononarrivalin
NewYorkCityin1921
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Einsteinrefusedsurgery,saying:"IwanttogowhenIwant.Itistastelesstoprolonglifeartificially.Ihave
donemyshare,itistimetogo.Iwilldoitelegantly."[120]HediedinPrincetonHospitalearlythenext
morningattheageof76,havingcontinuedtoworkuntilneartheend.
Duringtheautopsy,thepathologistofPrincetonHospital,ThomasStoltzHarvey,removedEinstein'sbrain
forpreservationwithoutthepermissionofhisfamily,inthehopethattheneuroscienceofthefuturewould
beabletodiscoverwhatmadeEinsteinsointelligent.[121]Einstein'sremainswerecrematedandhisashes
werescatteredatanundisclosedlocation.[122][123]
InhislectureatEinstein'smemorial,nuclearphysicistRobertOppenheimersummarizedhisimpressionof
himasaperson:"Hewasalmostwhollywithoutsophisticationandwhollywithoutworldliness...There
wasalwayswithhimawonderfulpurityatoncechildlikeandprofoundlystubborn."[124]
Scientificcareer
Throughouthislife,Einsteinpublishedhundredsofbooksandarticles.[12][16]Hepublishedmorethan300
scientificpapersand150nonscientificones.[9][12]On5December2014,universitiesandarchives
announcedthereleaseofEinstein'spapers,comprisingmorethan30,000uniquedocuments.[13][14]
Einstein'sintellectualachievementsandoriginalityhavemadetheword"Einstein"synonymouswith
"genius".[15]Inadditiontotheworkhedidbyhimselfhealsocollaboratedwithotherscientistson
additionalprojectsincludingtheBoseEinsteinstatistics,theEinsteinrefrigeratorandothers.[125]
1905AnnusMirabilispapers
TheAnnusMirabilispapersarefourarticlespertainingtothephotoelectriceffect(whichgaveriseto
quantumtheory),Brownianmotion,thespecialtheoryofrelativity,andE=mc2thatAlbertEinstein
publishedintheAnnalenderPhysikscientificjournalin1905.Thesefourworkscontributedsubstantially
tothefoundationofmodernphysicsandchangedviewsonspace,time,andmatter.Thefourpapersare:
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Title(translated)
Areaoffocus
Received Published
Significance
OnaHeuristic
ViewpointConcerning Photoelectric
18March 9June
theProductionand
effect
TransformationofLight
Resolvedanunsolvedpuzzlebysuggesting
thatenergyisexchangedonlyindiscrete
amounts(quanta).[126]Thisideawas
pivotaltotheearlydevelopmentof
quantumtheory.[127]
OntheMotionofSmall
ParticlesSuspendedin
aStationaryLiquid,as Brownian
Requiredbythe
motion
MolecularKinetic
TheoryofHeat
Explainedempiricalevidenceforthe
atomictheory,supportingtheapplication
ofstatisticalphysics.
OntheElectrodynamics Special
ofMovingBodies
relativity
11May
18July
30June
ReconciledMaxwell'sequationsfor
electricityandmagnetismwiththelawsof
mechanicsbyintroducingmajorchangesto
mechanicsclosetothespeedoflight,
26
resultingfromanalysisbasedonempirical
September evidencethatthespeedoflightis
independentofthemotionofthe
observer.[128]Discreditedtheconceptofa
"luminiferousether."[129]
Equivalenceofmatterandenergy,E=mc2
DoestheInertiaofa
Matter
27
21
(andbyimplication,theabilityofgravity
BodyDependUponIts energy
September November to"bend"light),theexistenceof"rest
EnergyContent?
equivalence
energy",andthebasisofnuclearenergy.
Thermodynamicfluctuationsandstatisticalphysics
AlbertEinstein'sfirstpaper[130]submittedin1900toAnnalenderPhysikwasoncapillaryattraction.Itwas
publishedin1901withthetitle"FolgerungenausdenCapillarittserscheinungen",whichtranslatesas
"Conclusionsfromthecapillarityphenomena".Twopapershepublishedin19021903(thermodynamics)
attemptedtointerpretatomicphenomenafromastatisticalpointofview.Thesepaperswerethefoundation
forthe1905paperonBrownianmotion,whichshowedthatBrownianmovementcanbeconstruedasfirm
evidencethatmoleculesexist.Hisresearchin1903and1904wasmainlyconcernedwiththeeffectoffinite
atomicsizeondiffusionphenomena.[130]
Generalprinciples
Hearticulatedtheprincipleofrelativity.ThiswasunderstoodbyHermannMinkowskitobea
generalizationofrotationalinvariancefromspacetospacetime.OtherprinciplespostulatedbyEinstein
andlatervindicatedaretheprincipleofequivalenceandtheprincipleofadiabaticinvarianceofthe
quantumnumber.
TheoryofrelativityandE=mc
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Einstein's"ZurElektrodynamikbewegterKrper"("OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies")was
receivedon30June1905andpublished26Septemberofthatsameyear.ItreconcilesMaxwell'sequations
forelectricityandmagnetismwiththelawsofmechanics,byintroducingmajorchangestomechanicsclose
tothespeedoflight.ThislaterbecameknownasEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity.
Consequencesofthisincludethetimespaceframeofamovingbodyappearingtoslowdownandcontract
(inthedirectionofmotion)whenmeasuredintheframeoftheobserver.Thispaperalsoarguedthatthe
ideaofaluminiferousaetheroneoftheleadingtheoreticalentitiesinphysicsatthetimewas
superfluous.[131]
Inhispaperonmassenergyequivalence,EinsteinproducedE=mc2fromhisspecialrelativity
equations.[132]Einstein's1905workonrelativityremainedcontroversialformanyyears,butwasaccepted
byleadingphysicists,startingwithMaxPlanck.[133][134]
Photonsandenergyquanta
Ina1905paper,[135]Einsteinpostulatedthatlightitselfconsistsoflocalized
particles(quanta).Einstein'slightquantawerenearlyuniversallyrejected
byallphysicists,includingMaxPlanckandNielsBohr.Thisideaonly
becameuniversallyacceptedin1919,withRobertMillikan'sdetailed
experimentsonthephotoelectriceffect,andwiththemeasurementof
Comptonscattering.
Einsteinconcludedthateachwaveoffrequencyfisassociatedwitha
collectionofphotonswithenergyhfeach,wherehisPlanck'sconstant.He
doesnotsaymuchmore,becauseheisnotsurehowtheparticlesarerelated
tothewave.Buthedoessuggestthatthisideawouldexplaincertain
experimentalresults,notablythephotoelectriceffect.[135]
Thephotoelectriceffect.
Incomingphotonsontheleft
strikeametalplate(bottom),
andejectelectrons,depicted
asflyingofftotheright.
Quantizedatomicvibrations
In1907,Einsteinproposedamodelofmatterwhereeachatominalatticestructureisanindependent
harmonicoscillator.IntheEinsteinmodel,eachatomoscillatesindependentlyaseriesofequallyspaced
quantizedstatesforeachoscillator.Einsteinwasawarethatgettingthefrequencyoftheactualoscillations
wouldbedifferent,butheneverthelessproposedthistheorybecauseitwasaparticularlyclear
demonstrationthatquantummechanicscouldsolvethespecificheatprobleminclassicalmechanics.Peter
Debyerefinedthismodel.[136]
Adiabaticprincipleandactionanglevariables
Throughoutthe1910s,quantummechanicsexpandedinscopetocovermanydifferentsystems.After
ErnestRutherforddiscoveredthenucleusandproposedthatelectronsorbitlikeplanets,NielsBohrwas
abletoshowthatthesamequantummechanicalpostulatesintroducedbyPlanckanddevelopedbyEinstein
wouldexplainthediscretemotionofelectronsinatoms,andtheperiodictableoftheelements.
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Einsteincontributedtothesedevelopmentsbylinkingthemwiththe1898argumentsWilhelmWienhad
made.Wienhadshownthatthehypothesisofadiabaticinvarianceofathermalequilibriumstateallowsall
theblackbodycurvesatdifferenttemperaturetobederivedfromoneanotherbyasimpleshiftingprocess.
Einsteinnotedin1911thatthesameadiabaticprincipleshowsthatthequantitywhichisquantizedinany
mechanicalmotionmustbeanadiabaticinvariant.ArnoldSommerfeldidentifiedthisadiabaticinvariantas
theactionvariableofclassicalmechanics.
Waveparticleduality
AlthoughthepatentofficepromotedEinsteintoTechnicalExaminer
SecondClassin1906,hehadnotgivenuponacademia.In1908,hebecame
aPrivatdozentattheUniversityofBern.[137]In"berdieEntwicklung
unsererAnschauungenberdasWesenunddieKonstitutionderStrahlung"
("TheDevelopmentofourViewsontheCompositionandEssenceof
Radiation"),onthequantizationoflight,andinanearlier1909paper,
EinsteinshowedthatMaxPlanck'senergyquantamusthavewelldefined
momentaandactinsomerespectsasindependent,pointlikeparticles.This
paperintroducedthephotonconcept(althoughthenamephotonwas
introducedlaterbyGilbertN.Lewisin1926)andinspiredthenotionof
waveparticledualityinquantummechanics.Einsteinsawthiswave
particledualityinradiationasconcreteevidenceforhisconvictionthat
physicsneededanew,unifiedfoundation.
Theoryofcriticalopalescence
Einsteinduringhisvisitto
theUnitedStates
Einsteinreturnedtotheproblemofthermodynamicfluctuations,givinga
treatmentofthedensityvariationsinafluidatitscriticalpoint.Ordinarily
thedensityfluctuationsarecontrolledbythesecondderivativeofthefree
energywithrespecttothedensity.Atthecriticalpoint,thisderivativeiszero,leadingtolargefluctuations.
Theeffectofdensityfluctuationsisthatlightofallwavelengthsisscattered,makingthefluidlookmilky
white.EinsteinrelatesthistoRayleighscattering,whichiswhathappenswhenthefluctuationsizeismuch
smallerthanthewavelength,andwhichexplainswhytheskyisblue.[138]Einsteinquantitativelyderived
criticalopalescencefromatreatmentofdensityfluctuations,anddemonstratedhowboththeeffectand
Rayleighscatteringoriginatefromtheatomisticconstitutionofmatter.
Zeropointenergy
Inaseriesofworkscompletedfrom1911to1913,Planckreformulatedhis1900quantumtheoryand
introducedtheideaofzeropointenergyinhis"secondquantumtheory."Soon,thisideaattractedthe
attentionofAlbertEinsteinandhisassistantOttoStern.Assumingtheenergyofrotatingdiatomic
moleculescontainszeropointenergy,theythencomparedthetheoreticalspecificheatofhydrogengaswith
theexperimentaldata.Thenumbersmatchednicely.However,afterpublishingthefindings,theypromptly
withdrewtheirsupport,becausetheynolongerhadconfidenceinthecorrectnessoftheideaofzeropoint
energy.[139]
Generalrelativityandtheequivalenceprinciple
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Generalrelativity(GR)isatheoryofgravitationthatwasdevelopedby
AlbertEinsteinbetween1907and1915.Accordingtogeneralrelativity,the
observedgravitationalattractionbetweenmassesresultsfromthewarping
ofspaceandtimebythosemasses.Generalrelativityhasdevelopedintoan
essentialtoolinmodernastrophysics.Itprovidesthefoundationforthe
currentunderstandingofblackholes,regionsofspacewheregravitational
attractionissostrongthatnotevenlightcanescape.
AsAlbertEinsteinlatersaid,thereasonforthedevelopmentofgeneral
relativitywasthatthepreferenceofinertialmotionswithinspecialrelativity
wasunsatisfactory,whileatheorywhichfromtheoutsetprefersnostateof
motion(evenacceleratedones)shouldappearmoresatisfactory.[140]
Consequently,in1907hepublishedanarticleonaccelerationunderspecial
Eddington'sphotographofa
relativity.Inthatarticletitled"OntheRelativityPrincipleandthe
solareclipse
ConclusionsDrawnfromIt",hearguedthatfreefallisreallyinertial
motion,andthatforafreefallingobservertherulesofspecialrelativity
mustapply.Thisargumentiscalledtheequivalenceprinciple.Inthesamearticle,Einsteinalsopredicted
thephenomenaofgravitationaltimedilation,gravitationalredshiftanddeflectionoflight.[141][142]
In1911,Einsteinpublishedanotherarticle"OntheInfluenceofGravitationonthePropagationofLight"
expandingonthe1907article,inwhichheestimatedtheamountofdeflectionoflightbymassivebodies.
Thus,thetheoreticalpredictionofgeneralrelativitycanforthefirsttimebetestedexperimentally.[143]
Gravitationalwaves
Einsteinpredictedgravitationalwavesin1916,whichresearcherspublisheddirectevidenceforin2016,
onehundredyearsaftertheprediction.[144][145][146][147]
HoleargumentandEntwurftheory
Whiledevelopinggeneralrelativity,Einsteinbecameconfusedaboutthegaugeinvarianceinthetheory.He
formulatedanargumentthatledhimtoconcludethatageneralrelativisticfieldtheoryisimpossible.He
gaveuplookingforfullygenerallycovarianttensorequations,andsearchedforequationsthatwouldbe
invariantundergenerallineartransformationsonly.
InJune1913,theEntwurf("draft")theorywastheresultoftheseinvestigations.Asitsnamesuggests,it
wasasketchofatheory,lesselegantandmoredifficultthangeneralrelativity,withtheequationsofmotion
supplementedbyadditionalgaugefixingconditions.Aftermorethantwoyearsofintensivework,Einstein
realizedthattheholeargumentwasmistaken[148]andabandonedthetheoryinNovember1915.
Cosmology
In1917,Einsteinappliedthegeneraltheoryofrelativitytothestructureoftheuniverseasawhole.[149]He
discoveredthatthegeneralfieldequationspredictedauniversethatwasdynamic,eithercontractingor
expanding.Asobservationalevidenceforadynamicuniversewasnotknownatthetime,Einstein
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introducedanewterm,thecosmologicalconstant,tothefieldequations,inordertoallowthetheoryto
predictastaticuniverse.Themodifiedfieldequationspredictedastaticuniverseofclosedcurvature,in
accordancewithEinstein'sunderstandingofMach'sprincipleintheseyears.[149][150]
FollowingthediscoveryoftherecessionofthenebulaebyEdwinHubblein1929,Einsteinabandonedhis
staticmodeloftheuniverse,andproposedtwodynamicmodelsofthecosmos,theFriedmanEinstein
modelof1931[151][152]andtheEinsteindeSittermodelof1932.[153]Ineachofthesemodels,Einstein
discardedthecosmologicalconstant,claimingthatitwas"inanycasetheoretically
unsatisfactory".[151][152][154]
InmanyEinsteinbiographies,itisclaimedthatEinsteinreferredtothecosmologicalconstantinlateryears
ashis"biggestblunder".TheastrophysicistMarioLiviohasrecentlycastdoubtonthisclaim,suggesting
thatitmaybeexaggerated.[155]
Inlate2013,ateamledbytheIrishphysicistCormacO'Raifeartaighdiscoveredevidencethat,shortlyafter
learningofHubble'sobservationsoftherecessionofthenebulae,Einsteinconsideredasteadystatemodel
oftheuniverse.[156]Inahithertooverlookedmanuscript,apparentlywritteninearly1931,Einsteinexplored
amodeloftheexpandinguniverseinwhichthedensityofmatterremainsconstantduetoacontinuous
creationofmatter,aprocessheassociatedwiththecosmologicalconstant.[157][158]Ashestatedinthe
paper,"Inwhatfollows,Iwouldliketodrawattentiontoasolutiontoequation(1)thatcanaccountfor
Hubbel's[sic]facts,andinwhichthedensityisconstantovertime"..."Ifoneconsidersaphysicallybounded
volume,particlesofmatterwillbecontinuallyleavingit.Forthedensitytoremainconstant,newparticles
ofmattermustbecontinuallyformedinthevolumefromspace."
ItthusappearsthatEinsteinconsideredaSteadyStatemodeloftheexpandinguniversemanyyearsbefore
Hoyle,BondiandGold.[159][160]However,Einstein'ssteadystatemodelcontainedafundamentalflawand
hequicklyabandonedtheidea.[157][158][161]
Modernquantumtheory
Einsteinwasdispleasedwithquantumtheoryandquantum
mechanics(theverytheoryhehelpedcreate),despiteitsacceptance
byotherphysicists,statingthatGod"isnotplayingatdice."[162]
Einsteincontinuedtomaintainhisdisbeliefinthetheory,and
attemptedunsuccessfullytodisproveituntilhediedattheageof
76.[163]In1917,attheheightofhisworkonrelativity,Einstein
publishedanarticleinPhysikalischeZeitschriftthatproposedthe
possibilityofstimulatedemission,thephysicalprocessthatmakes
possiblethemaserandthelaser.[164]Thisarticleshowedthatthe
statisticsofabsorptionandemissionoflightwouldonlybe
consistentwithPlanck'sdistributionlawiftheemissionoflightinto
amodewithnphotonswouldbeenhancedstatisticallycomparedto
theemissionoflightintoanemptymode.Thispaperwas
enormouslyinfluentialinthelaterdevelopmentofquantum
mechanics,becauseitwasthefirstpapertoshowthatthestatistics
ofatomictransitionshadsimplelaws.EinsteindiscoveredLouisde
NewspaperheadlineonMay4,1935
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Broglie'swork,andsupportedhisideas,whichwerereceivedskepticallyatfirst.Inanothermajorpaper
fromthisera,EinsteingaveawaveequationfordeBrogliewaves,whichEinsteinsuggestedwasthe
HamiltonJacobiequationofmechanics.ThispaperwouldinspireSchrdinger'sworkof1926.
BoseEinsteinstatistics
In1924,EinsteinreceivedadescriptionofastatisticalmodelfromIndianphysicistSatyendraNathBose,
basedonacountingmethodthatassumedthatlightcouldbeunderstoodasagasofindistinguishable
particles.EinsteinnotedthatBose'sstatisticsappliedtosomeatomsaswellastotheproposedlight
particles,andsubmittedhistranslationofBose'spapertotheZeitschriftfrPhysik.Einsteinalsopublished
hisownarticlesdescribingthemodelanditsimplications,amongthemtheBoseEinsteincondensate
phenomenonthatsomeparticulatesshouldappearatverylowtemperatures.[165]Itwasnotuntil1995that
thefirstsuchcondensatewasproducedexperimentallybyEricAllinCornellandCarlWiemanusingultra
coolingequipmentbuiltattheNISTJILAlaboratoryattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.[166]Bose
Einsteinstatisticsarenowusedtodescribethebehaviorsofanyassemblyofbosons.Einstein'ssketchesfor
thisprojectmaybeseenintheEinsteinArchiveinthelibraryoftheLeidenUniversity.[125]
Energymomentumpseudotensor
Generalrelativityincludesadynamicalspacetime,soitisdifficulttoseehowtoidentifytheconserved
energyandmomentum.Noether'stheoremallowsthesequantitiestobedeterminedfromaLagrangianwith
translationinvariance,butgeneralcovariancemakestranslationinvarianceintosomethingofagauge
symmetry.TheenergyandmomentumderivedwithingeneralrelativitybyNoether'spresecriptionsdonot
makearealtensorforthisreason.
Einsteinarguedthatthisistrueforfundamentalreasons,becausethegravitationalfieldcouldbemadeto
vanishbyachoiceofcoordinates.Hemaintainedthatthenoncovariantenergymomentumpseudotensor
wasinfactthebestdescriptionoftheenergymomentumdistributioninagravitationalfield.Thisapproach
hasbeenechoedbyLevLandauandEvgenyLifshitz,andothers,andhasbecomestandard.
Theuseofnoncovariantobjectslikepseudotensorswasheavilycriticizedin1917byErwinSchrdinger
andothers.
Unifiedfieldtheory
Followinghisresearchongeneralrelativity,Einsteinenteredintoaseriesofattemptstogeneralizehis
geometrictheoryofgravitationtoincludeelectromagnetismasanotheraspectofasingleentity.In1950,he
describedhis"unifiedfieldtheory"inaScientificAmericanarticleentitled"OntheGeneralizedTheoryof
Gravitation".[167]Althoughhecontinuedtobelaudedforhiswork,Einsteinbecameincreasinglyisolatedin
hisresearch,andhiseffortswereultimatelyunsuccessful.Inhispursuitofaunificationofthefundamental
forces,Einsteinignoredsomemainstreamdevelopmentsinphysics,mostnotablythestrongandweak
nuclearforces,whichwerenotwellunderstooduntilmanyyearsafterhisdeath.Mainstreamphysics,in
turn,largelyignoredEinstein'sapproachestounification.Einstein'sdreamofunifyingotherlawsofphysics
withgravitymotivatesmodernquestsforatheoryofeverythingandinparticularstringtheory,where
geometricalfieldsemergeinaunifiedquantummechanicalsetting.
Wormholes
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Einsteincollaboratedwithotherstoproduceamodelofawormhole.Hismotivationwastomodel
elementaryparticleswithchargeasasolutionofgravitationalfieldequations,inlinewiththeprogram
outlinedinthepaper"DoGravitationalFieldsplayanImportantRoleintheConstitutionoftheElementary
Particles?".ThesesolutionscutandpastedSchwarzschildblackholestomakeabridgebetweentwo
patches.
Ifoneendofawormholewaspositivelycharged,theotherendwouldbenegativelycharged.These
propertiesledEinsteintobelievethatpairsofparticlesandantiparticlescouldbedescribedinthisway.
EinsteinCartantheory
Inordertoincorporatespinningpointparticlesintogeneralrelativity,the
affineconnectionneededtobegeneralizedtoincludeanantisymmetricpart,
calledthetorsion.ThismodificationwasmadebyEinsteinandCartaninthe
1920s.
Equationsofmotion
ThetheoryofgeneralrelativityhasafundamentallawtheEinstein
equationswhichdescribehowspacecurves,thegeodesicequationwhich
describeshowparticlesmovemaybederivedfromtheEinsteinequations.
Sincetheequationsofgeneralrelativityarenonlinear,alumpofenergy
madeoutofpuregravitationalfields,likeablackhole,wouldmoveona
trajectorywhichisdeterminedbytheEinsteinequationsthemselves,notby
anewlaw.SoEinsteinproposedthatthepathofasingularsolution,likea
blackhole,wouldbedeterminedtobeageodesicfromgeneralrelativity
itself.
Einsteinathisoffice,
UniversityofBerlin,1920
ThiswasestablishedbyEinstein,Infeld,andHoffmannforpointlikeobjectswithoutangularmomentum,
andbyRoyKerrforspinningobjects.
Otherinvestigations
Einsteinconductedotherinvestigationsthatwereunsuccessfulandabandoned.Thesepertaintoforce,
superconductivity,gravitationalwaves,andotherresearch.
Collaborationwithotherscientists
InadditiontolongtimecollaboratorsLeopoldInfeld,NathanRosen,PeterBergmannandothers,Einstein
alsohadsomeoneshotcollaborationswithvariousscientists.
EinsteindeHaasexperiment
EinsteinandDeHaasdemonstratedthatmagnetizationisduetothemotionofelectrons,nowadaysknown
tobethespin.Inordertoshowthis,theyreversedthemagnetizationinanironbarsuspendedonatorsion
pendulum.Theyconfirmedthatthisleadsthebartorotate,becausetheelectron'sangularmomentum
changesasthemagnetizationchanges.Thisexperimentneededtobesensitive,becausetheangular
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momentumassociatedwithelectronsissmall,butitdefinitively
establishedthatelectronmotionofsomekindisresponsiblefor
magnetization.
Schrdingergasmodel
EinsteinsuggestedtoErwinSchrdingerthathemightbeableto
reproducethestatisticsofaBoseEinsteingasbyconsideringabox.
Thentoeachpossiblequantummotionofaparticleinabox
associateanindependentharmonicoscillator.Quantizingthese
oscillators,eachlevelwillhaveanintegeroccupationnumber,
whichwillbethenumberofparticlesinit.
The1927SolvayConferencein
Brussels,agatheringoftheworld's
topphysicists.Einsteininthecenter.
Thisformulationisaformofsecondquantization,butitpredates
modernquantummechanics.ErwinSchrdingerappliedthistoderivethethermodynamicpropertiesofa
semiclassicalidealgas.SchrdingerurgedEinsteintoaddhisnameascoauthor,althoughEinstein
declinedtheinvitation.[168]
Einsteinrefrigerator
In1926,EinsteinandhisformerstudentLeSzilrdcoinvented(andin1930,patented)theEinstein
refrigerator.Thisabsorptionrefrigeratorwasthenrevolutionaryforhavingnomovingpartsandusingonly
heatasaninput.[169]On11November1930,U.S.Patent1,781,541
(https://www.google.com/patents/US1781541)wasawardedtoAlbertEinsteinandLeSzilrdforthe
refrigerator.Theirinventionwasnotimmediatelyputintocommercialproduction,andthemostpromising
oftheirpatentswereacquiredbytheSwedishcompanyElectrolux.[170]
BohrversusEinstein
TheBohrEinsteindebateswereaseriesofpublicdisputesaboutquantum
mechanicsbetweenAlbertEinsteinandNielsBohrwhoweretwoofits
founders.Theirdebatesarerememberedbecauseoftheirimportancetothe
philosophyofscience.[171][172][173]
EinsteinPodolskyRosenparadox
In1935,Einsteinreturnedtothequestionofquantummechanics.He
consideredhowameasurementononeoftwoentangledparticleswould
affecttheother.Henoted,alongwithhiscollaborators,thatbyperforming
differentmeasurementsonthedistantparticle,eitherofpositionor
momentum,differentpropertiesoftheentangledpartnercouldbe
discoveredwithoutdisturbingitinanyway.
Hethenusedahypothesisoflocalrealismtoconcludethattheotherparticle
hadthesepropertiesalreadydetermined.Theprincipleheproposedisthatif
itispossibletodeterminewhattheanswertoapositionormomentum
EinsteinandNielsBohr,
1925
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measurementwouldbe,withoutinanywaydisturbingtheparticle,thentheparticleactuallyhasvaluesof
positionormomentum.
ThisprincipledistilledtheessenceofEinstein'sobjectiontoquantummechanics.Asaphysicalprinciple,it
wasshowntobeincorrectwhentheAspectexperimentof1982confirmedBell'stheorem,whichhadbeen
promulgatedin1964.
Nonscientificlegacy
Whiletraveling,EinsteinwrotedailytohiswifeElsaandadoptedstepdaughtersMargotandIlse.The
letterswereincludedinthepapersbequeathedtoTheHebrewUniversity.MargotEinsteinpermittedthe
personalletterstobemadeavailabletothepublic,butrequestedthatitnotbedoneuntiltwentyyearsafter
herdeath(shediedin1986[174]).BarbaraWolff,ofTheHebrewUniversity'sAlbertEinsteinArchives,told
theBBCthatthereareabout3,500pagesofprivatecorrespondencewrittenbetween1912and1955.[175]
Corbis,successortoTheRogerRichmanAgency,licensestheuseofhisnameandassociatedimagery,as
agentfortheuniversity.[176]
Inpopularculture
IntheperiodbeforeWorldWarII,TheNewYorkerpublishedavignetteintheir"TheTalkoftheTown"
featuresayingthatEinsteinwassowellknowninAmericathathewouldbestoppedonthestreetbypeople
wantinghimtoexplain"thattheory".Hefinallyfiguredoutawaytohandletheincessantinquiries.Hetold
hisinquirers"Pardonme,sorry!AlwaysIammistakenforProfessorEinstein."[177]
Einsteinhasbeenthesubjectoforinspirationformanynovels,films,plays,andworksofmusic.[178]Heis
afavoritemodelfordepictionsofmadscientistsandabsentmindedprofessorshisexpressivefaceand
distinctivehairstylehavebeenwidelycopiedandexaggerated.Timemagazine'sFredericGoldenwrotethat
Einsteinwas"acartoonist'sdreamcometrue".[179]
Awardsandhonors
Einsteinreceivednumerousawardsandhonors,includingtheNobelPrizeinPhysics.
Publications
ThefollowingpublicationsbyAlbertEinsteinarereferencedinthisarticle.Amorecompletelistof
hispublicationsmaybefoundatListofscientificpublicationsbyAlbertEinstein.
Einstein,Albert(1901)[Manuscriptreceived:16December1900],writtenatZurich,Switzerland,"Folgerungen
ausdenCapillarittserscheinungen"[ConclusionsDrawnfromthePhenomenaofCapillarity](PDF),Annalender
Physik(Berlin)(inGerman)(Hoboken,NJ,published14March2006)309(3),pp.513523,
Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E,doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306viaWileyOnlineLibrary
Einstein,Albert(1905a)[Manuscriptreceived:18March1905],writtenatBerne,Switzerland,"bereinendie
ErzeugungundVerwandlungdesLichtesbetreffendenheuristischenGesichtspunkt"[OnaHeuristicViewpoint
ConcerningtheProductionandTransformationofLight](PDF),AnnalenderPhysik(Berlin)(inGerman)
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(Hoboken,NJ,published10March2006)322(6),pp.132148,Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E,
doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607viaWileyOnlineLibrary
Einstein,Albert(1905b)[Completed30Aprilandsubmitted20July1905].WrittenatBerne,Switzerland,
publishedbyWyssBuchdruckerei.EineneueBestimmungderMolekldimensionen[Anewdeterminationof
moleculardimensions](PDF).DissertationenUniversittZrich(PhDThesis)(inGerman)(Zurich,Switzerland:
ETHZrich,published2008).doi:10.3929/ethza000565688viaETHBibliothek.
Einstein,Albert(1905c)[Manuscriptreceived:11May1905],writtenatBerne,Switzerland,"berdievonder
molekularkinetischenTheoriederWrmegeforderteBewegungvoninruhendenFlssigkeitensuspendierten
Teilchen"[OntheMotionRequiredbytheMolecularKineticTheoryofHeatofSmallParticlesSuspendedin
aStationaryLiquid](PDF),AnnalenderPhysik(Berlin)(inGerman)(Hoboken,NJ,published10March2006)
322(8),pp.549560,Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806viaWileyOnlineLibrary
Einstein,Albert(1905d)[Manuscriptreceived:30June1905],writtenatBerne,Switzerland,"Zur
ElektrodynamikbewegterKrper"[OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies](PDF),AnnalenderPhysik
(Berlin)(inGerman)(Hoboken,NJ,published10March2006)322(10),pp.891921,
Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004viaWileyOnlineLibrary
Einstein,Albert(1905e)[Manuscriptreceived:27September1905],writtenatBerne,Switzerland,"Istdie
TrgheiteinesKrpersvonseinemEnergieinhaltabhngig?"[DoestheInertiaofaBodyDependUponIts
EnergyContent?](PDF),AnnalenderPhysik(Berlin)(inGerman)(Hoboken,NJ,published10March2006)323
(13),pp.639641,Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314viaWileyOnlineLibrary
Einstein,Albert(1915)[Published25November1915],"DieFeldgleichungenderGravitation"[TheField
EquationsofGravitation](Onlinepageimages),KniglichPreussischeAkademiederWissenschaften(inGerman)
(Berlin,Germany),pp.844847viaECHO,CulturalHeritageOnline,MaxPlanckInstitutefortheHistoryof
Science
Einstein,Albert(1917a),"KosmologischeBetrachtungenzurallgemeinenRelativittstheorie"[Cosmological
ConsiderationsintheGeneralTheoryofRelativity],KniglichPreussischeAkademiederWissenschaften,Berlin
(inGerman)
Einstein,Albert(1917b),"ZurQuantentheoriederStrahlung"[OntheQuantumMechanicsofRadiation],
PhysikalischeZeitschrift(inGerman)18,pp.121128,Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E
Einstein,Albert(1923)[Firstpublished1923,inEnglish1967].WrittenatGothenburg.Grundgedankenund
ProblemederRelativittstheorie[FundamentalIdeasandProblemsoftheTheoryofRelativity](PDF)(Speech).
LecturedeliveredtotheNordicAssemblyofNaturalistsatGothenburg,11July1923.NobelLectures,Physics
19011921(inGerman(1923)andEnglish(1967))(Stockholm:Nobelprice.org,published3February2015)
viaNobelMediaAB2014.
Einstein,Albert(1924)[Published10July1924],"QuantentheoriedeseinatomigenidealenGases"[Quantum
theoryofmonatomicidealgases](Onlinepageimages),SitzungsberichtederPreussischenAkademieder
Wissenschaften,PhysikalischMathematischeKlasse(inGerman)(Munich,Germany:KniglichPreussische
AkademiederWissenschaften,Berlin):261267viaECHO,CulturalHeritageOnline,MaxPlanckInstitutefor
theHistoryofScience.Firstofaseriesofpapersonthistopic.
Einstein,Albert(12March1926)[CoverDate1March1926],writtenatBerlin,"DieUrsacheder
ManderbildungderFlulufeunddessogenanntenBaerschenGesetzes"[OnBaer'slawandmeandersinthe
coursesofrivers],DieNaturwissenschaften(inGerman)(Heidelberg,Germany:SpringerVerlag)14(11):223
224,Bibcode:1926NW.....14..223E,doi:10.1007/BF01510300,ISSN14321904viaSpringerLink
Einstein,Albert(1926b),writtenatBerne,Switzerland,R.Frth,ed.,InvestigationsontheTheoryofthe
BrownianMovement(PDF),TranslatedbyA.D.Cowper,USA:DoverPublications(published1956),ISBN978
1607962854,retrieved20150104
Einstein,AlbertPodolsky,BorisRosen,Nathan(15May1935)[Received25March1935],"CanQuantum
MechanicalDescriptionofPhysicalRealityBeConsideredComplete?"(PDF),PhysicalReview(American
PhysicalSociety)47(10):777780,Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E,doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777viaAPS
Journals
Einstein,Albert(9November1940),"OnScienceandReligion",Nature(Edinburgh:MacmillanPublishers
Group)146(3706):605607,Bibcode:1940Natur.146..605E,doi:10.1038/146605a0,ISBN0707304539
Einstein,Albertetal.(4December1948),"TotheeditorsoftheNewYorkTimes",NewYorkTimes(Melville,
NewYork:AIP,AmericanInst.ofPhysics),ISBN0735403597
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Einstein,Albert(May1949),"WhySocialism?(Reprise)",MonthlyReview(NewYork:MonthlyReview
Foundation,publishedMay2009),vol.61no.01(May),archivedfromtheoriginalon11January2006,retrieved
16January2006viaMonthlyReview.org
Einstein,Albert(1950),"OntheGeneralizedTheoryofGravitation",ScientificAmerican,CLXXXII(4):1317,
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican045013
Einstein,Albert(1954),IdeasandOpinions,NewYork:RandomHouse,ISBN0517003937
Einstein,Albert(1969),AlbertEinstein,HedwigundMaxBorn:Briefwechsel19161955(inGerman),Munich:
NymphenburgerVerlagshandlung,ISBN388682005X
Einstein,Albert(1979),AutobiographicalNotes,PaulArthurSchilpp(Centennialed.),Chicago:OpenCourt,
ISBN0875483526.Thechasingalightbeamthoughtexperimentisdescribedonpages4851.
CollectedPapers:Stachel,JohnMartinJ.KleinA.J.KoxMichelJanssenR.SchulmannDianaKomos
Buchwaldetal.,eds.(21July2008)[Publishedbetween19872006],"TheCollectedPapersofAlbertEinstein",
Einstein'sWritings(PrincetonUniversityPress)110.Furtherinformationaboutthevolumespublishedsofar
canbefoundonthewebpagesoftheEinsteinPapersProject(http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html)andon
thePrincetonUniversityPressEinsteinPage(http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/)
Seealso
Einsteinnotation
TheEinsteinTheoryofRelativity(educationalfilmaboutthetheoryofrelativity)
HeinrichBurkhardt
HistoricalMuseumofBern(EinsteinMuseum)
Historyofgravitationaltheory
Introductiontospecialrelativity
Listofcoupledcousins
ListofGermaninventorsanddiscoverers
JewishNobellaureates
Listofpeaceactivists
Relativityprioritydispute
Stickybeadargument
AlbertEinsteinHouseinPrinceton
AlbertEinsteinWikipediabook
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Furtherreading
Brian,Denis(1996),Einstein:ALife,NewYork:JohnWiley
Calaprice,Alice,DanielKennefick,&RobertSchulmann.AnEinsteinEncyclopedia(PrincetonUniversityPress,
2015)
Clark,RonaldW.(1971),Einstein:TheLifeandTimes,NewYork:AvonBooks,ISBN0380441233
Flsing,Albrecht(1997),AlbertEinstein:ABiography,TranslatedandabridgedfromGermanbyEwaldOsers,
NewYork:PenguinViking,ISBN9780670855452
Highfield,RogerCarter,Paul(1993),ThePrivateLivesofAlbertEinstein,London:FaberandFaber,
ISBN9780571167449
Hoffmann,Banesh(1972),AlbertEinstein:CreatorandRebel',withthecollaborationofHelenDukas,London:
HartDavis,MacGibbon,ISBN9780670111817
Isaacson,Walter(2007),Einstein:HisLifeandUniverse,NewYork:Simon&SchusterPaperbacks,ISBN978
0743264730
Moring,Gary(2004),Thecompleteidiot'sguidetounderstandingEinstein(1sted.),IndianapolisIN:Alpha
books(Macmillan),ISBN0028631803
Neffe,Jrgen(2007),Einstein:ABiography,TranslatedbyShelleyFrisch,Farrar,StrausandGiroux,
ISBN9780374146641
Oppenheimer,J.Robert(1971),LecturedeliveredattheUNESCOHouseinParison13December1965,"On
AlbertEinstein",Scienceandsynthesis:aninternationalcolloquiumorganizedbyUnescoonthetenth
anniversaryofthedeathofAlbertEinsteinandTeilharddeChardin(SpringerVerlag),pp.812,208,or"On
AlbertEinsteinbyRobertOppenheimer",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,17March1966
Pais,Abraham(1982),SubtleistheLord:ThescienceandthelifeofAlbertEinstein,OxfordUniversityPress,
ISBN9780198539070
Pais,Abraham(1994),EinsteinLivedHere,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN0192806726
Parker,Barry(2000),Einstein'sBrainchild:RelativityMadeRelativelyEasy!,IllustratedbyLoriScoffieldBeer,
PrometheusBooks,ISBN9781591025221
33/35
2/13/2016
Rogers,DonaldW.(2005),Einstein's"Other"Theory:ThePlanckBoseEinsteinTheoryofHeatCapacity,
PrincetonUniversityPress,ISBN9780691118260
Schweber,SylvanS.(2008),EinsteinandOppenheimer:TheMeaningofGenius,HarvardUniversityPress,
ISBN9780674028289
Stachel,JohnJ.(2002),EinsteinfromBtoZ,EinsteinStudies9,Birkhuser,ISBN9780817641436,
retrieved20150323viaWorldCatbyOCLC(Dublin,OH,USA)
Stone,A.Douglas(2013),EinsteinandtheQuantum,PrincetonUniversityPress,ISBN9780691139685
Weinberg,Steven(2005)."Einsteinsmistakes".PhysicsToday58(11):31.Bibcode:2005PhT....58k..31W.
doi:10.1063/1.2155755.
Externallinks
AlbertEinstein
Wikilivreshasoriginal
mediaortextrelatedtothis
article:
AlbertEinstein
(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Physics/History/People/Einstein%2C_Albert/)atDMOZ
WorksbyAlbertEinstein(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Albert_Einstein)atProjectGutenberg
WorksbyoraboutAlbertEinstein(https://archive.org/search.php?
query=%28%28subject%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Albert%2
0Einstein%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22
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WorksbyAlbertEinstein(http://librivox.org/author/1035)atLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks)
Einstein'sPersonalCorrespondence:Religion,Politics,TheHolocaust,andPhilosophy
(http://www.shapell.org/exhibitions.aspx?einsteinoriginallettersinaidofhisbrethren)Shapell
ManuscriptFoundation
FBIfileonAlbertEinstein(http://vault.fbi.gov/Albert%20Einstein)
Einsteinandhisloveofmusic(http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein&music.pdf),Physics
World
AlbertEinstein(http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einsteinbio.html)on
NobelPrize.org
AlbertEinstein(http://www.history.com/topics/alberteinstein),videosonHistory.com
MITOpenCourseWareSTS.042J/8.225J:Einstein,Oppenheimer,Feynman:Physicsinthe20th
century(https://web.archive.org/web/20110608004818/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/science
technologyandsociety/sts042jeinsteinoppenheimerfeynmanphysicsinthe20thcenturyspring
2006/)attheWaybackMachine(archivedJune8,2011)freestudycoursethatexploresthe
changingrolesofphysicsandphysicistsduringthe20thcentury
AlbertEinsteinArchivesOnline(80,000+Documents)(http://www.alberteinstein.info/)(MSNBC,19
March2012(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46785542/ns/technology_and_sciencescience/))
Einstein'sdeclarationofintentionforAmericancitizenship(http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2745/)on
theWorldDigitalLibrary
AlbertEinsteinCollection(http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/findingaid&id=41)atBrandeis
University
DigitalEinstein(http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/)atPrincetonUniversity
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