ELEC 3908, Physical Devices Lecture 3

Energy Band Diagrams

and Doping

Lecture Outline
Continue the study of semiconductor devices by looking at
the material used to make most devices
The energy band diagram is a representation of carrier
energy in a semiconducting material and will be related to
an orbital bonding representation
Devices require materials with tailored characteristics,
obtained through doping, the controlled introduction of
impurities
Will discuss electrons and holes, as well as intrinsic, n-type
and p-type materials
Later lectures will apply these concepts to diode, bipolar
junction transistor and FET
ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band
Diagrams and Doping

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Atomic Electron Energy Levels

A free electron can assume any
energy level (continuous)
Quantum mechanics predicts a
bound electron can only assume
discrete energy levels
This is a result of the interaction
between the electron and the nuclear
proton(s)

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Diagrams and Doping

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Crystal Energy Bands

Crystal is composed of a large
number of atoms (1022 cm-3 for
silicon)
Interaction between the electrons of
each atom and the protons of other
atoms
Result is a perturbation of each
electrons discrete energy level to
form continua at the previous energy
levels

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Covalent Bonding
Silicon crystal formed by covalent
bonds
Covalent bonds share electrons
between atoms in lattice so each
thinks its orbitals are full
Most important bands are therefore
band which would be filled at 0 K valence band
next band above in energy conduction band

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Simplified Energy Band Diagram

Movement within a band is not
difficult due to continuum of energy
levels
Movement between bands requires
acquisition of difference in energy
between bands (in pure crystal, cant
exist in between)
Main features of interest for first
order device analysis are
top of valence band (Ev)
bottom of conduction band (Ec)
difference in energy between Ec and Ev,
energy gap Eg
ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band
Diagrams and Doping

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Orbital Bonding Model

Represent valence and conduction bands by separate silicon
lattice structures
The two diagrams coexist in space -the same set of silicon
atoms is represented in each diagram

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Electron Transitions -Energy Band Diagram

At room temperature, very
few electrons can gain energy
Eg to move to the conduction
band ( 1010 cm-3 at 300K =
23C)
In pure silicon at 300K, most
valence band orbitals ( 1022
cm-3 ) are full, most
conduction band orbitals are
empty

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Diagrams and Doping

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Electron Transitions Orbital Bonding

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Diagrams and Doping

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Electrons and Holes

Conduction of current occurs through electron movement
Two mechanisms of electron movement are possible:
movement within the nearly empty conduction band orbital
structure
movement within the nearly full valence band orbital structure

Conduction in the valence band structure is more conveniently

modeled as the movement of an empty orbital
Model this empty valence band orbital as a positively charged
pseudo-particle called a hole
Density of electrons in conduction band is n (cm-3)
Density of holes in valence band is p (cm-3)
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Diagrams and Doping

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Electron and Hole Conduction

Electron movement in
conduction band can be
modeled directly
Movement of electrons in
valence band modeled as
movement (in opposite
direction) of positively
charged hole
Electric Field

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Intrinsic Material
Semiconducting material which has not had any impurities
added is called intrinsic
In an intrinsic material, the number of electrons and holes must
be equal because they are generated in pairs
Call the density of electrons and holes in intrinsic material the
intrinsic density ni (for Si@300K, ni 1.45x1010 cm-3)
Therefore, for intrinsic material

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Extrinsic Material
Intentional addition of impurities during manufacture or in
specialized fabrication steps is termed doping
Doped material is called extrinsic
Ability to change the electrical characteristics of the material
through selective introduction of impurities is the basic reason
why semiconductor devices are possible
Later lectures will outline the processes used to introduce
impurities in a controlled and repeatable way

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Mass-Action Law
For intrinsic material, n = p = ni, therefore

This turns out to be a general relationship called the

mass-action law, which can be used for doped material
in equilibrium

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Group V Impurity Atom

An atom from group V of the periodic table has one more
nuclear proton and valence electron than silicon

If the atom replaces a silicon atom in the lattice, the extra

electron can move into the conduction band (ionization)
A group V atom is a donor since it donates an electron to the
silicon lattice
Density of donor dopant atoms given symbol ND (cm-3)
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Diagrams and Doping

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Donor Ionization - Energy Band Diagram

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Donor Ionization Orbital Bonding Model

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Donor Doping -Electron and Hole Densities

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Example 3.1: Arsenic Doping

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Example 3.1: Solution

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Diagrams and Doping

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Group III Impurity Atom

An atom from group III of the periodic table has one less nuclear
proton and valence electron than silicon

If the atom replaces a silicon atom in the lattice, the empty

valence orbital can be filled by an electron (ionization)
A group III atom is an acceptor since it accepts an electron from
the silicon lattice
Density of acceptor dopant atoms given symbol NA (cm-3)
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Diagrams and Doping

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Acceptor Ionization - Energy Band Diagram

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Acceptor Ionization Orbital Bonding Model

ELEC 3908, Physical Electronics: Energy Band

Diagrams and Doping

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Acceptor Doping - Electron and Hole Densities

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Diagrams and Doping

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Example 3.2: Gallium Doping

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Diagrams and Doping

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Example 3.2: Solution

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Diagrams and Doping

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Compensated Doping

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Diagrams and Doping

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Example 3.3: Compensated Doping

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Diagrams and Doping

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Example 3.3: Solution

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Diagrams and Doping

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Lecture Summary

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Diagrams and Doping

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