Chapter A: Concrete

Preliminary Remarks

1 Technical Regulations

2 Raw Materials

2.1 General Information

2.2 Cement

2.3 Aggregate

2.4 Concrete Additives

2.5 Concrete Admixtures

3 Concrete Properties

3.1 Water Cement Ratio

3.2 Fresh Concrete

3.2.1 Consistency
3.2.2 Wet Density of Fresh Concrete
3.2.3 Temperature
3.2.4 Segregation

4
4
5
5

3.3 Solid Concrete

3.3.1 Exposure Categories
3.3.2 Compressive Strength
3.3.3 Porosity
3.3.4 Secondary Treatment (Curing)
7
3.3.5 Special Properties
3.3.6 Load-Deformation-Behaviour
3.3.7 Shrinkage and Swelling
3.3.8 Creep
3.3.9 Temperature Strain
3.3.10 Carbonation
3.3.11 Concrete Cover
3.4 Quality Assurance

5
6
6
6
7
8
9
9
10
10
10
11
11

Literature

11

Preliminary Remarks
Basic knowledge about concrete engineering is required for this course (cp. SIVVexamination regulations). Please refer to the relevant literature (see pp. 11) for these
basics.

1 Technical Regulations
This chapter is based on the presently valid General Licences of the Construction
Supervisory Board and on the standards for concrete raw materials, as well as on the
European standards DIN EN 206-1 and DIN 1045 (parts 1-4 of which are new).

2 Raw Materials
2.1 General Information
Concrete is an artificial stone consisting of a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and
water, and, if necessary, concrete additives and concrete admixtures, and is formed
when the cement paste (water-cement-mixture) hardens.
2.2 Cement
According to EN 197 and DIN 1164 we can distinguish between the following kinds of
cement: CEM I, CEM II, CEM IV and CEM V.
CEM 1 (Portland cement) consists of finely ground Portland-cement-clinker.
The group of CEM II-cements (Portland composite-cements) are mixtures consisting
of at least 65 % Portland-cement-clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag,
pozzolanic or inert materials.
CEM III-cements (blast-furnace cements) consist of Portland-cement-clinker and 3665 % granulated blast-furnace slag (CEM III/A), or of Portland-cement-clinker and 6680 % granulated blast-furnace slag (CEM III/B).
All cements are divided into strength categories (see Table A 1).
Table A 1: Compressive strength categories for cements
Strength
Category
32.5

Compressive Strength (N/mm)

Initial strength
2 days
7 days
16

32.5 R
42.5

10
10

42.5 R

20

Standard strength
28 days
32.5

52.5

42.5

62.5

When cement reacts with water (so-called hydration) heat is released. NW-cements
have relatively little heat-development. They are used in mass concrete.
Exposing concrete to sulphates can lead to sulphate attack and a substantial
deterioration of the structure. In the case of heavy sulphate attacks HS-cements
should be used. These are, for example, cements with a blast-furnace slag-content of
more than 65 %.
Certain concrete aggregates, mostly from Northern Germany, are alkali-reactive. A
reaction of these aggregates with the calcium hydroxide from the pore solution of the
cement-stone may lead to alkali silica reaction (ASR). In these cases NA-cements
should be used to prevent such a reaction.
A CEM III/B-cement always has the properties NW, HS and NA.
2.3 Aggregate
The aggregate constitutes approximately 70% of the concretes volume. Depending
on the size of the aggregate the designations in Table A 2 are used:
Table A 2: Designations of Aggregates
Aggregate with
Smallest grain
size
mm
0
0.125

Aggregate Designation
Largest grain size Natural
Crushed
mm
0.125
0.25

Powder
micro sand

0.25
1

1
4

fine sand
coarse sand

4
32

32
-

Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate

powder
micro-crushed
sand
fine-crushed sand
coarse-crushed
sand
Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate

When concrete hardens the aggregates and cement paste should form a mostly void
-free structure, and also absorb as little water as possible. To ensure this the grading
curve of the concrete aggregates should not fall within areas 1 and 5 (see Diagram A
1). The grading curves of aggregates fall within area 3, that is between standard
grading curves A and B.
2.4 Concrete Additives
Concrete additives are micro-granular admixtures, which influence certain properties
of the concrete.
Inert additives (e.g. quartz- or limestone-powder) do not react with cement and water.
They can improve the composition and consistency of aggregate combinations.
Pozzolanic materials (e.g. pulverised fly(or fuel) ash, trass and silica-powder)
improve the composition of the aggregate combinations and contribute to the
hydration process by reacting with the calcium hydroxide produced during cement
hydrates.

Ilustration A 1: Grading curve areas for aggregates with maximum grain size 32mm
sieving stage
mesh size
hole size
mesh sieves (DIN 4188 part 1)
square-holed sieves (DIN 4187 part 2)
Pigments are used to dye the concrete.
Organic additives (synthetic resin dispersions) do not react with the hydrationproducts. They have innate adhesive properties.
2.5 Concrete Admixtures
Concrete admixtures are liquid or powder materials, which influence certain
properties of fresh concrete and / or hardened concrete. They can be divided into
groups depending on the function or performance (see table A 3):
Table A 3: Property groups for concrete admixtures
Property Group
Plasticizer or water reducer
Super plasticizer or high range water reducer
Air-entraining agents
Retarder
Sealing agent
Accelerator
Grouting aid
Stabilizer
Chromate-reducing agent
Recycling aids for washing water
Foaming agent

Abbreviation for German codes or standards

only
BV
FM
LP
VZ
DM
BE
EH
ST
CR
RH
SB

Following concrete admixtures are most important: Plasticizers improve the

workability of fresh concrete at the same water content or allow a water-reduction of
5-10 l/m concrete, thus improving the quality of the concrete. Super plasticizers
have a similar, albeit much stronger, effect as plasticizers. Depending on their period
of effectiveness they may be added to the fresh concrete at the concrete plant or
later at the construction site.
Super plasticizers must be used in the production of concrete with a consistency
class > F4.
Air-entraining agents create small discrete air-voids (diameter up to 0.3 mm) in fresh
and solid concrete. These voids remain filled with air even in water-saturated
concrete and reduce the pressure of water freezing and thawing in capillary pores.
Thus they improve the concretes resistance against frost- and de-icing salts.
Retarders slow the hydration of the cement paste, thus extending the concretes
workability.

3 Concrete Properties
3.1 Water Cement Ratio
The water cement ratio indicates the mass ratio of water to cement. It is one of the
most important parameters for concrete and influences all properties of concrete,
especially strength, porosity and durability. Therefore observing the water cement
ratio is highly important and adding water to ready-mixed concrete at the construction
site is strictly forbidden. If adding water is necessary in special cases it must be
supervised and documented by a concrete engineer.
Diagram A 2 shows the relationship between the water cement ratio and the
compressive strength of concrete subject to the cement strength category.
Diagram A 2: Relationship between concrete cube strength fc of concrete and the
water cement ratio and on the strength category of the cement (according to Walz)
strength categories of cement
water cement ratio
compressive strength of concrete fc (N/mm)
3.2 Fresh Concrete
3.2.1 Consistency
The consistency is a measure for the workability of the concrete.
According to DIN EN 206-1 the consistency may be measured by the slump test, the
settling time, the compaction test or the spread flow test. In Germany the spread flow
test is most commonly used. DIN EN 206-1 distinguishes the slump measures shown
in Table A 4:
Table A 4: Slump Measure Categories
Category
F1*
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6

Spread Measure
(diameter) in mm
340
350 410
420-480
490-550
560-620
630

*due to non-existing sensitivity this test procedure should not be used

Slump measure category F3 is used mainly in building construction.

3.2.2 Wet Density of Fresh Concrete

The wet density of fresh concrete is the mass in kg per m of fresh, compacted
concrete. It indicates the uniformity of the concrete composition, and, if compared to
the standard wet density, it can show up possible mistakes in the manufacture of the
concrete specimens.
3.2.3 Temperature
When using the concrete the minimal concrete temperatures in Table A 5 must be
observed.
Table A 5: Minimal and maximum temperatures for fresh concrete
Air Temperature (C)
+5 to -3

Temperature of Fresh Concrete (C)

5
for NW cement: 10
+10
afterwards, for 3 days: > 10
30

<3
> 30

3.2.4 Segregation
Due to the segregation of solid materials and the subsequent bleeding of water an
exposed horizontal concrete surface usually has a layer of watery, and therefore
weaker, fine mortar. This condition is especially pronounced in more watery fine
mortar and concretes with low water retention properties.
3.3 Solid Concrete
3.3.1 Exposure Categories
The effects of environmental conditions are divided into exposure categories
according to DIN EN 206-1 (see Table A 6).
Table A 6: Exposure Categories
No risk of corrosion
XO

Corrosion of reinforcement
Carbonisation
XC 1
XC 2
XC 3
XC 4
Chlorides
XD 1
XD 2
XD 3
Seawater Chlorides
XS 1
XS 2
XS 3

Corrosion of concrete
Frost with /without thawing
agents
XF 1
XF 2
XF 3
XF 4
Chemical Attack
XA 1
XA 2
XA 3
Wear
XM 1
XM 2
XM 3

Depending on the exposure category, specifications stipulate the maximum water

cement ratio, the minimal compressive strength category of the concrete, the minimal
cement content, and, in some cases, the minimal void content.
3.3.2 Compressive Strength
According to its compressive strength concrete is divided into categories (see Table
A 7). The strength is tested after 28 days, using either 150 mm diameter, 300 mm
length cylinders, or 150 mm cubes.
Table A 7: Compressive Strength Categories for Concrete
Compressive Strength
Category

C 8/10
C 12/15
C 16 /20
C 20/25
C 25/30
C 30/37
C 35/45
C 40/50
C 45/55
C 50/60
C 55/67
C 60/75
C 70/85
C 80/95
C 90/105
C 100/115

Characteristic minimal
compressive strength of
cylinders fck, cyl
N/mm
8
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
100

Characteristic minimal
compressive strength of
cubes fck, cube
N/mm
10
15
20
25
30
37
45
50
55
60
67
75
85
95
105
115

3.3.3 Porosity
Cement chemically and physically binds around 40% of its mass in water. To
facilitate workability a certain amount of excess water is usually added to the fresh
concrete. This water leaves absorptive capillary voids when it evaporates. An
increasing water cement value means:
an increasing porosity of the cement paste, therefore decreasing concrete
strength, lower frost resistance, lower corrosion protection for the
reinforcement
the concrete is more permeable to water and less durable, because of the fast
absorption of water through the capillary voids
increased shrinkage (volume decrease during the evaporation of excess
water) with higher strain and possible cracking
The size of capillary voids depends not only on the water cement ratio, but also on
the degree of hydration. The degree of hydration is low if the water needed for the
hydration of the cement is missing due to early evaporation (see Picture A 3).
Picture A 3: Water permeability of cement paste, depending on the capillary porosity,
the water cement ratio and on the cements degree of hydration

degree of hydration in %
water permeability in cm/s 10-12
ratio of capillary voids in vol.-%
spec. surface in cm/g
Age in days
water cement value
3.3.4 Secondary Treatment
Freshly laid and green concrete must be protected until sufficiently cured to:
minimize early shrinkage
ensure a sufficiently strong concrete surface
ensure sufficient durability of the concrete
prevent freezing
avoid destructive concussions, impacts or damages.
The exposed surfaces of the concrete (to a depth of about 3 cm) is affected by early
evaporation, and may, if not treated properly, exhibit low durability.
There are several ways of secondary treatment:
leaving the concrete within the mould
covering with plastic sheets
constantly moist, water retaining coverings
applying liquid curing membranes with proven suitability
underwater-storage or constant spraying with water
a combination of the treatments above
a constant relative humidity of > 85% for the duration of the secondary
treatment
Duration of the secondary treatment according to DIN 1045-3:
For indoor-structures:
0.5 days
For all other structural parts:
Apply treatment until the compressive strength of
the concrete, in those areas of the structure which
are close to the surface, is at 50% (for XM 70%) of
the nominal strength fck. At temperatures of 15 to
25C this requirement leads to a curing period of 1
to 15 days, depending on the strength development
of the cement (DIN 1045-3).
3.3.5 Special Properties
Concretes, which are exposed to certain stresses, must have a resistance against
these factors. Most important is the density of the concrete, which depends on its
composition processing and on the secondary treatment (curing).

Concrete can be manufactured to have the following special properties:

concrete with high water proofing
concrete with a high resistance to frost
concrete with a high resistance to frost and de-icing salts
concrete with a high resistance to chemical attack
concrete with a high resistance against wear and tear and abrasion
concrete for high service temperatures of up to 250 C
concrete for underwater use (underwater concrete).
Waterproofing is usually tested on slabs with the measurements of 200 mm x 200
mm x 120 mm. During these tests, according to DIN 1048 part 1 (now replaced), the
greatest permeability depth (average of 3 tests) may not exceed 50 mm for
waterproof concrete.
3.3.6 Load-Deformation-Behaviour
Every construction material warps under stress. The modulus of elasticity (emodulus) of the construction material indicates this behaviour. The smaller the emodulus, the smaller the strength necessary for a certain deformation. The emodulus of concrete C25/30 is approximately 30,500 N/mm, that of steel approx.
210,000 N/mm.
Concrete can only withstand very small expansions if exposed to tensile stress. It
breaks at expansions of approx. 0,1 mm/m.
The e-modulus of most plastics is very dependent on temperature.
3.3.7 Shrinkage and Swelling
Shrinkage is the decrease in volume due to evaporation, while swelling is the
increase in volume due to water absorption. In the case of constricted shrinkagedeformation tensile stress develops, which may lead to cracks.
In the laboratory mortar prisms reach shrinkage coefficients of 1.3 mm/m. Shrinkage
coefficients measured on structural parts are usually much smaller. The shrinkage
coefficient is dependent on environmental conditions, the dimensions of the structural
part and on the water content.
3.3.8 Creep
The elastic deformation is proportional to the applied load. Creep is the timedependent increase in the permanent deformation of the structural part under a
continuous load. The creep value can amount to a multiple of the elastic deformation.
3.3.9 Temperature Strain
A concrete structure, which is 10 m in length, will expand or shrink 1 mm if exposed
to a temperature change of 10 C. If temperature-induced deformations are

constricted, restraint stresses will develop within the structural part. Concrete and
steel have approximately the same coefficient of thermal expansion.
3.3.10 Carbonation
During the hydration of the concrete calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 is produced. This
produces within the cement paste a pore water solution with a pH-value of approx.
13. This highly alkaline solution creates a passive layer on the reinforcement steel,
which prevents corrosion of the reinforcing steel, even if they are exposed to oxygen
and moisture (however, not in the case of chloride exposure). The carbon dioxide of
the air, together with moisture turns the calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate
CaCo3. This process is called carbonation. In an aqueous solution calcium carbonate
has a pH-value of below 10. At such a low alkalinity the passive layer on the
reinforcement steel is no longer durable. Thus reinforcement corrosion becomes
possible if there is enough moisture and oxygen.
There is practically no carbonation if the concrete is dry (no moisture to facilitate the
chemical reaction) or water-saturated (no diffusion of the carbon dioxide). The
strongest carbonation of concrete takes place at a relative humidity of 40 to 60 %.
The denser the concrete and the further the carbonation has advanced, the slower
the carbonation will progress (see Diagram A 4).
Concrete used outdoors, which is exposed to rainfall, will carbonate slower than
outdoor-concrete, which is protected from rainfall.
3.3.11 Concrete Cover
The reinforcement corrosion is (even if there are narrow cracks) reduced, the denser
(influenced also by the concrete composition and secondary treatment) and thicker
the concrete cover is.
Therefore it is especially important to ensure sufficient concrete cover achieved by
the correct positioning and size of spacers, that are placed before concreting.
3.4 Quality Assurance
According to DIN 1045-3 there are three supervision categories when placing
concrete on site. Concrete belonging to the supervision category 1 are only tested
each once pour it (internal quality control). Concretes belonging to supervision
categories 2 and 3 also have to be tested according to a set supervision plan by a
recognized supervisory board (also called external quality control).
A construction site must be marked as supervised, visibly displaying the regulations
underlying the construction project (DIN 1045-3) and the address of the recognized
supervisory board. The inspection effort for supervision category 3 is higher than for
supervision category 2.

Literature
Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie e.V., Bauberatung Zement, Cologne (Ed.)
Zement Merkbltter. Betontechnik, Hochbau, Tiefbau, Straenbau, Landwirtschaftliches Bauen
Cologne: Selbstverlag 1999
Content Keywords: concrete technology; concrete processing; building construction; civil engineering;
road construction; agricultural construction
Bayer, Edwin; Kampen, Rolf; Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie e.V., Cologne (Ed.)
Beton-Praxis. Ein Leitfaden fr die Baustelle
Schriftenreihe der Bauberatung Zement
7th edition, Dsseldorf; Beton-Verlag 1997
Content Keywords: concrete production; reinforced concrete building; concrete building; construction
site; solid concrete; concrete processing; secondary treatment; quality assurance; moulds; formwork;
reinforcement; joint; crack development; fresh concrete; mortar; precast concrete element
Weber, Robert; Tegelaar, Rudolf
Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie e.V., Bauberatung Zement, Cologne (Ed.)
Guter Beton. Ratschlge fr die richtige Betonherstellung
19th Edition; Dsseldorf: Beton Verlag 1995
Content Keywords: concrete production; concrete composition; ready-mixed concrete; Fliebeton;
concrete inspection; concrete properties; concrete quality, materials engineering
Deutscher Beton-Verein e.V. DBV-, Wiesbaden (Ed.)
Beton-Handbuch. Leitstze fr Bauberwachung und Bauausfhrung
3rd updated edition, Wiesbaden: Bauverlag 1995
Content Keywords: concrete composition; concrete production; aggregate; binder; admixtures;
additives; concrete composition; processing; secondary treatment; inspection; quality supervision;
reinforcements; mould; formwork; joint; standard; regulation; guideline; exposed joint; mass concrete;
heavy concrete; light-weight concrete; concrete aggregate; additional water; concrete additive;
concrete admixture; quality assurance; concrete (high-strength)
Iken, Hans W.; Lackner, Roman R.; Zimmer, Uwe P.
Handbuch der Betonprfung. Anleitung und Beispiele
4th edition, Dsseldorf: Beton Verlag 1994
Content Keywords: concrete inspection; inspection procedures; source of error; cement; aggregate;
grouting mortar; DIN V ENV206; ISO-Norm; additional water; ground (aggressive)
Kupfer, Herbert (Ed.); Weigler, Helmut; Karl, Sieghart
Beton. Arten Herstellung Eigenschaften
Handbuch fr Beton-, Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonbau
Berlin: Ernst und Sohn 1989
Content Keywords: concrete; production; concrete composition; processing; secondary treatment;
fresh concrete; green concrete; solid concrete; light-weight concrete; gunite; fibrous concrete; concrete
engineering; property; raw material