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Data Analysis
Statistics is the study of the methods of collecting, organizing and analyzing
quantitative data, and drawing conclusions. The data are collected on samples
from various populations of people, animals and things by different methods

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such as observations, interviews, etc. Statistics is used in almost every field
such as business, education, science, psychology, research, etc.

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The word ‘data’ is the plural form of datum, which means facts and figures.

Data

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Data represent factual information (in the form of measurements or statistics)
which is used as a basis for reasoning, discussion or calculation. Data are

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classified as either Primary or Secondary.

Primary Data

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Primary data are the data which are collected directly for a specific purpose for

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the first time and they are original in character.
Examples : Questionnaires, Interviews, etc.,

Secondary Data
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Secondary data are data already collected, analyzed and presented in written
form ready for people to use.
Examples : Government reports, books, articles, maps, etc.,
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Types of Data
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Data can be qualitative or quantitative. Names of persons, marital status, etc.,

are examples of qualitative data.
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Quantitative Data

Quantitative data are measurements expressed in terms of numbers. Income

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of individuals, production of a car company, exports in units of a garment

company, marks of students, etc., are all quantitative data.

Quantitative data can further be classified as continuous data and discrete

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data.

Continuous Data : Takes numerical values within a certain range.

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Example : Height of a person.

Discontinuous (or) Discrete Data : Takes only whole-number values.

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Example : The number of boys in each class can be expressed only in whole
numbers.

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Displaying Data

Tables, Charts and Graphs are examples of visual representation of data.

Graphs or Charts show the relationship between changing things and are used

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to make facts clearer and more understandable.

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Line Graph

A Line Graph is used to show continuous data. The dependent data is plotted

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along the y-axis and the independent data along the x-axis.

Multiple-Line Graph

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A multiple-line graph can effectively compare similar data over the same
period of time.

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Pie Chart

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A pie chart is a circular chart divided into segments. Each segment illustrates
relative magnitudes or frequencies. It shows the component parts of a whole.
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A pie chart uses percentages to compare information since they are the
easiest way to represent a whole (100%). In a Pie chart, the arc length, central
angle and area of each segment is proportional to the quantity it represents.
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Exploded Pie Chart

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A chart with one or more segments separated from the rest of the disc is
called an exploded pie chart.
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Formation of Frequency Tables

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Classification and Tabulation

Collection of data in the form of numbers alone will not help us to make
decisions or form conclusions. Since just a huge collection of numbers does
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not have any meaning, it is necessary to classify the numbers as values and
pictures before presentation.
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Classification is the process of grouping data according to their common

characteristics.
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Tabulation is the process of arranging the classified data in tabular form.

Notes
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• The number of times a particular observation or a variable ‘x’ occurs in a

data set is called its frequency which is denoted by ‘f’.

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• Frequency distributions show the actual number of observations falling

in each range of observations.

• In a continuous distribution the data are obtained by measurement.

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• The vertical bar ‘|’ which represents each occurrence of a variable ‘x’ or
observation is called a tally mark.

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• The mid-value of a class interval is called its class mark.

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• Class boundaries are actual or true limits of a class interval in a grouped
distribution table and are continuous.

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Measures of Central Tendency

The classification and tabulation of statistical data is a process of condensing

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the entire data. The graphs / charts give a visual presentation and make the
comparisons easier. But for analysis of given numerical data, some

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description of the given data is needed. The statistical average is a numerical
value around which the greatest proportion of the data concentrates. For
example, if we say in a class of 40 students, the mathematics marks vary from
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40 to 95, but most of them secured 70 marks then 70 is the statistical average
marks of the class. Such values are called measures of central tendency. The
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three important measures of central tendency are

• Arithmetic mean (or) Average

• Median
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• Mode
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Arithmetic Mean (A.M)

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The Arithmetic Mean of a collection of data is a measure of central tendency

and it helps in interpreting the data. The arithmetic mean (or) AM is commonly
known as the mean or the average of a given set of data.
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Arithmetic Mean (A.M) of Ungrouped Data

   

The formula used is
   
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Median of Ungrouped Data

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Median is the middle value or the mean of the middle two values, when a set of
observed data is arranged in numerical order.
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Median divides the distribution into two equal halves such that there are as
many observations less than it as there are greater than it.

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In a set of N observations, when N is odd, the  
 observation of
arranged data in the numerical order is the median.

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In a set of N observations, when N is even, the average of  observation
 
 

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and observation of the arranged data in numerical order is the
median.

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Mode of Ungrouped Data

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Mode is the data which occurs most frequently in the given set of observations
(data). It is possible to have more than one mode.

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Range of Ungrouped Data
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The difference between the highest and lowest values of the observed data is
called the Range.
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