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A measurement scale
of aesthetic style applied
to luxury goods stores
Bruno Godey, Joelle Lagier and Daniele Pederzoli
Marketing Department, Groupe ESC Rouen, Mont Saint Aignan, France

Measurement
scale of
aesthetic style
527
Received 5 July 2007
Revised 13 February 2008
Accepted 31 May 2008

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to address the recent evolution of the luxury goods sector as
well as the distribution strategy of some major companies. The distribution strategy must consider
two different issues: first, the need to control the value chain in order to gain a competitive advantage
in a sector that is becoming concentrated; second, the need to meet a desire for emotions and for
aesthetic experience, as expressed by the customers of luxury goods.
Design/methodology/approach For this exploratory phase, the paper chooses to draw the data
from a convenience sample made of undergraduate students from the Rouen School of Management.
Slides presenting a varied selection of luxury goods stores are exposed. On the basis of this sample, a
principal component factor analysis with Varimax rotation is performed. This enabled us to find a
three-factor structure. As a preliminary, tests are carried out on the suitability of the data sample for
factor analysis. The paper also testes the internal reliability of this scale.
Findings The paper introduces and validates a scale measuring the aesthetic style of consumers of
luxury goods and an extension of this scale to the outlets selling these papers.
Originality/value As for the academic aspect, it is the first application of a measurement scale of
aesthetic perception to retail. Concerning the managerial aspect, the three dimensions of the scale could
bring important indications to luxury goods firms as well as to shop designers concerning the
elements which influence consumer perception.
Keywords Retailing, Consumer behaviour, Brand image
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
The distribution of luxury goods is by definition synonymous of selectivity if not
exclusivity. The well-known luxury goods brands were the first to perfectly control
distribution by introducing branches in the main European towns at the beginning of
the twentieth century. The strategic aim was to control distribution tightly to preserve
the image and the reputation of the brand. This objective remained unchanged until the
early 1970s. A second phase began with the democratisation of luxury items and
continued until the second half of the 1990s. Where distribution strategy moved from
exclusivity to selectivity with the number of outlets selling luxury goods multiplied.
However, this tendency has recently been reversed. Distribution has become a
strategic variable once again due to the concentration of companies in very large
multi-brand groups. The manufacturers have taken back control of distribution,
developing their own stores networks and choosing independent distributors very
carefully (Moore and Birtwistle, 2005; Wigley et al., 2005).
One of the main consequences of this strategic change has been the setting up of
complex distribution networks consisting of different formats, namely multi-brand

International Journal of Retail &

Distribution Management
Vol. 37 No. 6, 2009
pp. 527-537
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0959-0552
DOI 10.1108/09590550910956250

IJRDM
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stores, mono-brand stores, flagship, corners in department stores and designer outlets
(Moore and Birtwistle, 2004).
The main objective of this paper lies in the understanding of the link which unites
luxury goods and their consumers (Vigneron and Johnson, 2004; Dubois et al., 2001) by
means of stores. Another strategic trend in the luxury good sector consists in
diversification in favour of the most profitable ranges that is to say accessories and
perfume. The difficulty faced by companies then lies in controlling the risk of an offer
becoming commonplace. The store appears to be the ideal place to meet and
communicate with the consumer. For this reason, over the past few years, companies of
the sector have taken great care to controlling the distribution variable in two directions.
The balance between being rare or ordinary certainly lies both in having strong control
of the retail network and in the aesthetic dimension of the stores and merchandising.
This paper is part of a wider field of research:
.
Originally we developed a measurement of aesthetic style in the objet dart
sector. We defined aesthetic style as the personal way in which the consumer
perceives the aesthetic dimension of an object and how he reacts when faced with
an aesthetic or cultural stimulus (Lagier, 2002).
.
A conceptual parallel between art and luxury items appeared interesting; we
adapted and transposed our conceptual framework and scale to luxury goods.
.
Since luxury goods stores are becoming a vector for communication favoured by
companies in the sector, this measurement must now be applied to the new case
for study.
The first section of our paper reviews the recent literature concerning store image and
luxury. A second section presents a conceptual framework for the analysis of the way
luxury goods are perceived. The third section develops a measurement scale of the
aesthetic style of luxury goods outlets. Finally, the fourth section presents the first
experimentation findings resulting from the use of this scale.
Retail store image and luxury
The definition and measurement of luxury are highly subjective (Kemp, 1998; Nueno
and Quelch, 1998). As no agreed definition is to be found in literature, the latest
research focused on consumer perceptions. Only a partial consensus has been worked
out on the dimensions building up the perception of luxury brands (Kapferer, 1998;
Vigneron and Johnson, 1999; Dubois et al., 2001). However, Vickers and Renand (2003,
p. 465) propose a consumer needs model for luxury goods based on three dimensions:
functional, symbolic interactional and experiential.
This paper shares the same trend. It explores the experiential aspect of the
consumption of luxury goods with special attention to sensory pleasure. In this paper,
we especially emphasize the experiential retail stores issue. The aim of such
experiential retail strategies is to act upon store image to promote customer emotional
attachment (Healy et al., 2007).
Three different trends of research concerning store image can be identified: the first
one deals with the components of the store image; the second and more recent one
considers the image of international retail companies operating in different markets
(McGoldrick and Ho, 1992; McGoldrick, 1998; Burt and Carralero-Encinas, 2000; Burt
and Mavrommatis, 2006; Burt et al., 2007). The third one investigates the personality of

retail companies. It is worth noticing that the interaction between customers and stores
is a key component in the building up of the retail companies personality (Martineau,
1958; Aaker, 1997; dAstous and Levesque, 2003).
Our research is rooted in the first trend we have just described, namely the
components of store image. Martineau (1958), generally recognized as one of the first
researcher to introduce the concept of store image as a key for differentiation, identified
four core attributes: layout and architecture, symbols and colours, advertising, sale
personnel. Lindquist (1974) identifies in previous literature nine categories:
merchandise, service, clientele, physical facilities, convenience, promotion, store
atmosphere, institutional factors and post-transactional satisfaction.
McGoldrick (2002) proposes a summary of 18 general areas comprising
90 different elements used in previous image and brand identity studies.
Both Martineau and Lindquist distinguish between functional qualities and
psychological attributes in the construction of a retail image, with a special emphasize
on the role of the customers exposure to a store experience on the psychological
attributes.
Kapferers (1986) identity prism integrates functional and symbolic elements and
stresses the significant impact of these elements when they are decoded by customers.
Similarly, Mazursky and Jacoby (1986), underline the correlation existing between
tangible and intangible elements, as well as the significant role of customers
individual knowledge and past experience, in the building of a holistic store image.
Reardon and Miller (1995), propose an applied scale to measure store image that can
bridge the gap between academic research and the needs of retail managers. The scale,
built following the Churchill paradigm, is composed of six dimensions, namely
merchandise, value, atmosphere, service, clientele (meaning kind of people that
frequent the store) and convenience.
A particularly relevant field of research concerns the atmosphere conveyed inside
the stores and its impact on consumers attitudes and behaviour. The concept of
atmospherics was coined by Kotler (1973), and other scholars developed and deepened
it even if the first author to describe the relevance of atmosphere inside a department
store was a novelist (Zola, 1883). This concept is defined by Greenland and McGoldrick
(1994): atmospherics is the tailoring of the designed environment to enhance the
likelihood of desired effects or outcomes.
In his seminal work, Bitner (1992) proposes a conceptual framework linking the
environment variables in a store or a service outlet to both the reactions of customers
and employees and their behaviour. In this model, Bitner also introduces various
moderating variables influencing both customers attitude and behaviour.
A complete set of research has then been conducted to test the Bitners conceptual
framework and to assess the importance and the influence of atmosphere factors
stimulating every single customers sense. A very complete and interesting summary of
the different researches has been carried out by Dauce and Rieunier (2002). The authors
detail the influence of three atmospheric variables, namely music, smell, light and
colours, on the cognitive, affective and behavioural areas of response defined by Bitner.
The authors do not analyse studies concerning other atmospheric variables linked
with the stimulation of touch or taste. At the same time, they do not present any result
concerning the influence of atmospheric variables on employees, because they state
that no previous research exists in this field.

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According to the work of Dauce and Rieunier, the Bitners model has never been
tested globally; many researches show that atmospheric variables can influence the
emotional status of customers, but very few have looked for the effects of these
emotions on real shopping behaviour. Moreover, when analysis were made trying to
measure the effects on behaviour, they only used quantitative data where more
qualitative studies would be necessary to explore the link between the atmospherics
and the affective reactions of customers.
Suggestion for a conceptual framework for the aesthetic perception
of luxury items
To develop a measurement of aesthetic style in relation to luxury goods, we followed
the procedure suggested by Churchill (1979). After specifying the working field and
detailing the context of our research, we suggest the conceptual framework shown in
Figure 1.
This conceptual framework allows us to highlight the entire conceptual process
triggered off by the consumers when they perceive luxury goods. We decided to
construct our measurement scale of the aesthetic style by its antecedents, that is to say
items relative to cognitive style (and its different dimensions[1]) and to affective
intensity.
Development of a measurement scale of aesthetic styles applied to luxury
goods stores
At this stage of our research, a sample of 56 items was generated from which we
proceed to the purification of the measurement. Then we adapted and applied this
purified scale, composed of 21 items, to luxury good outlets. All items were scored on a
five-point Likert scale ranging from always to never.

Antecedents

Aesthetic style

Consequences

Mobilization of
individual
cognitive
resources

Object is compared to
norms, to social &
historical references (brand,
signature, history, awareness)
Object is understood,
interpreted (shape, design,
colour, composition)
Place of display
Price and financial value

Cognitive style
Cognitive differentiation
Cognitive discrimination
Cognitive integration
Tolerance for ambiguity

Figure 1.
A conceptual framework
of the perception of luxury
goods

Affective intensity

Mobilization of
individual
affective
resources

Seeking sensations,
emotions, feelings, pleasure
Quest fort escape, leisure,
forgetness
Seeking discovery,
adventure
Variety seeking

For this exploratory phase of luxury goods stores, we chose to draw our data from a
convenience sample made up of undergraduate students in business (N 132).
It would certainly have been interesting to create different segments of consumers
of luxury brands, as in other research (Dubois et al., 2005). However, in this first phase
of our work, we wanted to be able to generate variance about the aesthetic style.
Therefore, we worked on a sample that was as homogeneous as possible.
Respondents were shown slides presenting a varied selection of luxury goods stores
and after were asked to fill a questionnaire. Photographs of outlets were selected so as to
represent the diversity of store formats as much as possible (flagship, corners [. . .]) among
the more recent architectural realisations. We chose these pictures from internet corporate
web sites of the leading companies and we tried to represent the diverse formats per brand.
On the basis of this sample, a principal component factor analysis with Varimax
rotation was performed. This enabled us to obtain a three-factor structure accounting for
69.9 per cent of the variance. As a preliminary, tests were carried out on the suitability of
the data sample for factor analysis (KMO 0.808 and Bartlett test 0.000). We also
tested the internal reliability of this scale. Cronbachs a (a 0.809) showed good internal
consistency of the scale of aesthetic style applied to luxury goods stores (Table I).
This solution presents satisfactory psychometric qualities concerning both the
explanatory variance percentages and the correlation between the items and the factors.
In order to check the factor structure of this solution a confirmatory factor analysis[2]
was performed on the same sample (Table II).

Items
When you are in a luxury goods shop [. . .]
S10 You might feel happy and ecstatic
S16 You might feel happy and exalted
S17 You might feel happy and exuberant
S21 You might feel happy and overflowing with energy
S22 You might feel a very strong emotion
S35 You might feel happy and full of energy
S31 You analyse the components and material used in
the architecture of the shop
S34 You look to see if the shop has been designed and
built perfectly
S37 You wonder if the conception of the shop is perfect,
beyond reproach
S47 You try to understand what is behind the
architecture
S49 You try to understand the reason for this display
S15 You might feel uneasy, disturbed by certain elements
in the architecture and in the layout
S23 You might feel uneasy about certain imagery, certain
symbols in the layout and in the creation

Communities

Dim 1

0.658
0.775
0.744
0.786
0.607
0.788

0.810
0.879
0.854
0.881
0.777
0.886

531

Loadings
Dim 2 Dim 3

0.607

0.763

0.688

0.828

0.573

0.746

0.649
0.745

0.802
0.861

0.745
0.725
Eigenvalue
Percentage of
explanatory
variance
Cronbachs a

Measurement
scale of
aesthetic style

0.862
4.355

3.220

0.843
1.515

33.499
0.923

24.770
0.860

11.655
0.648

Table I.
Factor structure and
reliability of the scale of
aesthetic style: luxury
goods shops

IJRDM
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Items

Loadings

Loadings (with bootstrap)

T (with bootstrap)

0.751
0.827
0.831
0.886
0.716
0.880

0.736
0.813
0.825
0.889
0.706
0.880
0.920
0.658

10.729
14.541
18.495
25.036
9.061
22.949

0.692
0.834
0.742
0.617
0.711

0.691
0.832
0.750
0.613
0.703
0.843
0.520

9.062
11.650
11.364
7.072
9.109

Dimension 1

532

S10
S16
S17
S21
S22
S35
Joreskogs r
Convergent validity (rvc)
Dimension 2
S31
S34
S37
S47
S49
Joreskogs r
Convergent validity (rvc)
Dimension 3
S15
S23

Table II.
Confirmatory factor
analysis of the scale of
aesthetic style: luxury
goods shops

0.509
0.943
Joreskogs r
Convergent validity (rvc)
x 2/df (sig.)
RMSEA/SRMR
GFI/AGFI
NFI/TLI/CFI

0.673
0.742
0.668
0.502
1.482 (0.009)
0.057/0.045
0.907/0.862
0.910/0.959/0.968

5.017
5.480

The values of the test t . 2.575 indicate significant parameters ( p , 0.01). Furthermore,
the model adjustment is satisfactory. The values of the adjustment indicators (goodness of
fit index (GFI)/net farm income (NFI)/Tucker Lewis index (TLI)/Comparative fit index
(CFI)) are all higher than 0.90. In addition, the standardization root-mean-square residual
(SRMR) is lower than 0.05 while the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is
below 0.08. However, the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) ( 0.862) is slightly lower
than the generally accepted limit of 0.90.
The estimations of bootstrap and maximum likelihood are very close which
indicates a satisfactory convergence of the two methods of estimation and thus a good
stability of the model.
The internal coherence of the scale is equally satisfactory. In effect, Joreskogs r of
the three dimensions are all higher than 0.6 (Bagozzi and Baumgartner, 1964). The
convergent validity of the scale is also satisfactory since the rvc of all the dimensions
are above 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
First results of the measurement applied to stores
The three dimensions of the factor analysis can be interpreted within the conceptual
framework. We effectively find two clearly distinct dimensions which measure: affective
intensity (component 1:6 items) and tolerance for ambiguity (component 3:2 items).
One dimension is composed of items which fall both in the domain of cognitive
differentiation and cognitive discrimination (component 2:5 items). These initial results

are promising in so far as they underline the fact that the consumers appear to be very
sensitive to the architecture and the layout of the luxury goods shops. Their sensitivity
can be shown by emotions and sensational experiences which they express through
joy, cheerfulness and energy (the consumers may go as far as to become ecstatic). They
may also consider as important the components and material used in the conception of
the shop, or try to understand the reasons behind the design and layout. But on the
other hand, they may be shocked by certain disturbing elements in the layout of the
stores.
The luxury goods consumers judgement of stores is based both on sensitivity and
analysis. They attach emotion as well as attention to the surroundings in which luxury
goods are displayed, however affective intensity would appear to be the most
determining factor.
Discussion and conclusion
The development of concentration within the luxury goods sector in recent years has
made the distribution variable an essential source of competitive advantage. On the one
hand, companies producing luxury goods are looking to recover complete control of their
distribution networks. On the other hand, since successive diversification has made the
limits of luxury goods less and less clearly defined, specific brands take great care to
make their stores a place where offer becomes aesthetic and contribute to reinforce the
brand power. To achieve this goal, luxury firms pay great attention to the architecture
and interior layout which are in turn coherent with the values of the brands.
The strategic stakes are so great for companies that we must take into consideration
the adequation between aesthetic perception of the products and the shops. To this end,
we put together and tested an exploratory measurement scale of aesthetic style which
we validated for luxury goods and then applied to stores. We also conducted a
confirmatory analysis of this scale and obtained results which proved the stability of
the scale.
This paper may have implications for both academics and managers. As for the
academic aspect, it is the first application, for what we know, of a measurement scale of
aesthetic perception to distribution. To date, stores have only been studied from an
image and a sensorial marketing angle. Aesthetic perception, at least for certain
categories of outlets, could represent an interesting additional contribution. Concerning
the managerial aspect, the three dimensions of the scale could bring important
indications to luxury goods firms and to shop designers concerning those elements
which influence consumer perception. It would appear particularly interesting to notice
that certain items correspond to an holistic view of the shop (all those items concerning
affective intensity) whereas certain others are rather more connected to the physical
components of the shop and the total visual merchandising adopted (the items
contained in the second and third dimensions).
Limits of our research lie firstly in the use of the same sample in the exploratory and
confirmatory analysis. Moreover, it was a convenience sample not composed of the
main target customer of luxury goods shops. It is however true that the utilisation of
students as survey units is widespread in social science research designed to analyse
perception. Peterson (2001) offers reasons for the validity of the analysis of samples or
groups of management students in research. First, student samples are relatively
homogeneous in terms of demographics, socioeconomic background and education.

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Second, the students in the sample may be luxury goods customers from time to time
and may in the long-term become more regular consumers as also noted by Kapferer
(1998). Finally, it should not be overlooked that the use of business students has also
been evaluated positively by authors about luxury (Kapferer, 1998; Dubois et al., 2001;
Vigneron and Johnson, 1999, 2004). Furthermore, the means of collecting information
was not ideal since the individuals questioned were not in a real-life situation, inside or
just outside a shop. They were however shown slides presenting a certain number of
luxury goods shops before they answered the questionnaire. Perhaps, the main limit in
the use of photographs consists in the fact that they are only two-dimensional.
However, we assume that adding a dimension would only reinforce the perception of
consumers.
The future possible extensions of this research are many. First, it would be
preferable to apply this study to more representative consumers of luxury goods
brands either inside or just outside a shop. Second, in order to make the scale more
operational we could try to define more exactly what the components of the luxury
store image are, and which one influence perception on the two more cognitive
dimensions of the scale. Finally, we could complete the work by crossing them with a
segmentation based on consumer attitudes towards luxury (Dubois et al., 2005).
Our scale of aesthetic style, as mentioned above, was originally built for the objet
dart sector and was extended later to luxury goods and luxury stores. We are
conscious of the importance of aesthetic in the entire retail sector, so a possibility for
future research could be the application of a scale of aesthetic style to other types of
stores rather than luxury. The objective of this further research could be to evaluate the
importance of the aesthetic dimension in the sector of shopping goods like for example
apparel, perfume and cosmetics, leather goods [. . .]
Notes
1. Cognitive style includes two dimensions: complexity and cognitive accommodation.
Cognitive complexity presents three distinct components: cognitive differentiation,
discrimination and integration (Pinson, 1978; Pinson et al., 1988). Cognitive differentiation
corresponds to the number of attributes used by an individual to deal with information
received (Pinson, 1975). Cognitive discrimination (Schroder et al., 1967; Pettigrew, 1958;
Detweiler, 1978) measures the degree of finesse in the distinctions made by an individual
about one object or between objects. The concept of cognitive integration (Harvey and Ware,
1967; Streufert and Struefert, 1978) measures the degree of complexity of individual rules
used in relation to objects. Cognitive accommodation characterises the tendency to review
the method of information processing in use. The concept of tolerance for ambiguity
(Kreitler et al., 1975; Budner, 1962; Norton, 1975) plays an important role in this analysis.
It describes the tendency for the individual to seek or discard information conflicting with
his own system of values.
2. The confirmatory analysis was performed using Lisrel 8.30 software.
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Corresponding author
Bruno Godey can be contacted at: bruno.godey@groupe-esc-rouen.fr

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Measurement
scale of
aesthetic style
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