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INTRODUCTION
In July 2004, the concrete cover of the Mitholz cut-andcover tunnel in Switzerland spalled off, forcing traffic to stop
(refer to Fig. 1(a) and (b)). The cut-and-cover tunnel was
arch-shaped without transverse reinforcement in the upper
region and was opened to traffic in 2002. Prior to spalling of
the concrete cover, the structure presented no significant
warning signs (deflections and crack widths were low). As
Fig. 1(c) shows, spalling developed at the region where the
intrados reinforcement was in tension (due to the strongly
asymmetric filling of the tunnel).
Structures with similar characteristics (arch-shaped
members subjected to bending and axial forces) can also be
found in tunnels, pipes, shells, vaults, ducts, silos, tanks, and
off-shore structures when nonsymmetrical loads are applied.
All of them can potentially develop cover spalling failures in
case no transverse reinforcement is provided and when the
intrados reinforcement is in tension. Also, failures in curved
bridges with spalling in the webs of the lateral concrete cover
of post-tensioning tendons (due to horizontal prestressing
deviation forces) have been reported by Podolny.1
Cover spalling failures in arch-shaped members are in
general originated by the combination of two phenomena.
The first one is the transverse tensile stresses due to the
deviation forces of a curved reinforcement (Fig. 2). The
second one is the tensile splitting stresses originated by the
346
Fig. 1Concrete cover spalling of arched-shaped cut-andcover tunnel (Mitholz, Switzerland, 2004): (a) view of cutand-cover strengthening after cover spalling; (b) detail of
cover spalling; and (c) geometry of Mitholz cut-and-cover
tunnel, filling, and zone of concrete cover spalling.
ACI Structural Journal, V. 107, No. 3, May-June 2010.
MS No. S-2009-086.R1 received March 19, 2009, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright 2010, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved,
including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Pertinent discussion including authors closure, if any, will be published in the MarchApril 2011 ACI Structural Journal if the discussion is received by November 1, 2010.
Fig. 2Equilibrium of deviation forces of curved reinforcement: (a) longitudinal view; and (b) tensile stresses (assuming
constant tensile stress in concrete).
(1)
f yd 4 d b
k f ctd b ef -----------------------------R
(2)
Lap splices
QR, kN
(kips)
ECP1
37.4
32.2
613
(5420) (4670) (88.9)
26
1.53
(1.02)
No
432
(97.1)
ECP2
40.9
34.0
520
(5930) (4931) (75.4)
22
1.09
(0.87)
No
324
(72.8)
ECP3
41.7
33.5
531
(6050) (4859) (77.0)
20
0.90
(0.79)
No
287
(64.5)
ECP4
33.9
30.2
541
(4920) (4380) (78.5)
18
(0.71) 0.72
No
231
(51.9)
ECP5
38.4
34.7
600
(5570) (5030) (87.0)
22
(0.87) 1.09
237
(53.7)
ECP6
35.5
30.7
600
(5150) (4453) (87.0)
22
(0.87) 1.09
197
(44.3)
4d
tan ( ) d
t = s -------------------b- + b -------------------------bb ef R
b ef
(5)
4d
td = s -------------------bb ef R
(3)
(4)
(6)
f yd 4d b
k el f ctd b ef --------------------R
(7)
NOTATION
b
bef
c
d
=
=
=
=
db
db*
Ec
Es
fc
fc
fck
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
fct
fctd
ft
fy
fyd
=
=
=
fyk
k
=
=
kel
kpl
MR
My
nb
Qcalc
QR
Qtest
qtr
R
s
x
s
y
c
s
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
352
width of specimen
effective width
concrete cover
distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal
tensile reinforcement
bar diameter
equivalent bar diameter
modulus of elasticity of concrete
modulus of elasticity of steel
compressive strength of concrete (measured in cylinder)
specified compressive strength of concrete
characteristic compressive strength of concrete (measured in
cylinder)
concrete tensile strength at time of testing measured on cylinder
if available or estimated as 0.30 fc2/3 (MPa) (fct = 1.57fc2/3 [psi])
concrete design tensile strength; this value can be estimated as
0.21fck2/3/c (MPa) (fctd = 1.10 fc2/3c [psi])
tensile strength of steel
yield strength of steel
design yield strength of steel (fyk/s sfy according to
European and American practices, respectively)
characteristic yield strength of steel
concrete tensile strength reduction factor accounting for concrete
brittleness and bond
concrete tensile strength reduction factor before yielding of
flexural reinforcement
concrete tensile strength reduction factor after yielding of
flexural reinforcement
bending moment at failure
plastic moment
number of bundled bars
calculated failure load
applied load at failure
measured failure load
transverse force per unit length
radius of curvature of reinforcing bar
bar spacing
height of compression zone
angle of bond compressive struts with respect to bar axis
steel strain
yield strain of steel
strength reduction factor of concrete (=1/c = 0.67)
strength reduction factor of steel (=1/s = 0.87)
efficiency factor for concrete in tension
s
t
tb
td
b
c
s
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
REFERENCES
1. Podolny, W., The Cause of Cracking in Post-Tensioned Concrete Box
Girder Bridges and Retrofit Procedures, PCI Journal, V. 30, No. 2, 1985,
pp. 82-139.
2. Franz G., and Fein H. D., Tests on R/C Culvert and Tunnel Lining,
2nd test series (Betonversuche mit Baustahlgewebe-Bewehrungen fr
Rohre und Tunnelverkleidungen, Versuchsreihe 2"), Baustahlgewebe Berichte
aus Forschung und Technik, Heft 8, Dsseldorf-Oberkassel, Germany,
1971, 52 pp. (in German)
3. Fein, H. D., and Zwissler, U., Accomodating Deviation Forces of
Curved Reinforcing Bars with Concrete (Aufnahme von Umlenkkrften
aus stetig gekrmmten Bewehrungsstben durch den Beton), Die Bautechnik,
V. 51, Heft 2, Berlin, Germany, Feb. 1974, pp. 58-61. (in German)
4. Neuner J., and Stckl, S., Research on Accommodating Deviation
Forces of Curved Reinforcing Bars with Concrete Cover and Stirrups
(Versuche zur Aufnahme der Umlenkkrfte von gekrmmten Bewehrungsstben durch Betondeckung und Bgel), Deutscher Ausschuss fr
Stahlbeton, Heft 322, Berlin-Mnchen, Germany, 1981, pp. 71-106.
(in German)
5. Neuner, J., Theoretical Research on Accommodating Deviation Forces
of Curved Reinforcing Bars with Concrete Cover and Stirrups (Theoretische
Untersuchungen zur Aufnahme der Umlenkkrfte von gekrmmten
Bewehrungsstben durch Betondeckung und Bgel), Technische Universitt
Mnchen, Institut fr Bauingenieurwesen III, Lehrstuhl fr Massivbau,
Mnchen, Germany, 1983, 30 pp. (in German)
6. Intichar, M., Investigation on the Interaction between Bond Stresses
and Deviation Stresses (Untersuchung der Interaktion zwischen Verbundspannungen und Umlenkspannungen), Technische Universitt Graz, Insitut
fr Betonbau, Graz, Austria, Sept. 2002, 95 pp. (in German)
7. Intichar, M.; Ebner, M.; and Sparowitz, L., Deviation Forces in
Curved Beams (Umlenkkrfte in gekrmmten Stahlbetonbalken), sterreichische Ingenieur-und Architekten-Zeitschrift, V. 149, No. 1, Austria,
2004, pp. 11-16.
8. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2008, 473 pp.
9. BS EN 1992-1-1: 2004, Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, Brussels, Belgium, 2004, 225 pp.
10. SIA, Code 262 for Concrete Structures, Swiss Society of Engineers
and Architects, Zrich, Switzerland, 2003, 94 pp.
11. NORM B 4700, Reinforced Concrete StructuresEurocodeOrientated Analysis, Design and Detailing, 2001-06-01, sterreichisches
Normungsinstitut, Wien, Austria, 2001, 106 pp.
12. Plumey, S., Soil-Structure Interaction in Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
(Interaction Sol-Structure dans le Domaine des Tranches Couvertes),
Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, PhD thesis No. 3714, Lausanne,
Switzerland, Jan. 2007, 299 pp. (in French)
13. Fernndez Ruiz, M.; Muttoni, A.; and Gambarova, P. G., Analytical
Modeling of the Pre- and Post-Yield Behavior of Bond in Reinforced
Concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, V. 133, No. 10, Oct. 2007, pp. 1364-1372.
14. fib, Bond of Reinforcement in Concrete, Bulletin No. 10, Fdration
Internationale du Bton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2000, 427 pp.
15. Tepfers, R., A Theory of Bond Applied to Overlapped Tensile
Reinforcement Splices for Deformed Bars, Publication 73:2, Chalmers
University of Technology, Gteborg, Sweden, 1973, 328 pp.
16. Fernndez Ruiz, M.; Muttoni, A.; and Gambarova, P. G., A
Reevaluation of Test Data on Bond in RC by Means of FE Modelling,
Studies and Researches, V. 27, Dec. 2007, pp. 113-134.
17. Muttoni, A., and Fernndez Ruiz, M., Shear Strength of Members
without Transverse Reinforcement as Function of Critical Shear Crack
Width, ACI Structural Journal, V. 105, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 2008, pp. 163-172.
APPENDIX
In this Appendix, Eq. (5) is used together with the affinity
hypothesis of bond13,16 to estimate the splitting tensile
stresses and to determine the failure load in arch-shaped
ACI Structural Journal/May-June 2010
(8)
b = 3f ct ----s
y
where Es is Youngs modulus, s is the maximum bar strain
(strain at crack location), and y is the yield strain of the steel.
Introducing these expressions into Eq. (5) results in
Es 4 db
3 tan ( ) d b f ct
- s + --------------------------------------s
t = ----------------------------b ef R
b
ef
(9)
db =
dbi
2
(10)
i=1
x
M R = E s s bd d --- M y
(11)
E
2E
x = d -----s 1 + ---------c 1
Ec
E s
(12)
2f c
(13)
Qtest /
Qcalc
fct,
Qtest,
fc ,
c,
mm (in.) MPa (psi) MPa (psi) kN (kips)
40 (1.57) 37.4 (5420) 3.36 (486) 432 (97.1)
320 (71.9)
1.01
100 (3.93)
284 (63.8)
1.01
18 (0.71)
100 (3.93)
248 (55.7)
0.93
22 (0.87)
100 (3.93)
200 (44.9)
1.18
22 (0.87)
100 (3.93)
199 (44.7)
0.99
2.12
200 (7.88)
109 (24.5)
1.11
2.2
100 (3.93)
183 (41.1)
0.98
2.32
200 (7.88)
124 (27.8)
1.13
2.4
100 (3.93)
168 (37.7)
1.01
2.52
100 (3.93)
168 (37.7)
0.93
200 (7.88)
109 (24.5)
1.11
2.7
100 (3.93)
197 (44.2)
0.87
2.82
50 (1.97)
239 (53.7)
0.80
2.92
200 (7.88)
90 (20.2)
1.12
2.102
50 (1.97)
222 (49.9)
0.95
2.112
100 (3.93)
130 (29.2)
1.06
2.122
200 (7.88)
110 (24.7)
1.02
2.132
200 (7.88)
88 (19.8)
0.92
2.142
100 (3.93)
171 (38.4)
0.92
2.152
200 (7.88)
151 (494)
125 (28.1)
1.21
2.162
200 (7.88)
75 (16.8)
66 (14.8)
1.13
2.172
200 (7.88)
79 (17.7)
37 (8.31)
1.18
A16
16 (0.63)
44 (1.73)
479 (107)
440 (98.9)
1.09
A26
16 (0.63)
44 (1.73)
460 (103)
440 (98.9)
1.04
A36
16 (0.63)
44 (1.73)
451 (101)
440 (98.9)
1.02
Aq6
16 (0.63)
44 (1.73)
470 (105)
440 (98.9)
1.07
B16
16 (0.63)
88 (3.47)
441 (99.1)
1.00
B26
16 (0.63)
88 (3.47)
476 (107)
441 (99.1)
1.08
B36
16 (0.63)
88 (3.47)
441 (99.1)
0.92
Bq6
16 (0.63)
88 (3.47)
0.99
C16
16 (0.63)
175 (6.9)
415 (93.2)
1.04
C26
16 (0.63)
175 (6.9)
469 (105)
415 (93.2)
1.13
16 (0.63)
175 (6.9)
415 (93.2)
0.96
1.03
0.09
db,
mm (in.)
26 (1.02)
s,
mm (in.)
100 (3.93)
nb
ECP112
b,
d,
R,
mm (in.)
mm (in.)
mm (in.)
300 (11.8) 347 (13.7) 3553 (140)
ECP212
22 (0.87)
100 (3.93)
ECP312
20 (0.79)
ECP412
ECP512
12
Specimen
ECP6
2.6
354
81 (18.2)
1.03