MHM Manual08031003

MOBILE HYDRAULIC
MECHANIC CERTIFICATION
Manual
Including Study Guide,

Solutions, & Pre-Tests
Manual # 401 - 8/03

FLUID POWER CERTIFICATION BOARD
FLUID POWER SOCIETY
The International Organization for Fluid Power and Motion Control Professionals
Safety is Everyones Responsibility

As equipment is improved and its capabilities are expanded, the knowledge to operate and maintain it increases. Individuals must constantly upgrade
their skills and concerns for safety.
This review manual suggests several safety guidelines and rules. It obviously cannot cover every situation and is not intended to do so. Safety must
be of primary consideration at all times. Each job, regardless of the type of work involved, presents problems that require special alertness and good
judgment on your part. In addition, you must comply with the rules and requirements established by the particular site where the work is being
performed.
In all cases, each individual and employer shall review the safety hazards present and establish additional practices as needed to minimize them. It
is your obligation to work safely and to correct unsafe acts, practices, and/or conditions for the protection of yourself and others. It is extremely
important that you understand how each task is to be performed in a safe manner, and if you dont know how to do so, stop and ask how to perform the task before you begin the work.
Training, including the information in this document, for operators, maintenance personnel, assemblers, foreman, engineers, and other individuals
working with pressurized fluids, is highly recommended.
Fluid Injections - Fine streams of escaping pressurized fluid can penetrate skin and thus enter the human body. These fluid injections may cause severe tissue damage,
gangrene, and loss of limb.
Consider various means to reduce the risk of fluid injections, particularly in areas normally occupied by operators and/or service personnel. Consider careful routing,
adjacent components, warnings, guards, shields, and training programs.
Learn about the dynamic forces that act on equipment as it is operated. Relieve pressure before disconnecting hydraulic and other lines. Tighten all connectors before
pressurizing the system. Avoid contact with escaping fluids. Treat all leaks as though they are pressurized and hot enough to burn human skin. Never use any part of
your body to check for leaks. Use cardboard instead.
If a fluid injection accident occurs, see a doctor immediately. Do not delay treatment or treat the injection as a simple cut.
Any fluid injected into the skin must be surgically removed within a few hours or gangrene may result. Doctors unfamiliar with fluid injection injuries should consult a
knowledgeable medical source.
Whipping Hoses - If a pressurized hose/tube assembly blows apart, the fittings can be thrown off at high speed, and the loose hose can flail or whip with great force.
This is particularly true with compressible fluid systems, such as compressed air systems. Where the risk exists, consider the use of guards and restraints to protect
against injury.
Burns from Conveyed Fluids - Fluid power media may reach temperatures that can burn human skin. If there is a risk of burns from escaping fluid, consider the use of
guards and shields to prevent injury, particularly in areas occupied by operators.
Fire and Explosion from Conveyed Fluids - Most fluid power media, including fire resistant hydraulic fluids, will burn under certain conditions. As fluid escapes from a
pressurized system, a mist or fine spray may be formed, The fluid may then flash or explode upon contact with an ignition force. Consider the use of guarding and
routing of fluid conductors to minimize the risk of combustion.
Fire and Explosion from Static-Electric Discharge - Fluid passing through fluid conductors can generate static electricity, resulting in a static electricity discharge. This
may create sparks that can ignite system fluids or gases in the surrounding atmosphere. When the potential of this hazard exists, select fluid conductors specifically
designed to carry the static electricity charge to ground, thereby reducing the risk of injury or damage.
Electric Shock and High Amperage Discharge - Electrocution could occur if hydraulic tubing conducts electricity to a person. In the case of high amperage, tubing could
short the electricity to ground, which in turn could create very high fluid temperatures (up to 5000 C, 9000 F). Routing electrical wires in contact with tubing or hoses
is not recommended; electrical wiring and hydraulic lines should be isolated by being separated and securely fastened to avoid contact.
Mechanisms Controlled by Fluid Power - Mechanisms controlled by fluid in tubing and hoses may become hazardous when the tube or hose fails. For example, when
a tube or a hose fails or has a catastrophic failure, objects supported by the pressurized fluid may fail. Vehicles or machines may loose their breaks and/or steering,
which causes loss of control.
FLUID POWER SOCIETY

Mailing: P.O. Box 1420, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034-0054
Shipping: 1930 East Marlton Pike, Suite A-2, Cherry Hill, NJ 08003-2142
Phone: 856-424-8998, Fax: 856-424-9248
E-mail: askus@ifps.org Web: http://www.ifps.org
Printed in USA
Copyright 2001
Manual #401 - 8/03
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic

Certification
pneumatic force and motion control systems, and following blueprints, schematics, or drawings, using hand
This study guide has been written for candidates tools, power tools, and testing devices and applying
who wish to prepare for the Mobile Hydraulic knowledge of hydraulic, pneumatic, and electrical
Mechanic Certification exam. It contains numbered principles. Analyzes blueprints, schematics, diagrams,
outcomes, from which test items on the exam were and drawings to determine fabrication specifications,
written, a discussion of the related subject matter with using instruments, such as micrometers, verniers, and
illustrations, references for additional study, and calipers. Assembles fluid power components such as
review questions. While the study guide covers the pumps, cylinders, valves, reservoirs, motors, accumubasics of the exam, additional reading of the references lators, filters, and controls, using hand tools and holding devices. Connects unit to test equipment, and
is recommended.
records data such as fluid pressure, flow rate, and
The outcomes and review questions are intended to power loss due to friction and parts wear. Identifies the
focus attention on a representative sample of the sub- need for modification in maintenance procedures, test
ject matter addressed by the exam. This does not mean procedures, instrumentation, or setup, based upon test
that the study guide will teach the test. Rather, the results and machine operational performance.
study guide is to be used as a self-study course, or an
instructional course if a Review Training Seminar is Based upon this description, the Mobile Hydraulic
available, to address representative subject matter cov- Mechanic must demonstrate expertise in the skill areas,
ered by the exam. Both the exam questions and review as well as knowledge, comprehension and application
questions have been written from the same outcomes. of various principles addressed in this study guide. The
To this extent, if the candidate understands the subject study guide follows a simple format that uses outcomes
matter given here and can answer the review questions and review questions to focus attention on what is
correctly, he or she should be prepared to take the important. If a candidate can master the outcomes by
understanding the technical information and answering
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Certification exam.
the review questions correctly, he or she should be able
The U.S. Government Federal Occupational Code to achieve a passing score on the examination, and the
defines the special skills and knowledge required by honor of becoming an Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic.
Fluid Power Mechanics as follows:
To achieve certification requires passing the three hour
Fabricates, assembles, services, maintains, and tests written exam and the three hour Job Performance
fluid power equipment, specifically hydraulic and (hands-on) exam.
Introduction
Copyright 2001, 1999, 1994 by Fluid Power Society. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or used in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. Address information
to Fluid Power Society, P.O. Box 1420, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034-0054
MHM Manual #401 - 8/03
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 1
John Seim, Alexandria Technical College

Bob Sheaf, Certified Fluid Consultants
A number of companies and individuals have Jim Sullivan, Southern Illinois University
provided information and expertise during the preparation Tom Wanke, Milwaukee School of Engineering
of the revision of the Mobile Hydraulic Certification Terry Ward, The Knotts Company
Robert Yund, Hennipin Technical College
Examination and Study Guide.
Acknowledgements
While the number of contacts with companies and

specific contributions that they made are too numerous to
mention, major assistance was provided by Caterpillar
Incorporated; The Charles Machine Works, Inc.
manufacturers of Ditch Witch Products; John Deere;
Melroe "Bobcat", a Division of Ingersoll-Rand; Grove
Manlift; JLG Industries; Altec Corporation; Southern
California Edison; and Robert Hill, Time
Manufacturing.
Certification Review Committee
Don DeRose, Fluid Power Society
Jim Fischer, Minnesota West Comm. & Tech. College
Clayton Fryer, Norgren
John Groot, The Knotts Company
Ray Hanley, Fluid Power Society
Ernie Parker, Hennepin Technical College
Paul Prass, Fluid Power Society
Administrative Coordination
Kerry Collins, Fluid Power Society
Design and Layout
Jessica Bieber, Innovative Designs & Publishing, Inc.
Kylene Huffert, Innovative Designs & Publishing, Inc.
Finally, while a concerted effort has been made to
present the technical information accurately, errors and
oversights invariably creep into the first printing of
most manuscripts. Please send suggestions and corrections to the attention of the Fluid Power Society,
P.O. Box 1420, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034-0054
Disclaimer
The Fluid Power Society (FPS) has attempted to verify the formulas, calculations, and information contained in
this publication. However, the FPS disclaims any warranty, expressed or implied,of the fitness of any circuit,
data, or information discussed in this publication for a particular application. Whenever the reader intends to use
any of the information contained in this publication, the reader should independently verify that the information
is valid and applicable to the application. The FPS neither endorses/recommends, nor disapproves of, any brand
name or particular product use by virtue of its inclusion in this publication. The FPS has obtained the data
contained within this publication from generally accepted engineering texts, catalog data from various
manufacturers, and other sources. The FPS does not warrant any of this information in its application to a
particular application. The FPS welcomes additional data for use in future revisions to this and other FPS
publications.
2 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide
Contents
Maintenance
Task:
Page
1.0. Replace an SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting. ............................................................................................8

2.0. Add hydraulic fluid to the reservoir ........................................................................................................10
3.0. Replace hydraulic filter elements ............................................................................................................12
4.0. Make up a crimped hose assembly..........................................................................................................14
5.0. Align hoses and fittings ...........................................................................................................................17
6.0. Check condition of hydraulic filters ........................................................................................................20
7.0. Examine hydraulic fluid for contamination.............................................................................................24
8.0. Set pressure on a relief valve...................................................................................................................25
9.0. Inspect hydraulic cylinder for external leaks ..........................................................................................29
10.0. Inspect directional control valves for external leaks ...............................................................................30
11.0. Check rod seals and packings for wear ...................................................................................................31
12.0. Inspect pumps and motors for leaks ........................................................................................................32
13.0. Adjust hydraulic packing gland...............................................................................................................33
14.0. Draw a fluid sample from the reservoir .................................................................................................35
15.0. Tube Flaring.............................................................................................................................................37
16.0. Inspect cylinder for binding.....................................................................................................................40
17.0. Make up a tube assembly ........................................................................................................................41
18.0. Test petroleum fluid for water .................................................................................................................43
19.0. Check reservoir for silt build up..............................................................................................................45
20.0. Charge a hydropneumatic accumulator ...................................................................................................47
Field Repairs
21.0. Replace a hose assembly .........................................................................................................................49
22.0. Verify operating pressure with a gauge ...................................................................................................54
23.0. Verify relief valve setting ........................................................................................................................57
24.0. Replace a hydraulic cylinder ...................................................................................................................59
Contents
25.0. Check cylinder alignment and mounting.................................................................................................61
26.0. Check directional control valve solenoids...............................................................................................62
Shop Repairs
27.0 Replace a hydraulic pump unit ................................................................................................................63
28.0. Drain, flush, and refill a system ..............................................................................................................65
29.0. Replace a directional control stack valve (module) ................................................................................67
30.0. Mount a pump and align the coupling.....................................................................................................69
31.0. Replace a hydraulic motor unit................................................................................................................71
32.0. Replace a pressure relief valve ................................................................................................................73
33.0. Install an overhaul kit in a hydraulic cylinder.........................................................................................75
Troubleshooting
34.0. Determine why cylinder will not extend .................................................................................................78
35.0. Determine cause of no, low, or high pressure .........................................................................................82
36.0. Identify components in a circuit diagram................................................................................................86
37.0. Determine why cylinder fails to hold the load ........................................................................................91
38.0. Determine why system operation is erratic .............................................................................................95
39.0. Determine the cause of excessive heat ....................................................................................................96
40.0. Determine the cause of no flow, low flow, or high flow.........................................................................97
41.0. Determine the cause of excessive noise ..................................................................................................99
42.0. Determine the cause of excessive vibration ..........................................................................................101
43.0. Determine cylinder rod and barrel damage ...........................................................................................102
44.0. Determine cylinder bypass leakage .......................................................................................................103
45.0. Verify condition of hydraulic fluid ........................................................................................................105
46.0. Determine the cause of pump vibration ................................................................................................107
47.0. Determine why a hydraulic cylinder binds............................................................................................108
48.0. Isolate solenoid control valve failure.....................................................................................................110
49.0. Verify hydraulic check valve installation and assembly........................................................................112
Figures
Maintenance
Figure 1. ............SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2. ............Bending radius of a hydraulic hose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 3. ............Minimum bend radius for hydraulic hose at different operating pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 4. ............Figure for Review: 5.2.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 5. ............Figure for Review: 5.3.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 6. ............Location of filters in a system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 7. ............Hydraulic filter canister cutting tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 8. ............Location of main pressure relief valve and circuit pressure relief valves.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 9. ............Front end loader in rollback position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 10. ..........Loader boom and bucket circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 11. ..........Figure for Review: 8.6.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 12. ..........Multi-spool directional control valve seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 13. ..........Hydraulic motor case drain arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 14. ..........V-packing installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 15. ..........Three piece and two piece flare fittings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 16. ..........Maximum and minimum flare length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 17. ..........Standard tube bending radius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 18. ..........Bladder and piston type accumulators.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Field Repairs
Figure 19. ..........Fluid compatibility chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Figure 20 ..........Pressure reading on a through center circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 21. ..........Pressure reading on a pressure compensated circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 22. ..........Vacuum gauge reading at the pump inlet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 23. ..........Places where pressure readings can be taken. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 24. ..........Installation of pressure gauge and restrictor valve to test pressure relief valve setting. . . . 57
Figure 25. ..........Mobile hydraulic cylinder installation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figures
Shop Repairs
Figure 26. ..........Common types of pumps to prime mover drive couplings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 27. ..........Hydraulic pump driven through a shaft with U-joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 28. ..........Motor front seal assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 29. ..........Tee-test for checking a pressure relief valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 30. ..........Assembly view of mobile hydraulic cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 31. ..........Pressure results from load on the actuator.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Troubleshooting
Figure 32. ..........Figure for Review 34.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 33. ..........Pressure relief, pressure reducing, and counterbalance valve symbols.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 34. ..........Pilot operated check valve symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 35. ..........Flow control valve symbols.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 36. ..........Sequence valve symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 37. ..........Pump and motor symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 38. ..........Open center, closed center, tandem center, through center, and motor center88
directional control valve center positions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 41. ..........Outrigger circuit.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 42. ..........Boom extension circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 43. ..........Boom raising circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 44. ..........Pumping action of a gear pump.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 45. ..........Figure for Review: 42.1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 46. ..........Test to diagnose cause for cylinder drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 47. ..........Tandem mounted cylinders on a seeder.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 48. ..........Tandem mounted cylinders supporting an uneven load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 49. ..........Tandem mounted cylinders with counterbalance valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 50. ..........Meter connections for voltage, current and resistance readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 51 ..........Cutaway view and symbol for an in-line check valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 52. ..........Location of check valves in a circuit.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 53. ..........Circuit for Review: 49.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Reference Equations
Reference Equations
FPS Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Certification
Equations
Page #
Eq. #1
14
Working Pressurepsi = Burst Pressurepsi / Safety Factor
Eq. #2
42
Tube Standard Bend Radius in = 3 x Tube Outside Diameter in
Equation
Equation
WP = BP / SF
TSBR = 3 x TOD
Maintenance
Maintenance
Maintenance means to inspect the machine and make minor repairs. This would cover the scheduled and
periodic check of fluids and components on operational machinery, including adding fluid and making periodic
adjustments, stopping leaks, and forecasting future replacement, repair and problems associated with system
operation. Representative tasks include replacing O-ring fitting seals; checking relief valve settings; inspecting
pumps, cylinders, and valves for leaks; and adding and changing fluids.
Task 1.0.
Outcome 1.1.
Outcome 1.2.
Replace an SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting.

Identifies sealing and positioning components of
SAE O-ring fitting.
Identifies the correct procedure to install an SAE
O-ring fitting.
SAE straight thread hydraulic fittings are used to make reusable connections between tube and hose and
machine components. They are leak-free when properly installed and make the seal without wedging the fitting
into the machine member as is required with tapered pipe thread fittings.
A typical SAE straight thread O-ring boss (ORB) fitting consists of the fitting, lock nut, back-up washer, and
O-ring, which is the sealing component (see Fig. 1.). The fitting can be positioned to connect it to a hose or
tube by turning it out as much as one full turn, and then locked in position with the lock nut. The back-up washer is used to compress and hold the O-ring into the recessed counterbore cavity when the lock nut is turned down.
When the fitting is positioned and sealed, the back-up washer rests against the face of the counterbore, retaining
the O-ring in the recessed cavity.
Remember that the initial seal of an O-ring is caused by deformation of the cross section area. Then as hydraulic pressure is increased
on the seal, the O-ring is further deformed in the direction of the
counterbore and back-up ring to increase the sealing effect. This
makes the O-ring seal a balanced design, which is one in which an
increase in pressure causes an equal force to be exerted on the seal
through its cross section toward both surfaces to be sealed.
Over time, O-ring fitting seals lose their flexibility, become brittle and
fail. This is usually what causes them to leak. An O-ring cannot seal
properly unless it remains flexible. Loss of flexibility is caused by heat
and aging. Failures can also be caused by improper installation
which can nick, tear, twist, abrade, and cut the replacement O-ring if
the proper procedure is not followed.
Fig. 1. SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting
Before installing the new O-ring, remove the old O-ring and clean the fitting and recess. Back the lock nut and
washer up on the fitting to the edge of the recess. Notice that the back-up washer is retained on the fitting. Lubricate
the O-ring with petroleum fluid and install it in the recess on the fitting. Be careful not to twist or abrade the O-ring
getting it over the threads. If a thread protector is available, push it over the threads. Then push the O-ring over
the protector and into the undercut recess of the fitting. When the O-ring is properly installed, it will turn straight
and free around the fitting in the recess.
Maintenance
Now thread the fitting into the machine member. Turn the fitting into the machine member by hand until the
back-up washer contacts the face of the boss. Remember that the locknut and back-up washer are positioned
behind the recess to make a place for the O-ring. This also assures that the recess will align with the chamfered
recess in the boss fitting when the fitting is screwed in and the back-up washer contacts the face of the boss. This
provides the proper cavity into which the O-ring is compressed. If the fitting is not screwed far enough into the
port opening before the locknut is tightened, the O-ring will be pulled down across the threads of the fitting when
the back-up washer forces it into the recess. Next, position the fitting to connect to the tube or hose by turning
it back out, as much as almost one full turn if necessary, and then tightening the locknut.
Review: 1.1.
The washer on the 90 SAE ORB fitting shown in Fig.
1 is used to:
a. lock the nut.
b. seal the fitting.
c. compress the O-ring.
d. position the fitting.
e. set the depth of the fitting.
Review: 1.2.
On a 90 SAE ORB fitting the O-ring is positioned in
the cavity between the machine member and the fitting
by:
a. tightening the locknut.
b. backing off the locknut.
c. turning the fitting in by hand.
d. rotating the position of the fitting.
e. installing the O-ring in the machine member
recess.
Maintenance
Task 2.0
Outcome 2.1.
Outcome 2.2.
Add hydraulic fluid to the reservoir.

Associates low and high fluid levels with system operation.
Knows that adding the right fluid, and keeping
contaminants out of the system are critical steps in
adding fluid to a hydraulic system.
Adding make-up fluid to the reservoir ranks among the most important maintenance tasks because of the
consequences of doing it incorrectly. Be aware that a system that needs make-up fluid on a regular basis has a leak.
Discovering the source of that leak and fixing it is necessary to keep the system operating properly.
Keeping the fluid at the proper level is important. A system that is overfilled when it is cold will spill out
fluid through the vent breather when the system warms up because the fluid will expand.
A system that becomes low can cause the pump to whine and aerate the fluid. On mobile hydraulic systems
that have limited capacity reservoirs, a low fluid level may not cause the pump to whine and aerate the fluid,
but will overheat the system because of insufficient cooling. Remember that the capacity of the reservoir may
be no more than the gallon per minute flow rating of the pump to begin with, and reducing that capacity with a
low fluid level will cause the same fluid to be circulated more frequently through the system where it will pick
up additional heat before it has cooled sufficiently.
If the pump is mounted below the reservoir, fluid normally floods the inlet to the pump. If pump noise indicates
the pump is aerating, the system is out of fluid and must be stopped immediately to prevent the pump from being
burned up. Pumps that are mounted above the reservoir will suck a depression in the fluid as the level drops
below the inlet. This allows air to enter the pump with the fluid, circulate through the system, and to
aerate fluid in the reservoir. In addition to the tell-tale whine of the pump and foam in the reservoir, operation
of cylinders will become spongy and jerky. Continued operation of the system is both dangerous to personnel
and will damage the pump.
The fluid level on a machine is normally checked at operating temperature, either with a sight gage or a dip
stick. Do not fill the machine to the full mark when it is cold. This will cause the machine to be over filled when
it warms up. Wait until the machine warms up and then add enough fluid to bring the level to the full mark.
Adding only the correct fluid, and in the right amount, is important because many fluids are not compatible
with each other. Incorrect fluids can severely damage or ruin a system by softening the seals or failing to blend
with existing oil. This will take the machine out of service, and require costly repairs. Each machine comes
from the manufacturer with a recommendation about which hydraulic oil should be used. The correct oil is
specified in the operation manual. Check the manual before adding oil to be sure that the oil that is to be added
to the machine is among those listed by the manufacturer of the machine. Mixing oils is not recommended so
stay with one brand and type of oil. Keep in mind that adding oil that has not been approved by the manufacturer
of the machine will void most warranties.
Adding fluid without introducing dirt and contamination is a continuing problem. One authority goes so far
as to say that the new fluid added to the system often exceeds the contamination level specified for the system,
and much of this contamination is introduced while the fluid is being stored, transported, and added to the system.
Fluid added to a reservoir should be pumped in through a filter. Most filter manufacturers produce filter carts for
this purpose.
Maintenance
If bulk oil contamination is the problem, dispense the fluid directly from quart or gallon containers that are
opened just before the fluid is used. To prevent contamination from the oil source, do not store partially filled
oil containers.
Before filling the reservoir, clean around the fill cap with a lint-free shop towel. Make sure you are adding
the correct fluid. Don't pour fluid from an oil container that is not labeled. Inspect the filler screen and relief
breather. If a funnel must be used, make sure it is clean. As a general rule, seamless plastic funnels collect and
hold less dirt and contaminant than metal funnels. Pour only enough oil through the fill cap to bring the level to
the full mark. Finally, replace the fill cap, and have a lint-free shop towel available to clean up oil that may have
dripped on the machine.
Review: 2.1.
If the pump is mounted below the reservoir (flooded
inlet), low fluid level can be confirmed by:
a. overheating.
b. loss of pressure.
c. noise from the pump.
d. jerky action of a cylinder.
e. low fluid level on the dip stick.
Review: 2.2.
Which of the following should be considered a possible source of contamination when adding fluid to the
hydraulic reservoir?
a. Funnel.
b. Shop towel.
c. Fluid container.
d. Fluid being added.
e. All of the above.
Maintenance
Task 3.0.
Outcome 3.1.
Outcome 3.2.
Replace hydraulic filter elements.

Knows the installation procedure for spin-on canister
and replaceable element filters.
Identifies symptoms of a machine operating with an
incorrect filter, or filter that has been installed
incorrectly.
It is generally accepted that 75% of all hydraulic system problems are contamination related. Dirt from
external sources wears cylinders, rods and packings. Once the contamination is inside the system it wears check
valve seats and elements, plugs directional control valve orifices and sticks spools, erodes flow control orifices,
acts as a catalyst to break down the fluid, wears pumps and motors, and is catastrophic to servo valves.
The purpose for changing filters is to keep the hydraulic fluid clean. This prevents damage to the pump and
other hydraulic components. To do this, the system must be clean at the start, and the contamination taken out
by the filter must equal contamination generated by the system plus the contamination entering the system from
the outside environment in which the machine is operating. A good environment is one in which the machine
operates in clean air and machine cylinders are booted. A bad environment is one in which the machine operates
in dusty or dirty conditions, the cylinders are not booted, and cylinders are subject to emersion in mud, dirt, ice,
snow, and rain. The quality of the environment determines how much contamination enters the system through
cylinders, air breathers, and as moisture.
To change a spin-on canister type filter, warm up the machine to thin the fluid and put contaminants in
suspension. With the machine off, clean the outside of the filter and surrounding area to prevent contamination
from entering the system when the filter is changed. Use a lint-free shop towel and solvent if necessary. If
solvent is used, the area must be dried with compressed air as well as wiped clean with a lint-free shop towel.
Read the label on the oil filter and compare the specifications with the one specified for the machine in the
manufacturer's manual. Be sure that the filter being replaced was correct for the application. Before spinning the
new canister onto the housing, lubricate the O-ring seal with system fluid.
To change a cartridge type filter, warm up the machine and then turn it off. Clean the filter case, particularly
in the area of the cover with a lint-free shop towel. Be sure not to contaminate the system with solvent. Read the
label, if there is one, on the cover or case. Note the filter manufacturer and number so the specifications can be
compared with those of the element being removed from the case.
With a drip pan ready to catch any hydraulic oil that spills when the cover and cartridge are removed, or when
the case is drained, remove the cover and cartridge. Put the cartridge over the drip pan, and identify the
manufacturer and part number.
A hydraulic system with an incorrect filter, or incorrectly installed filter, can exhibit a number of symptoms.
A clogged pump inlet filter, or pump inlet filter that has too fine a filter rating, will by-pass oil around the filter element, and if the by-pass will not allow full flow, the filter will cavitate the pump. This condition will be particularly noticeable during cold starts. If the filter is mounted at the pump and above the fluid level of the reservoir and the seal leaks, the system would also aerate when the pump operates. For these reasons, manufacturers
commonly recommend checking the inlet for restrictions before changing the pump when a system delivers less
than rated flow at normal operating temperature.
Maintenance
Pressure line filters located downstream of the pump will increase pump pressure to maintain the same pump flow to
the system when the filter element becomes loaded if the filter is not equipped with a bypass feature.
Return line filters normally will not reduce machine operating speed, even with a restriction downstream of the
filter. Rather, the filter will blow off or leak because it has a low pressure rating. Another source of canister
type filter leaks is at the gasket. If the wrong filter has been installed, it will sometimes leak because the gasket
has a different diameter than the mating surface where it is supposed to seal. If a leak occurs after the filter is
changed, the first thing to check is that the filter is the one specified for the machine. Other causes of leakage
can be under tightening or over tightening, or having an obstruction, such as an electrical wire, come between
the filter canister and the sealing surface while the canister is being tightened.
Review: 3.1.
Cleaning the area around the hydraulic filter when it is
changed is done to:
a. inspect the assembly for leaks.
b. keep the filter from running hot.
c. identify the replacement filter element.
d. meet manufacturers warranty requirements.
e. prevent contamination from entering the
system.
Review: 3.2.
What is the most likely symptom from a machine with
a return line filter that is incorrect for the installation, or
has been installed incorrectly?
a. Overheating.
b. Slow operation.
c. Loss of pressure.
d. Leak at the filter.
e. Increased machine noise.
Maintenance
Task 4.0.
Outcome 4.1.
Outcome 4.2.
Outcome 4.3.
Outcome 4.4.
Outcome 4.5.
Make up a crimped hose assembly.

Associates dash number with 1/16th inch I.D. sizes of
hoses and fittings.
Computes working pressure from hose burst pressure and
safety factor using the formula:
B.P. = S.F. x W.P.
(Eq.1)
where B.P. = burst pressure, S.F. = safety factor, and
W.P. = working pressure.
Distinguishes between conductive and non-conductive hose.
Identifies the parts of a hydraulic hose assembly.
Knows the consequences of under-crimping and
over-crimping when making up a hydraulic crimped hose
assembly.
Making up a hydraulic crimped hose to length is a common task, particularly when other repairs are made to
the machine, or when a hose bursts or leaks and must be replaced. Getting the finished length correct is important
so that the hose can be routed and mounted on the machine properly. The length of the hose cannot be taken from
the old assembly because the cut-off length cannot be measured. Rather, the hose length is determined by measuring
the finished length and subtracting the cut-off length for each of the new fittings. There is only a slight margin
for error in measuring, cutting the hose to length, and assembling the sockets, nipple and hose in the crimping
machine, if the assembly is to fit properly, and have the holding strength and sealing power necessary for
trouble-free operation.
Hose size is customarily given by a dash number which identifies its inside diameter. Dash numbers indicate
the number of 16ths of an inch. A -8 hose means that the inside hose diameter is 1/2 inch, or a little less. SAE
hydraulic hose sizes range from -3 to -64 (3/16ths inch to 4 inch).
The working pressure is the pressure at which the hose can be worked on a machine. This is the value the
mechanic must be able to determine to be sure that the hose will withstand the maximum working pressure,
which is usually relief valve pressure or higher. As a general rule, a hose with a small inside diameter will have
a higher rating than a hose of a larger diameter with the same construction, so knowing the working pressure of
one size hose does not mean that another size hose of the same construction could be used as well.
The burst pressure is the static test pressure at which an actual rupture of the hose is expected to occur. This
value is determined by bursting several hoses under test conditions.
The working pressure is the maximum pressure at which the hose should be used on a machine, and is
determined by dividing the burst pressure by a safety factor. The minimum safety factor for most applications
is 4 to 1, meaning that a hose with a burst pressure of 12,000 psi can only be used at a maximum operating
pressure of 3,000 psi.
(Eq. 1)
Working Pressurepsi = Burst Pressurepsi / Safety Factor
WP = BP / SF
Remember that the working pressure or maximum operating pressure of a hose of the same construction
decreases as the inside diameter of the hose increases. For example a 3/16 inch SAE 100R1-A hose has a
maximum operating pressure of 3000 psi, whereas a 1/2 inch SAE 100R1-A hose has a maximum operating
pressure of only 2000 psi, and at 1 inch, the same hose has a maximum operating pressure of only 1000 psi. This
is why it is important to check the SAE rating of the hose for the diameter of the hose being used.
Maintenance
Non-conductive hose follows SAE Standard J517, and can be distinguished by a non perforated orange
polyurethane cover and textile reinforcement.
The cover is non-perforated to prevent moisture from entering the hose, which would increase the conductivity,
thereby degrading the hose. For added protection against moisture absorption, the ends are equipped with end
caps, which must be kept in place until the hose is installed.
A typical non-conductive hydraulic hose with a thermoplastic elastomer tube, single braid Kevlar reinforcement,
and a non-perforated polyurethane cover would have application with petroleum base and fire-resistant
fluids, with an operating temperature from -65F to +200F (-54C to +93C). Applying a safety factor of 4 to
1, the pressure range for a 100R8 hose is 5000 psi for 1/4 inch hose, 3500 psi for 1/2 inch hose, 2250 psi for
3/4 inch hose, and 2000 psi for 1 inch hose. To ensure a hose is non-conductive, look for labeling on the cover
indicating that fact.
A hydraulic hose is constructed of three basic elements: inner tube, reinforcement, and cover. The reinforcement
layer can be a ply or braid fabric or cord, or metal braid or spiral wound plies. To permit expansion and contraction
of the assembly, the hose also has a friction layer between the plies of reinforcement.
The inner tube is the lining of a hose which contacts the fluid. Inner tube materials are designed to be
compatible with the fluid being conducted. The hose reinforcement is the fabric, cord, metal braid, or spiral
wound layers that surrounds the inner tube. The reinforcement gives strength to the hose to withstand internal
pressures and external mechanical forces. The outer layer is the cover that protects the hose from abrasion and
rotting by sealing the external surface of the hose from outside elements and corrosion.
Hose reinforcement is either braided or spiral wound. A braid is a continuous sleeve of interwoven single or
multiple strands of yarn or wire, which spiral around the inner hose structure in both directions, in addition to
being interlaced. Spiral wound reinforcement layers, on the other hand, are not interlaced, and as the number of
layers of reinforcement increases, spiral wound reinforced hose is more flexible than braided reinforcement.
The type and number of reinforcing layers of a hose determine under what system conditions it may be used.
Hose pressure classifications are inlet, medium pressure, high pressure, and very high pressure. Two to four wire
braid or spiral wound reinforcing layers are required for operating pressures of 2000 psi to 4000 psi, depending
upon the safety factor and size of the hose.
Hose is connected to system components and to other conductors by means of hose fittings. Hose fittings
are classified as permanent or reusable. A hose assembly consists of the hose and hose end, and fittings or couplings.
Crimped and swaged hose assemblies are permanent, and the fitting cannot be separated from the hose and
reused.
With a permanent hose fitting, the hose is inserted into the fitting between a nipple and socket. The socket
is then crimped (which reduces the circumference by a corregated effect) or swaged (which reduces the circumference
by stretching lengthwise) to hold the hose. Barbs on the outside diameter of the nipple ensure that the hose is
held evenly in place.
To make up a hydraulic crimped hose assembly, select the proper hose, nipple, and socket combination. Cut
the hose to length using a hose saw, and skive away the cover if required. Cutting the hose with an ax and sledge
hammer, hack saw, or grinding wheel is not recommended. Remove the debris from both cuts and blow the hose
clean with compressed air. Assemble the socket and nipple. Some manufacturers recommend using 20W oil as
Maintenance
a nipple lubricant. Be sure the nipple is fully inserted in the hose. If the nipple is not fully inserted in the hose,
the crimped hose assembly may come apart after it has been crimped. Also notice that this error in assembly can
only be detected by measuring the finished assembly, not by inspection of the crimped fitting assembly. CAUTION:
DO NOT LUBRICATE THE HOSE COVER.
Select the crimp dies specified for the size and style of hose. Load the crimp dies into the die cage. Make
certain the angle of the dies is correctly positioned and that all the dies are installed. Do not attempt to operate
a crimping machine with less than the full set of dies, or a set of intermixed dies.
With the crimping machine piston fully retracted, position the hose and fitting assembly in the die assembly.
Be sure to follow the recommendation of the crimping machine manufacturer on this step. At least one manufacturer
also recommends lubricating the angled surfaces of the crimp dies. With the fitting positioned correctly in the
dies, jog the machine forward and observe that the crimp dies advance properly in the crimp ring. Continue to
crimp the fitting until the dies bottom or reach the position specified by the manufacturer of the specific machine.
CAUTION: OVER CRIMPING OR UNDER CRIMPING WILL CAUSE THE HOSE ASSEMBLY TO
FAIL, usually by blowing off under pressure.
Review: 4.1.
What is the inside diameter of a -16 hose?
a. 3/16
b. 1/4
c. 1/2
d. 3/4
e. 1
Review: 4.2.
A certain 1 inch SAE 100R2 hose has a burst pressure
of 8,000 psi. If a safety factor of 4 to 1 is required, what
is the maximum safe working pressure of the hose.
a. 1000 psi.
b. 1500 psi.
c. 2000 psi.
d. 2500 psi.
e. 3000 psi.
Review: 4.4.
Which part of the hose must be compatible with the
fluid?
a. Covering.
b. Inner tube.
c. Ply or braid.
d. Friction layer.
e. Wire reinforcement.
Review: 4.5.
Which of the following can cause a crimped hose
assembly to fail?
a. Bottoming the crimping dies.
b. Under crimping the assembly.
c. Seating the nipple in the hose.
d. Lubricating the nipple with oil.
e. Lubricating the angled surfaces of the
crimp dies.
Review: 4.3.
The purpose for capping the ends of non-conductive
hydraulic hose in storage is to prevent degradation
caused by:
a. dust.
b. ozone.
c. grease.
d. moisture.
e. oxidation.
Maintenance
Task 5.0.
Outcome 5.1.
Outcome 5.2.
Outcome 5.3.
Align hoses and fittings.

Knows that twisting a hydraulic hose will result in reduced
service life.
Knows that the minimum "bending radius" of a hydraulic hose
is observed to prevent the hose from bursting, or failing at the
fitting, and is measured from the inside of the bend at the hose
covering.
Distinguishes between properly and improperly mounted
hydraulic hoses.
Hoses are aligned and secured to achieve maximum possible performance. The
pressure rating and quality of a hose can be used to predict its service life. Not
much can be done to extend the life of a hose, but improper mounting and alignment
contribute to shortening it.
Two conditions that contribute to shortening the service life of a hose are
installing it twisted or over bent. The twist of a hose is measured in degrees from
the lay line, which is a line printed on the hose that runs parallel to the hose axis. The
bend of a hose is the curvature of a hose from a straight line expressed as the radius
of the bend. The bending radius of a hose is measured to the outer wall of the hose
on the inside turn. (see Fig. 2.).
Fig. 2. Bending radius of a

hydraulic hose
Avoid sharp twists or bends in a hose by using proper hose angle adapters. Do not bend the hose in an arc
that is less than the minimum bend radius of the hose given in the application table. Be especially careful of sharp
bends at hose to fitting connections. Never kink a hose and never clamp a hose at the bend. This prevents the
hose from expanding and contracting at the bend. Never allow the outside of the bend to be aimed at the equipment
operator, because this is a likely place for the hose to burst. Never tie down a vibrating hose with a wire, rope,
or any material that might wear through the hose cover. Hose must be routed to flex in no more than a single
plane. If a compound bend is called for, the path must be divided into two segments with a clamp, or a coupling
and a clamp, to be sure that each hose segment flexes only in one plane.
Avoid twisting a hose. Twisting or torquing will shorten the life of the hose. Some mechanics report putting a
slight twist in hoses during installation so that the hose will miss an obstruction or lay against the machine frame.
This practice is incorrect. Instead, the hose should be secured with a tie-down. Make sure twisting will not occur
after installation, for example as a result of relative motion between machine elements. Avoid transient twisting,
even during installation. Remember that twisting a hose as little as 10 degrees can shorten its service life by as
much as 90%.
Secure all hoses firmly. Be careful to avoid extensive flexing and contact with moving machine members. Once
installed, the hoses must be bled and pressure checked for leaks. As a safety precaution, if there is any movement between the hose and the coupling, install a spring guard at the fitting.
A bursting hose is dangerous. It spreads fluid at high pressure which can cause serious injury, as well as
leave illegal oil spills. Fittings that can be positioned, such as elbows and branch tees, should be oriented in the
direction to accept hose fittings before the lock nut is tightened against the back-up washer. Finally, most
manufacturers of SAE straight thread fittings advise limiting their use to lines no larger than 7/8 inch O.D.
Above 7/8 inch O.D., split flange connectors are recommended.
Maintenance
The minimum bending radius of hose is taken from manufacturer charts. The bending radii increases as the dash
size diameter of the hose increases. It also increases as the pressure increases. When a hose is subjected to bends
smaller than recommended, hose operating pressures are reduced. Similarly, if the hose is subjected to lower
operating pressures, a smaller bend radius may be used. The minimum bending radius for typical hydraulic hose
in dash sizes from -4 to -16 can be read from Fig. 3.
Minimum bend radius is related to hose diameter and operating pressure. A typical -8 (l/2 inch) single wire braid
hose that has a 2-1/2 inch minimum bending radius for operating pressures of 750 psi, would have almost a 5 inch
minimum bending radius at 2000 psi. Similarly, if the hose size were increased from -8 to -16 (1 inch), the
minimum bending radius for operating pressures of 750 psi would be 7 inches.
12
Bend Radii in Inches
The minimum bend radius is figured

-24
11
for a stationary hose. If the hose is also
10
subject to flexing conditions, the minimum
9
-20
bending radius is multiplied by a bend
8
-16
factor, which ranges from 1.1 to 1.5. For
7
-12
example if a hose flexes 90 degrees, the
6
-10
minimum bend radius might be increased
5
-8
1.25 times. How much the bending
4
-6
radius for a specific hose must be
-5
3
increased is determined directly from
-4
2
manufacturer charts. What is important
1
to remember is that minimum bend radius
200
400
600
800
1000 1500
2000 2500 3000
is affected by hose diameter, operating
Operating Pressure - Pounds / Sq. In.
pressure, and flexing conditions.
Moreover, if the minimum bend radius is Fig. 3. Minimum bend radius for hydraulic hose at different operating pressures.
exceeded, that is the hose is bent too short, the service life of the hose will be reduced and the hose may burst at
the outside of the bend or at one of the fittings.
Hoses are checked for proper mounting by visual inspection. Assemblies should be compact and properly
assembled. Use elbows and adapters to eliminate excess hose lengths, and possible interference or abrasion. Using
the correct fitting also facilitates future maintenance. Hoses should be long enough to prevent pulling when they
are assembled. This reduces the bend radius at the fitting, which will cause it to fail at the fitting. Hoses should
be mounted with brackets or insulators away from heated surfaces and machine members that could damage them
mechanically.
To determine if the hose is twisted, look for the lay line and make sure that it follows the axis of the hose
without twisting, even through bends in the hose.
Maintenance
Review: 5.1.
Installing a hose twisted as little as 10 degrees can
shorten its service life as much as:
a. 20%.
b. 40%.
c. 50%.
d. 75%.
e. 90%.
Review: 5.3.
Which hose shown had a twist put in it during installation?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
e. E
A
Review: 5.2.
The bending radius of a hydraulic hose is measured
from the:
a. center line of the terminal fittings.
b. outer wall of the inside bend.
c. center line of the tube.
d. outer wall of the outside bend.
e. terminal fitting to the inside bend.
C
B
D
Fig. 5. Figure for Review 5.3.
A
Maintenance
Task 6.0.
Outcome 6.1.
Outcome 6.2.
Outcome 6.3.
Outcome 6.4.
Check condition of hydraulic filters.

Knows the location of various filters on a mobile hydraulic
system.
Knows when a hydraulic filter should be changed. (For example,
pressure drop indicator, service interval, preventive
maintenance check, component failure, and when fluid is
changed.)
Associates filter location and condition with system operational
characteristics, (for example, a cold system will cavitate when
equipped with a suction line filter). Cold oil will sometimes
create enough pressure drop across the filter to switch on the
"change filter" light when the system is first started).
Identifies contaminants found in a filter element (water, metals,
and particulates, but not solvents).
Strainers and filters are installed on a hydraulic system to protect components. The exact location within the
system depends upon which components are to be protected.
Strainers and filters must be identified on the machine, and their condition verified by visual inspection or from
instrumentation such as condition indicators or differential pressure gauges. By definition, a filter directs the
fluid in a tortuous path. Depending upon the rating, filters are designed to trap particles down to 10 microns, and
silt in the range of less than one microns up to 5 microns. Strainers, on the other hand, direct the fluid in a
straight path through the element. Strainers are made from wire mesh and trap only large particles. Some strainers
have magnets that trap ferrous (iron) particles.
Filters are commonly located at five places in the system: in the inlet, in the pressure line, in the return line,
at various components, and in an off-line filter system.
Inlet filters (and strainers) are mounted in the pump inlet. Some are submerged in oil. Others are located
outside the reservoir at the inlet to the pump. If the reservoir is mounted above the pump to flood the inlet, or if the
pump is supercharged by an auxiliary pump, the pump inlet is above atmospheric pressure. If the reservoir is below
the pump, which is often the case, the pump inlet operates below atmospheric pressure (See Fig. 6).
Pressure line filters are located
downstream of the pump, and are rated
at system pressure. Pressure filters are
sized to carry pump delivery. They protect
components downstream of the pump
from debris that would result from catastrophic failure to the pump. Because
pressure line filters handle full system
pressure and flow, they must tolerate
pressure surges that could dislodge fine
particles that would migrate downstream
into components.
Pressure
Line
Filter
Off-Line
Filter
Return
Line
Filter
Fig. 6. Location of filters in a system.
Return line filters are installed in the line as the last component before the fluid enters the reservoir. Return
line filters catch all debris from all components in the system and thus protect the pump. The most common
Maintenance
location for a hydraulic filter is in the return line.
Component filters are located just upstream of precision components that must be protected from debris that
could cause a malfunction or wear by lapping. Typical examples are last chance filters that are located in cartridge
valves and servo-valves, where close tolerances will not allow the valve to operate in the presence of contamination.
Servo valves are also expensive to repair and replace. When hydraulic systems are flushed following a pump
failure, for example, manufacturers recommend removing servo valves altogether and replacing them with
blanking plates that will simply allow the oil to by-pass and recirculate during the fluid filtration process.
Off-line filters are installed in a separate circuit that consists of a pump, filter, and connecting lines to operate as
an independent system. The most common application of off-line filters is to clean up oil in the reservoir. This
is done during routine maintenance and when repairs are being made. A second common application is to filter
make-up oil in storage drums to be sure the oil is clean before it is added to the system.
Filter location is verified by tracing their location on the machine circuit diagram, and then checking to see
that the filters are in place. This is done with the machine turned off.
The best service results when the filter is equipped with an indicator that shows its condition. Filters must
be changed when the indicator shows the element has become loaded with contaminants. If the filter is not
equipped with an indicator, the number of hours in service is used to determine when the filter should be
changed, for example 500 to 1000 hours of service. Filter condition is checked when the machine is operating
warm. Cold oil is more viscous (thicker) and will show a higher pressure differential reading on the filter indicator
than will occur under normal operating conditions, and this could result in changing the filter when it is still serviceable.
The filter also must be changed when the fluid is changed. Fluids are changed for a number of reasons:
Some companies adhere to a maximum number of hours, months, or years as a service interval. When the time
has elapsed, the fluid is changed. Another reason to change the fluid is if it has been over-heated and oxidized.
This will turn the oil a dark color, and it will have a burnt smell. This problem cannot be remedied by filtering
the fluid. The only solution is to replace it with new fluid.
Other sources of contamination are water and debris that enter from outside the system. Water is probably
the most common contaminant. It can enter the system a number of ways: in the make-up fluid, from leaving
the machine outside in the weather, from moisture entering through the reservoir breather, and by being ingressed
through cylinder and motor seals that are submerged. Backhoes, for example, are commonly operated with the
bucket submerged in a muddy trench, and water is pulled back into the system on cylinder rods. Fluid
contaminated with water has a milky appearance.
Most contaminants, such as water, debris, and metallic particles, will change the conductivity of a fluid,
which is particularly important in bucket trucks and other aerial lifts that must maintain insulation between the
vehicle and the upper boom. Testing the dielectric strength of fluids used in these applications is a common practice.
Another source that contaminates the fluid is a pump that suffers a catastrophic failure, disintegrates, and
spreads metallic particles throughout the fluid stream. Contamination of the fluid from pump failure may not be
apparent because most metallic particles cannot be seen and there is always an urgency to get the machine back
in service with minimum time delay. Because of this, some maintenance programs do not require changing the
fluid, but this is a mistake because operating a new pump on contaminated fluid will lead to another early pump
failure and damage to the rest of the system. Replacing components that are self-destructing is very expensive
maintenance. The correct procedure requires removing the fluid from the system, flushing the system, cleaning
Maintenance
the reservoir, installing a new filter, and then adding new fluid, or reclaiming the old fluid, before putting it back
in the machine.
Because a filter directs hydraulic fluid in a torturous path to remove contaminants, it represents a restriction
in the system which causes a pressure drop across the filter. Furthermore, the pressure drop is influenced by the
viscosity of the fluid, the temperature of the fluid (which also affects the viscosity), the flow rate through the
filter, and the filtration rating of the filter (pore size through the media). The mechanic needs to be aware how
these variables can cause the system to operate under a number of conditions.
Some filters are equipped with a bypass valve that will allow the fluid to by-pass the element when it
becomes loaded with contaminants. The pressure drop for return line spin-on type filters, for example is usually in
the range of 10 to 25 psi, with a maximum operating pressure of 100 psi. Inlet filters, on the other hand, have a
much lower by pass pressure, usually 3 psi or 5 psi, to prevent cavitation of the pump when the filter element
becomes loaded.
Also remember that the pressure drop through a filter is affected not only by the condition of the filter, but
by the degree of filtration, which is a measure of the pore size in the filter. Manufacturers commonly offer filters
that have a 3 micron, 10 micron, and 25 micron rating, but an explanation of these ratings is not always given.
Smaller micron filter ratings indicate fine filtration, whereas larger micron ratings indicate a coarse filtration rating.
Suction filters are necessarily coarse because high suction pressure drop will cause pump cavitation. Pressure
line filters are relatively coarse because they handle full system flow and tolerate surges that could dislodge fine
particles that would migrate downstream into components. Return line filters and off-line filters commonly use
finer filters because fine filtration in these locations has the benefit of providing cleaner fluid without the risk of
damage to the hydraulic system.
What is less understood among users about filtration rating is whether it refers to the absolute, mean, or nominal
rating, and how the filter performs with respect to each of these ratings. If the rating refers to absolute filtration,
this is the micrometre size of the largest hard spherical particle that will pass through the filter under specified test
conditions. This is essentially the size of the largest opening through the filter element. When a filter is rated at
3 microns absolute, this means that it will remove 98.67% of those particles larger than 3 microns.
Also remember that a 3 micron filter will cause a higher pressure drop across the filter than a 10 micron or
25 micron filter because the pore size is smaller. The results of one test, for example, indicate that oil with a
viscosity of 150 SUS at 110F flowing through a clean filter will have a 12.5 psi pressure drop across a 3 micron
filter, whereas the pressure drop will only be 7.5 psi when flowing at the same rate across a 10 micron filter.
Filter indicators include simple tell-tale meters (which are pressure gauges), pressure drop gauges calibrated
in psi, pop-up elements in sight glasses, and pressure drop alarms. These indicators alert the operator that the
filter element needs to be replaced.
If the oil is cold, a return line filter indicator that signals oil is bypassing the element may not be a problem,
if the situation remedies itself within a short time. The condition occurs because the oil is thick and causing a
higher than normal pressure drop across what may be an otherwise clean filter element. If under the same
circumstances, an inlet filter indicator signals that the filter needs to be changed because the oil is thick and causing
a higher than normal pressure drop across an otherwise clean filter element, something should be done to remedy
the problem. A high pressure drop at the inlet will cause the pump to cavitate. If the filter element is not
equipped with an indicator, cavitation of the pump may be the first indication of a high pressure drop at the inlet.
In this situation, the mechanic should confirm that the fluid level is correct, that the correct fluid and filter are
Maintenance
being used for operating conditions, and that the filter element is clean. If changing the filter element does not
solve the cavitation problem, it may be a cold weather service problem, but it still indicates there is a design
problem in the system because a pump cannot continue to cavitate without causing damage.
It is becoming common practice for mechanics to examine the fluid and filter elements for contaminants that
have been trapped while the machine was operating. Contaminants could include water, metals, and particulates.
The common adage is that the history of machine operation and maintenance can be read by examining the filter
media of a used filter.
Some mechanics report cutting spin-on canisters with a hack saw to gain access to the element, but filter cutter tools like that shown in Fig. 7. are available from John Deere, Caterpillar, and other tool manufacturers, and
do not contaminate the filter with saw cuttings or the floor with used
hydraulic fluid.
Where the debris is located depends upon whether flow through
the filter is from the outside in, or from the inside out. As a first step,
the oil in the filter can be poured out onto a shallow pan and examined
for water, abnormal color, odor, and debris, such as sludge. Then
mount the filter upright in a vise, cut the top off, and then remove the
element. The element is then cut so it can be spread out to examine
the side of the media that contains metals and particulates. Excessive
amounts of brass and steel particles can indicate a failed hydraulic
Fig. 7. Hydraulic filter canister cutting tool.
pump or a pump failure in process. A rubber type of material can
indicate cylinder packing failure, or other sealing material, such as hose, O-ring pieces, pipe dope, pipe tape, and other
material that has hardened and disintegrated, or been extruded or abraded during service or installation.
Review: 6.1.
Which filter shown in Fig. 6. would best be used to
clean up a system?
a. Inlet filter.
b. Return line filter.
c. Pressure filter.
d. Off-line filter.
e. Relief line filter
Review: 6.2.
How would a maintenance person determine when to
change a hydraulic filter that is not equipped with a
pressure drop indicator?
a. Cycle time.
b. Fluid color.
c. Machine noise.
d. Hours of operation.
e. Machine malfunction.
Review: 6.3.
Which filter has the potential to cause the most damage
to a hydraulic system if the filter indicator shows
"change filter"?
a. Inlet filter.
b. Bypass filter.
c. Off line filter.
d. Return line filter.
e. Pressure line filter.
Review: 6.4.
What is the most likely source of a rubber type material found in the bottom of a spin-on return line filter
canister?
a. Pump seals.
b. Valve seals.
c. Filter seals.
d. Cylinder seals.
e. Reservoir seals.
Maintenance
Task 7.0.
Outcome 7.1.
Examine hydraulic fluid for contamination.

Also see Task 18.0.
Identifies basic tests to check for fluid contamination
(for aeration, water, and oxidation).
Visual observation of the fluid in the filter, and an examination of the filter media can indicate how much
contamination has collected since the last filter change, and what types of contamination are present, including
air in the fluid, water in the fluid, if the fluid has oxidized, and the presence of brass, ferrous metals, and seal
material.
Air held in suspension in a hydraulic oil is a contaminant. Common sources are the pump inlet if the fluid
level becomes low, which causes the pump to suck air and mix it with the fluid. What typically occurs where
the pump is mounted above the fluid is that the inlet tube sucks a depression in the fluid as the fluid level
becomes low, allowing air to enter at the inlet and become mixed with the fluid in the pump. The presence of
air in a hydraulic fluid will give the fluid an opaque color and foam will form on top of fluid in the reservoir.
Since air is compressible, one symptom of air in the system will be spongy operation of cylinders.
There are a number of tests that can identify which contaminants are present and their source. The most
accurate of these tests is a laboratory analysis which will identify the types and concentrations of contaminants,
including lead, copper, iron, chromium, aluminum, silicon, and water or glycol. Laboratory analysis also determines the condition of the hydraulic oil.
There are less sophisticated but still useful basic tests at the disposal of the mechanic to identify contaminants. For example, water can be identified by a crackle test which drips fluid on a hotplate heated to 375F. If
0.1% or more of water is present in an oil sample, fine droplets of water will be readily seen boiling through a
film of oil at the surface. If no boiling is observed, the oil contains less than 0.1% water. The higher the water
content of the oil, the more violent is the boiling action.
Oxidized oil, caused by overheating, has a burnt smell and dark color. The oil has literally been cooked.
Oxidation cannot be reversed, even by filtering or reclamation, and the oil must be replaced.
Though not as accurate as laboratory analysis, a patch test can be helpful to identify contaminants and wear
debris in hydraulic oil. An oil sample is thinned with naphtha and drawn under vacuum through a filter patch,
leaving contaminants on the surface. The sample patch is observed under a microscope to identify wear particles, and compared to photographs supplied by the manufacturer of the test kit that illustrate various levels of
contamination.
Review: 7.1.
Which test would identify the presence of air in a
hydraulic oil?
a. Feel test.
b. Patch test.
c. Crackle test.
d. Visual inspection.
e. Laboratory analysis.
Maintenance
Task 8.0.
Outcome 8.1.
Outcome 8.2.
Outcome 8.3.
Outcome 8.4.
Outcome 8.5.
Outcome 8.6.
Set pressure on a relief valve.

Distinguishes between the purpose of the main system
pressure relief valve and circuit pressure relief valves.
Knows that pressure relief valve settings may be different
when the system is cold than when the system is at operating
temperature.
Identifies placement of the main pressure relief valve in a
mobile hydraulic system.
Identifies ways to cycle the pressure relief valve to check the
settings.
Knows consequences of pressure relief valve that is stuck
closed, or set above safe operating pressure for the machine.
Knows where to install a pressure gauge when checking relief
valve settings.
Hydraulic systems with fixed displacement pumps are protected from over pressure by a system pressure
relief valve. Hydraulic systems with variable displacement pumps are protected from over pressure by a system
pressure relief valve or pressure compensator that controls the displacement of the pump, or both.
Pressure relief valves protect system components by diverting hydraulic fluid to the reservoir. They are set
to open above the working pressure of the machine, but below the pressure that would damage the hydraulic system.
The main pressure relief valve is set to protect the pump. Circuit relief valves are installed in actuator circuits
to protect motors and cylinders from over pressure. Circuit pressure relief valves are normally set higher than
the main system pressure relief. Over pressure in a cylinder circuit can be caused by overloading the cylinder,
for example on the bucket rollback and dump functions on a loader. To prevent damage to the cylinder, the circuit
relief diverts the over-pressure oil to the reservoir, normally through the opposite cylinder line. It is also common
to incorporate an anti-cavitation valve to prevent cavitation when flow from the pump cannot keep up with the
operation speed of a component, for example when pump flow cannot match the downward speed of a boom.
A circuit with a main system pressure relief valve and cylinder circuit relief valves is shown in Fig. 8.
Circuit
Pressure
Circuit Pressure
Relief with
Hydraulic oil is more viscous when it is cold than when it is Relief with
Anti-Cavitation
3250 psi Valve
3250 psi
at the operating temperature of the machine. When oil is cold it Anti-Cavitation
Valve
causes increased friction as the oil is pumped through the system,
and the pressure relief valve will normally open at a higher pressure
cold than when it is hot. Continued operation of the machine
warms the fluid which lowers the viscosity of the fluid. Pressure Main
Power Beyond
Directional Control
relief valves are normally set when the machine is at operating Pressure 3000 psi
Valve
Relief
temperature and pump speed, and then rechecked when the
machine is cold to be sure that it operates within safe limits. If the
equipment is cold, it may not be practical to warm the fluid without
loading the machine. Since working the equipment is not usually
possible, the recommended practice is to let the oil circulate for a
few minutes, and then to operate one of the functions of the Fig. 8. Location of main pressure relief valve and
circuit pressure relief valves.
hydraulic system 10 times. An alternate procedure is to stall an
actuator, which causes the oil to be dumped across the relief at relief valve pressure. Flowing full pump flow
across the pressure relief valve will warm oil in a few minutes. The relief valve should feel warm to the hand
before making any adjustments.
Maintenance
To protect the pump, the main pressure relief valve in a hydraulic system is located downstream of the pump
before the fluid reaches the directional control valve. The pressure relief valve can be a three ported valve, with
the through port continuing to the directional control valve, and the side port returning over pressure oil to the
reservoir, or it can be a two-port valve installed in a branch line that leads to the reservoir. The main pressure
relief valve also can be installed as the first component in the directional control valve. Locating the pressure
relief valve in the directional control valve eliminates the need for a separate oil return line to the reservoir. In
either case, the main pressure relief valve is the first component downstream of the pump.
The pressure relief valve will commonly start to "crack" open before full-flow pressure is reached. The pressure
setting should be adjusted at full-flow pressure since this is the maximum pressure the pump and components on
the pressure side of the pump will see when an actuator is stalled.
The main pressure relief valve, or circuit relief valve, may or may not come into operation as part of the work
cycle. A back hoe, for example may dig and raise dirt with the bucket, swing the boom to dump the bucket, dump
the bucket, and return to the dig position in a smooth and uniform motion without causing the main pressure relief
valve to open. Only if the machine were to stall, for example if the bucket met an immovable object, would the
main pressure relief valve open. However, on a garbage truck, garbage is compacted until the compactor cylinder
stalls, and the main pressure relief valve, or circuit relief valve, whichever is set to the lower pressure, is actuated
each time the compactor blade is operated through its cycle.
The main pressure relief valve is cycled by restricting the flow downstream of the valve. For a fixed
displacement pump this can be done by operating the machine at a fast idle and holding a function over relief
pressure. This is commonly known as "stalling an actuator". Follow the directions in the machine manual. For
example, the manufacturer of one common type of bucket loader recommends shifting the directional control
valve to lower the bucket against the ground, raising the front of the machine. As the fluid begins to warm up,
cycle other functions of the machine to distribute warm oil. If the system uses a variable displacement pump
equipped with a pressure compensator, the compensator pressure would have to be reset above the setting of the
pressure relief valve to generate sufficient pressure in the system to open the relief valve.
Before setting the main pressure relief valve, position a temperature gauge to read the temperature of the
fluid flowing to the relief valve. Next, install a pressure gauge that will read normal system operating pressure
about mid-scale, because the gauge is most accurate in the mid-third of the pressure range. If the system operates
at 1500 psi, a 3000 psi pressure gauge would be appropriate. Install the pressure gauge just downstream of the
pump. Most recent hydraulic systems have a permanent pressure tap, but if the system does not, it is common
to have a plugged port on the pump designated as the pressure test port. If the system has no provision to test
for pressure, a tee fitting can be installed downstream in the pump line, and the side branch used to tap in the
pressure gauge. Remember that the pressure gauge is in the side branch of the main pressure line that runs from
the pump to the pressure relief valve. This will always allow the pressure relief valve to relieve the pump. Never
install the pressure gauge directly into the outlet of the pump. This will not allow fluid to return to the reservoir.
Instead, the pump or drive coupling will break.
It is not uncommon for the mechanic to find the main pressure relief valve set too high during a routine
maintenance check. For this reason, pressure relief valve settings should be checked every time the machine is
brought in for service. Some operators mistakenly think that turning in the pressure relief valve setting will
speed up the machine. Operators of machines that stall the actuator against the load, for example a garbage
compactor, know that higher compaction results from higher system pressures. While this is true, it does not
take into account the damage done to both mechanical components, such as compactor bodies, as well as to
Maintenance
hydraulic cylinders, hoses, and the pump. Some manufacturers have installed pressure gauges on machines so
that the operating and stall pressures are visible to both operators and mechanics.
Circuit relief valves protect cylinder circuits. Fig. 9. shows a front end loader bucket and cylinder in the
rollback position. The circuit diagram for the boom and bucket circuits are shown in Fig. 10. The pump is
protected by a pressure relief valve, while the bucket cylinder is protected by two circuit relief valves that also
are equipped with anti-cavitation reverse check valves. Circuit relief valves are set to a higher pressure than the
main relief valve. For example, if the main pressure relief valve is set at 3000 psi, the circuit relief would be set
at 3250 psi. The circuit relief comes into operation only if the machine is overloaded and the closed center
directional control valve is in the center position. In any other position, the main system pressure relief valve
would open first. To set the circuit relief valve, the main pressure relief valve would have to be reset to 3500
psi, so that the circuit relief valve would open first. After setting the circuit relief valves, the main pressure relief
valve would be reset back to 3000 psi.
Fig. 9. Front end loader in rollback position.
Boom
Bucket
Fig. 10. Loader boom and bucket circuits.
Maintenance
A number of tamper proof pressure relief valves are available. Using non-removable wire tags to seal the
adjustment, and then keeping accurate records about when the valve was set, and the name of the operator, is the
best method to document who is tampering with the machine so that appropriate action can be taken.
Review: 8.1.
Which component would be protected by a circuit
relief valve on a bucket loader?
a. Pump.
b. Return line filter.
c. Pressure relief valve.
d. Bucket rollover cylinder.
e. Directional control valve.
Review: 8.4. When warming up a hydraulic machine

by stalling an actuator, the engine should be run at:
a. slow idle.
b. fast idle.
c. mid-range rpm.
d. normal operating rpm.
e. maximum governor speed.
Review: 8.2.
Review: 8.5.
Which component must receive oil at operating Which condition can cause catastrophic pump failure?
temperature to set the system pressure relief valve
a. Over pressure.
accurately?
b. Internal leakage.
a. Pump.
c. No load operation.
b. Filter.
d. Low rpm operation.
c. Cylinders.
e. Stalling the load.
d. Auxiliary port.
e. Pressure relief valve.
Review: 8.6.
Which pressure gauge in Fig. 11. could read the highest
Review: 8.3.
pressure?
The main pressure relief valve in a system always
a. 1
reads the pressure at the:
b. 2
a. pump.
c. 3
b. filter.
d. 4
c. actuator.
e. 5
d. reservoir.
e. return line.
3
Relief
Valve
2
Work
Pump
Pressure
Gauge
1
Cylinder
4-Way
Valve
5
Suction
Strainer

Maintenance
Task 9.0.
Outcomes 9.1.
Inspect hydraulic cylinder for external leaks.

Associates hydraulic cylinder leak with probable cause.
Hydraulic cylinders convert fluid flowing under pressure to linear motion. This is how the cylinder moves
the load. Fluid from the pump is routed to the cylinder by the directional control valve, which causes it to extend
and retract.
If a hydraulic cylinder has the rod extending from one end it is called a single rod cylinder. The end with
the rod sticking out is called the rod end or head end, while the end without a cylinder rod is called the blind end
or cap end.
Mobile hydraulic applications use both single-acting and double-acting cylinders to move loads. Single-acting,
single end rod cylinders move the load by pumping fluid under pressure only in one direction, and use the load
to return the cylinder rod to its original position by gravity or the force of the load acting on the cylinder.
Single-acting cylinders can act on the load by extending or retracting. That is, fluid under pressure can be piped
either to the rod end or the cap end to move the load, and the other port is open to atmosphere, usually with a
filter arrangement to prevent contaminants from entering the cylinder. A three-way valve is used to alternately
direct pressurized fluid to the pressure port of the cylinder and then exhaust the pressure port of the cylinder.
Double-acting cylinders extend and retract the load by alternately receiving pressurized fluid at one side of
the piston and then at the other, inside the cylinder. Fluid is piped to the cap end to extend the cylinder, and to
the rod end to retract the cylinder. A four-way valve is used to direct the fluid to alternately pressurize one end
of the cylinder, while exhausting the opposite end.
Cylinders develop external leaks at a number of places, including the pressure ports, dynamic rod seal,
static rod bearing seal, and cylinder barrel at each end. Some slight leakage is expected at the rod seal as the rod
moves in and out, because this is a dynamic seal, but no leakage should be detected at the cylinder ports, the rod
cartridge seal where it seats in the head end of the cylinder, or cylinder barrel seals, because these are static seals.
Review: 9.1.
Which one of the following is a dynamic seal on a single-acting hydraulic cylinder?
a.
Vent port.
b.
Rod bearing.
c.
Rod seal.
d.
Pressure port.
e.
Cylinder barrel.
Maintenance
Task 10.0.
Outcomes 10.1.
Inspect directional control valves for external leaks

(See also Task 29.0).
Associates directional valve leaks with probable cause.
Three-way and four-way mobile hydraulic multi-spool directional control valves are available as one piece
units, consisting of a single casting with multiple spools; and as modular units, consisting of multiple segments
held together with through bolts. Segmented valves are commonly called "stack valves." Both types of valves
can develop leaks at the fittings and at one or both ends of the close fitting spools. Fittings commonly use S.A.E.
O-ring seals, whereas the seal at the ends of the spools could be an O-ring or a square cut ring. Special function
valves like the pressure relief and load check use an O-ring boss seal. All the seals are replaceable.
It is sometimes difficult to identify the
source of the leak in a stack valve because
the leak attracts dust and dirt that both
cover up and spread the oil stain. Of course
if the leak washes down the side of the
valve, then tracing the clean path will lead
to the leak. Because there may be more
than one leak, it is recommended that the
whole valve be cleaned and then wiped dry
before cycling the machine to observe the
oil leak.
Working segments
A second problem that must be considered
Outlet segment
is that if one seal is leaking, should all the
Inlet segment
(Equipped with pilot operseals be replaced. It is easier to justify
ated relief valve)
replacing single seals at fittings and lines
Fig. 12. Multi-spool directional control valve seals.
than seals in the valve, particularly if the
valve must be removed and disassembled. Of course replacing all seals between the segments in stack valves is
a must, because the segments are disturbed when the valve is taken apart.
Replacing single spool seals in a valve like that shown in Fig. 12. is justified because the seals are easy to
get to and the valve does not have to be removed and disassembled. Moreover, downtime will be relatively short
if one or two spool seals are replaced. This is an important consideration when the machine must be returned to
service after routine maintenance.
Review 10.1.
What should the mechanic expect to find if there is a
fluid leak from a stack valve like that shown in Fig. 12.
where the spool protrudes to connect to the operating
handle?
a. Bent valve spool.
b. Leaking spool seal.
c. Broken valve spool.
d. Stuck directional control valve.
e. Cylinder that drifts holding a load.
Maintenance
Task 11.0.
Outcome 11.1.
Check rod seals and packings for wear.

Associates seal and packing wear with age and normal
usage abuse, nicks or burrs on the rod, bearing wear, and
improper adjustment (in the case of adjustable packings).
The rod seal is called a dynamic seal because of the relative movement between the rod and the sealing
surface. After continued use, slight leakage may show as a droplet on the low side of the cylinder head. The
leak should not drip, however. The rod bearing that holds the rod seal may also leak at the static seal around the
outside of the gland, but the gland seal should not leak because it is a static seal. When a cylinder leaks at the
rod end, be sure to determine if the dynamic rod seal or the static rod bearing seal is the problem.
Cylinder rod seals are available as non-adjustable or packing gland types. Excessive leakage at a non-adjustable
rod seal is repaired by changing out the rod seal. Leakage at a packing gland can normally be stopped by tightening
the gland nut. Over tightening the gland nut in an effort to stop the rod leak can damage the cylinder by starving
the rod seal of lubrication, causing it to run dry and score the rod. In severe cases, over tightening the gland nut
will seize the cylinder or crack the gland. After the packing gland has been adjusted several times, it will be
necessary to change out the packing. Inspect the cylinder rod for nicks, scratches, and burrs. Cylinder rod leaks
occur from normal wear and aging of the seal, but they also occur because of side loading which wears the rod
bearing, and from nicks, scratches, burrs, and other damage to the cylinder caused by operator abuse. Cylinder
rod damage will occur if the rod comes into contact with another hard surface, such as rocks and metal. The rod
seal will not seal across a scratch or dent, and in addition, continued use without removing the imperfection will
cause the seal to fail. This will increase leakage further, requiring that the cylinder be removed for repair. Small
scratches and dents are commonly removed by filing the high places, and then polishing the rod with crocus cloth.
Hydraulic cylinders also can leak at the barrel seals. This is the place where the barrel is inserted into the
cylinder cap and cylinder head. Cylinder barrel seals are usually O-rings, or square cut rings. Cylinder barrel
seals are static seals. If a leak occurs at a barrel seal, check to be sure that the barrel is tight. Some barrels have
screw on ends, while others have tie-rod bolts. In either case, the attachment must be tight to prevent seal movement
which would cause some leakage. If the cylinder is equipped with tie rods, the cap and head end must be in
alignment before tightening the bolts.
Review: 11.1.
Which one of the following will damage the rod seal?
a. Rod burr.
b. Low oil level.
c. Low pressure.
d. Stalled cylinder.
e. Loose cylinder mount.
Maintenance
Task 12.0.
Outcome 12.1.
Inspect pumps and motors for leaks.

Knows that pump and motor leaks can be caused by improperly
torqued bolts, improperly sealed fittings, worn or abraded seals,
misaligned shaft, and cracked housings.
In operation, hydraulic motors differ from hydraulic pumps in that motors are pressurized from an outside
source, and this may require a case drain to protect the seals from being blown out. Figure 13. illustrates the
symbols for three case drain arrangements. On a bi-direction motor, the case drain can be piped directly to the
reservoir, or it can be piped through a cross-over check valve arrangement to the low pressure port. If the motor
is in series, or if the motor is used for a brake, a separate drain or cross-over arrangement is required to keep the
pressure against the case below manufacturer recommendations.
(a) Internal case drain
(b) Reservoir case drain
(c) Crossover check valve case drain
Fig. 13. Hydraulic motor case drain arrangements.
Hydraulic pumps usually do not blow shaft seals or cause them to leak. In fact, under high vacuum conditions,
shaft seals may suck air, in which case the pump could both cavitate and aerate at the same time. Mechanics
report that some gear pumps subjected to high pressures have been known to crack the end housing on the high
pressure side of the gears, causing sufficient flow to be directed against the shaft seal that it is pushed out of the
case. If a gear pump shaft seal leaks with no sign of external damage, the pump should be disassembled to check
for cracks in the end housing.
Both pump and motor end housings use static seals to prevent leakage. O-ring type seals are common. If
the case leaks, and the bolts are already tight, over torquing them won't stop the leak. It will only distort the
case. The seals will have to be replaced.
Review: 12.1.
What might cause a gear pump to pressurize the shaft
seal?
a. Plugged case drain.
b. Cracked end housing.
c. Over torqued housing bolts.
d. Worn bearing on the pump shaft.
e. Restriction at the pump outlet.
Maintenance
Task 13.0.
Outcome 13.1.
Outcome 13.2.
Outcome 13.3.
Adjust hydraulic packing gland.

Knows that the lip seal on a Chevron V-packing gland faces the
pressure.
Knows that an under-tightened Chevron V-packing will leak, and
that an over-tightened Chevron packing will remove lubricating
oil from the cylinder rod and wear prematurely, or even lock up
the cylinder rod.
Knows that Chevron V-packing lubrication is provided by
controlled leakage.
Chevron packings are V-seals arranged into a packing of three to seven stacked seals, with the maximum
number determined by the pressure, temperature and operating conditions. The lips on a V-packing seal face the
pressure.
V-seals are installed with the open side, or lip, facing system pressure. This allows the fluid under pressure
to push the lip against the mating surface to form a tight seal. In cylinder rod packings, the Vee faces in toward
the piston. On cylinder piston seal installations where pressure is exerted in both directions, such as a double-acting
cylinder, opposing sets of packings would be installed so that the sealing lips face away from each other. This
means that the lips would face the cylinder ports. A V-packing installation is shown in Fig. 14.
When split seals are used to make up the V-packing, stagger adjacent pairs of split ring joints alternately 180
degrees. The third ring joint should be 90 degrees from the first two, and the fourth ring 180 degrees, and so on.
V-packing
Pressure
Pressure
Fig. 14. V-packing installation.
Common materials used for V-packings include impregnated and treated leather, rubber, and asbestos. The
major advantage of this seal arrangement is that dissimilar but compatible seals of different materials may be
used in combination to provide the best available pressure,wear, and friction service characteristics. Because the
seal is in a stack, adjustment can be made by fitting the gland with an adjustable adapter to compress the
V-packing to compensate for wear. The common arrangements to adjust Vee-packings are by bolts or threaded
gland nuts. When bolts are used, it is common to install shims under the adapter so that the nuts can be run down
Maintenance
tight, pulling the adapter against the gland. When adjustments are made, shims are removed, one at a time, until
the proper fit is achieved. If the V-packing is adjusted with a threaded gland nut, the nut is run in until the stack
is set firmly, but not squeezed. Then loosen the gland nut not more than one sixth turn. The final check is to see
if the packing gland does not leak during operation. If it leaks, and proper tightening does not stop the leak, the
problem is not with the adjustment but with the packing itself, which must be replaced.
To eliminate human error in making adjustments, some Vee-packings are equipped with compression springs
that are inserted behind the packing to apply the correct pre-load force to the packing. The head of the packing
gland is installed and tightened flush with the gland. If the gland leaks, the V-packing is replaced.
Tightening a V-packing should be viewed as a serious task. Remember that the seal is lubricated by controlled
leakage, even though it is very slight. If the packing is too loose, leakage is excessive, but no damage is done
to the cylinder rod. However, if the packing is adjusted too tight, the leakage stops, the supply of controlled
lubrication stops, friction increases, and the rod can be scored. Mechanics report that in extreme cases, over
tightening the seal can cause the rod to lock up.
Review: 13.1.
Which way should the lips face on a Chevron V-packing installed on a double-acting cylinder piston?
a. Toward the cap end.
b. Toward the head end.
c. Toward each other.
d. Away from each other.
e. Direction is unimportant.
Review: 13.3.
A hydraulic cylinder Chevron V-packing is lubricated
by:
a. port lubrication.
b. graphite packing.
c. controlled leakage.
d. rotating cylinder rod.
e. increased system pressure.
Review: 13.2.
When installing a hydraulic Chevron V-packing, the
first two V-rings are installed with the split ring joints:
a. 45 degrees apart.
b. 90 degrees apart.
c. 120 degrees apart.
d. 180 degrees apart.
e. 360 degrees apart.
Maintenance
Task 14.0.
Outcome 14.1.
Outcome 14.2.
Draw fluid sample from the reservoir.

Knows that hydraulic fluid samples from the reservoir should be
taken near the pump inlet after the system has warmed up.
Identifies the procedure for drawing hydraulic fluid sample from
the reservoir.
A hydraulic oil sample is taken to determine the condition of the fluid. While there is no universal agreement
about where to draw a hydraulic fluid sample, most literature suggests that pressure tap samples are best, followed
by reservoir samples. At the same time a number of sources acknowledge that most hydraulic systems are not
equipped with pressure taps to take such samples. This provides mechanics with the option of using some variation
of NFPA T2.9.9 procedure for extracting fluid samples from the reservoir. The proposed procedure is to take a
sample that will be representative of the fluid in the system. The basic procedure is to syphon a sample from the
reservoir near the pump inlet. The fluid must be at operating temperature and the sample taken while the system
is operating, or shortly thereafter, while contaminants are still in suspension. In no case should the fluid sample
be taken near the bottom of the reservoir, which could introduce water and heavy contaminants, or near the top
surface, which could sample fluid that is not representative of what is passing through the system.
It is important to observe cleanliness procedures while taking the sample. Obtain a proper SAE-recommended
fluid sampling device that incorporates a plastic tube of suitable length, glass sampling bottle, and a syringe suction
device. Remove the access cover to allow taking the sample near the pump inlet. Place a fluid waste container
in position to catch the fluid to be flushed and any fluid that may spill when drawing the sample. Position the
plastic hose from the sampling device into the reservoir fluid near the pump inlet. Flush the sampling tube with
system fluid at least five times by operating the syringe plunger. Now pull up on the syringe plunger to create
a suction that will draw the fluid into the sampling bottle. Repeat the operation until 4-5 oz. of fluid has been
transferred to the sampling bottle.
There are a number of important cautions to observe when taking a sample from the reservoir. Never take a
reservoir sample from a drain tap. The oil sample will be contaminated. Before removing the access cover from
the reservoir, clean the area around it. As a rule of thumb, samples should be taken at least 6 inches from any
inside surface, and near the center of the reservoir if possible, to ensure that the fluid is representative. A fluid
sample taken from the top of the reservoir will not be as representative as a sample taken from the center of the
reservoir. Sludge, contaminants, and water collect on the bottom of the reservoir, and a fluid sample taken from
there will not be representative because it will give the impression that the circulating fluid is in worse condition
than it really is. Oil samples collected near the bottom of the reservoir are also more likely to contain water.
Large particles are usually caught by the filter or settle out. If the sample contains sludge or large particles in
the 50-100 micron range, it is likely an error was made in the sampling procedure.
To complete the operation, remove the sampling device cap from the sample bottle, and replace it with the
standard cap that came with the sample bottle. Record the data on the label, and place the label on the sample
bottle.
Replace the cover on the reservoir and dispose of unused fluid in a waste container. Never return fluid drawn
out during sampling to the reservoir. Return the remaining parts of the fluid sampling device to the proper storage
location. Finally, send the sample bottle to the lab promptly for analysis.
Maintenance
Review: 14.1.
What would cause a hydraulic oil sample taken from
the reservoir to contain large particles in the 50-100
micron range?
a. Pump failure.
b. Filter bypass.
c. Fluid agitation.
d. Sampling error.
e. Sediment build-up.
Review: 14.2.
A hydraulic system is brought to operating temperature
before a sample is taken so that the oil:
a. flows easier.
b. changes composition.
c. circulates through the filter.
d. releases heavy metal particles.
e. contains average contamination.
Maintenance
Task 15.0.
Outcome 15.1.
Outcome 15.2.
Outcome 15.3.
Outcome 15.4.
Outcome 15.5.
Tube flaring.
Associates flare tube sizes with outside tube diameter.
Associates dash number with 1/16th inch O.D. sizes of tubing
and fittings.
Identifies mating surfaces that seal a tube flare.
Knows that if the flare is too long it will interfere with the nut,
and if it is too short, it may pull out of the sleeve when the
fitting is pressurized.
Associates common faults in flares (short or long flare, thick
or thin flare, off center flare, burred flare, and necked tube),
with fabrication errors.
There are many types of rigid tube fittings: flared, flareless, and welded or brazed on fittings that seal with
a union type connection. Flared type fittings seal at one area, between the flare at the end of the tube and the
cone. This allows them to be reused without much wear.
Three-piece type
Inverted flare type
Fig. 15. Three piece and two piece flare type fittings.
Flareless type fittings, on the other hand, use a ferrule (compression sleeve around the tube) that either grips
or bites into the outside of the tube. They seal at two areas: between the ferrule and tube, and between the ferrule
and the cone. They are reusable but must be over tightened more each time to maintain the ferrule-to-tube seal.
Welded or brazed fittings typically seal by metal to metal contact, or O-ring contact, between the two parts of
SAE thread union.
Designs of flare fittings include the 37 degree, 45 degree, and inverted and self flare fittings. The 37 degree
fitting is used for pressures above 1000 psi, seals with less tightening torque, and is reusable. Tubing diameters
are usually determined by the port size of components in the system.
The most critical step in making a hydraulic single flare tube fitting is forming the flare. The tube must be
cut square, cleaned free of burrs, measured accurately, and flared without galling, over-thinning, or splitting the
end of the tube.
Proper flaring tools and technique must be used to ensure the proper flaring angle, shape and dimensions. If
the flare extends past the sleeve it will interfere with the threads of the nut when it is assembled. If the flare is
too short, the tube will pull out of the sleeve when the fitting is pressurized. The range of length acceptable is
from the outside diameter of the sleeve to the outside diameter of the sleeve flare. Maximum and minimum flare
length is shown in Fig. 16.
Maintenance
Outside Diameter
of Sleeve
Outside Diameter
of Sleeve Flare
Flare
Flare
Maximum Flare
Minimum Flare
Fig. 16. Maximum and minimum flare length.
Remember that hydraulic tubing is sized by the outside diameter, with the wall thickness specified for a given
pressure rating. The outside diameter is given by the tube dash size, which refers to the outside diameter in
16ths of an inch. For example, a 8 hydraulic tube has an outside diameter of 8/16ths or 1/2 inch, irrespective
of the wall thickness or pressure rating. For a given tube size, the thicker the wall, the higher the pressure rating,
but the more difficult it is to flare because the flaring cone will have a tendency to push the tube through the
holding block, causing the flare to be short. Tube size outside diameters, wall thicknesses, and working pressure
ratings with a safety factor of four are given in a number of references.
Prepare the tubing by making a square cut using either a tube cutter or hacksaw. Debur the cut tubing internally
using a deburring tool and externally using either a fine file or emery cloth.
Clean the tubing end thoroughly using light oil and a lint free shop towel. Ensure that both the inside and
outside of the tube end are clean. A manufacturer recommended solvent may be used instead of light oil. Before
making the flare, install the nut and then the sleeve on the tube with the threaded end of the nut and flared end
of the sleeve facing the end of the tube.
If a split die block flaring tool is used to make the flare, begin the flaring operation by inserting the tube end
into the die block. Hold the tubing so there is about 1/8 inch extending above the die block clamp and tighten
the clamp screws. Remember that the length of the tube extending out of the die block determines the length of
flare made by the tool. Slide the yoke over the die block clamp, and align the tip over the tubing end. Tighten
the feed screw, forcing the tip into the tubing and forcing the tubing into the chamber of the die block clamp.
When the desired flare has been reached, unscrew the feed screw, and remove the yoke from the die block clamp.
Unscrew the die block clamp screws, and open the die block clamp, releasing the tubing. Inspect the tubing flare
for cracks or breaks. If a crack or break is found, the tubing will have to be cut and reflared.
Before assembling the flare fitting, lubricate the surfaces of the nut, sleeve, and body with a manufacturer
recommended heavy lubricant. Tighten the nut first by hand, then with a wrench, for a leak-proof fitting. The
flare nut is tightened with a wrench to manufacturer specifications, while the stationary fitting is held with a
second wrench.
Maintenance
Review: 15.1. A mechanic wishes to determine the
working pressure of a piece of 8 seamless hydraulic
steel tubing. If a table is available that gives the outside diameter, burst pressure and safety factor for the
same type of hydraulic tubing, what additional information would the mechanic need from the piece of tubing?
a. Tube length.
b. Safety factor.
c. Burst pressure.
d. Wall thickness.
e. Outside diameter.
Review: 15.2. A one inch hydraulic steel tube is to be
ordered for a machine. What dash size is this?
a. 8
b. 10
c. 12
d. 14
e. 16
Review: 15.4.
What determines the length of the flare made by a
flaring tool?
a. Length of the sleeve.
b. Inside diameter of the nut.
c. Outside diameter of the nut.
d. Clamping force on the die block.
e. Tube extension out of the die block.
Review: 15.5.
When hydraulic steel tube is being flared, as wall
thickness increases, the tube has a tendency to:
a. split.
b. neck down.
c. thin out at the flare.
d. slip in the holding block.
e. move the flare off-center.
Review: 15.3.
At how many places does a 37JIC tube assembly seal?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 5
Maintenance
Task 16.0.
Outcome 16.1.
Outcome 16.2.
Inspect cylinder for binding.

Knows that cylinder binding is caused by misalignment of a
single cylinder, or unequal counterbalance load valve pressure
settings when two cylinders are used.
Identifies cylinder wear points caused by side loading (binding
cylinder rods, cylinder rod bearing and seal, rod end eyes, or
other mounting attachments).
Cylinder binding can cause the machine to stall, operate at less than rated load, or break cylinder mountings and
machine members. Typical causes include overloading cylinder mountings and machine members, cylinder misalignment,
cylinders that are over extended, though this is a design problem the mechanic should not see, and side loading.
If two cylinders connected in tandem lift a machine member, for example a crane boom or a loader bucket,
and both cylinders do not receive the same pressure to lift the load, the cylinders will twist the boom or bucket
frame and bind. This is most likely to occur if the cylinders are equipped with counterbalance valves that
prevent the load from dropping, and both counterbalance valves are not set at the same pressure.
Misalignment of two cylinders that receive fluid from a common source can occur also if the load is not
equally distributed to each cylinder. On a garbage truck, for example, if two cylinders that compact the load
from each side of the body unit encounter a non-compactible object (car engine) on one side, the sweep blade
will be twisted as the side under load stops and the side without a load moves forward. A problem of this type
is aggravated if the relief valve pressure has been increased in an effort to compact bigger loads. In severe cases,
the cylinders will break loose or damage the compactor body.
Misalignment of a cylinder occurs when the load is not applied along the center line of the rod. During extension,
misaligned cylinders tend to cock, bind, seize, wear, and leak, particularly near the end of the stroke when the
cylinder is fully extended. Overloaded cylinders are more likely to become misaligned during normal operation. Long
cylinders have a tendency to become misaligned because they sag. This requires that the head end of the cylinder as
well as the rod itself be provided additional support that is spaced out as the rod extends from the cylinder.
Ladder trucks and other equipment that extend booms with long stroke cylinders require this type of additional support.
During extension, a misaligned cylinder can bend the rod because of side thrusts. Conversely, a cylinder with a
bent cylinder rod will also misalign itself because the force is not exerted on the center line of the rod. If the rod is
misaligned, it will have a tendency to bend as the rod extends. Another condition that may cause the cylinder rod to bend
is lack of lubrication at the rod eye, which can cause the rod eye to seize at the pin. When the pin turns as the cylinder
is extended, it can bend the rod next to the eye, and cause it to break. This, basically, is a lubrication maintenance
problem. Whatever the cause of misalignment, side loading will wear the rod bearing in the head end of the cylinder
out of round, causing the cylinder to leak at the rod seal. This is not a normal wear condition for a cylinder.
Review: 16.1.
Under which condition would a side-loaded cylinder
show the most misalignment?
Position
Stroke
a. Retracted
no load.
b. Mid-stroke
extending.
c. Mid-stroke
retracting.
d. End of stroke extending.
e. End of stroke retracting.
Review: 16.2.
If cylinder rod eye seizes at the pin for lack of lubrication,
continued operation can:
a. bend the rod.
b. overload the cylinder.
c. reduce operating speed.
d. cause the rod seal to leak.
e. cause the system to over heat.
Maintenance
Task 17.0.
Outcome 17.1.
Outcome 17.2.
Outcome 17.3.
Outcome 17.4.
Make up a tube assembly.

Knows that hydraulic tubing makes a neater, more compact
installation than pipe, and is less likely to leak, particularly
after reassembly.
Identifies the parts of a tube assembly (nut, sleeve, length of
flare, thickness of flare, diameter of the tube).
Identifies most common flare angle for hydraulic tubing.
Computes standard bending radius for a hydraulic tube from
the formula:
Tube Standard Bend Radiusin = 3xTube Outside Diameterin (Eq. 2)
It is common practice to make up a hydraulic tube assembly to replace threaded pipe. Threaded pipe systems
leak more often than tubing assemblies, in part because there are several more joints in each assembly, and in
part because 37 degree flare tube joints are better able to withstand machine vibration without leaking than
tapered pipe thread joints. There are a number of other reasons why pipe assemblies are often replaced by tubing:
Tubing causes less turbulence, it has reduced weight and fits into a smaller space, it is more flexible, has fewer
fittings, makes tighter joints, has a better appearance, cleaner fabrication, easier assembly and reassembly, and
requires less maintenance, but stopping leaks is the main reason.
Bendable tubing needs fewer fittings and no threading is required. Because tubes are aligned with the center
line of the fittings and not twisted during installation, there is less distortion, strain, or stress in the assembly. To
prevent damage to tubing during installation, runs are designed to follow the contour of the equipment in the
system. Tubing is bent whenever possible to reduce the number of fittings used in a tube assembly. After the
tube assembly is mounted, brackets or clamps are used to support long runs, or at places where the tube can
vibrate or become chafed or torn loose during operation.
In a typical installation, piping is removed, starting with the union. Then the terminal fittings are screwed
into the machine at each end of the new tube installation. The mechanic then makes up an isometric drawing
showing the various lengths. Measure the tubing line along each segment and radius bend, and record these
measurements on the drawing. Remember that dimensions are taken to the center of the bends. Next the bending
radius for each bend is determined and noted on the isometric drawing. Cut the tubing to the dimensions on the
drawing, allowing some extra length, and debur one end.
There are two ways to measure and bend tubing: The first is to take all measurements from one end, and
then to make all the bends. The second is to take the measurements and make the bends, one at a time. The second
method is called the measure-bend method.
The most common angle for medium pressure hydraulic steel tubing is 37. A three piece fitting is used for
a cone flare fitting: Tube, sleeve and nut. The sleeve allows clearance between the nut and tube, aligns the flare
seat, acts as a lock washer, supports the tube, and dampens vibration. The nut turns on the sleeve which is
stationary with the tube, reducing the tendency for the nut to twist the tube. An inverted type JIC 37 flare fitting
is a two piece fitting consisting of the inverted flare nut and tube. There is a tendency for the nut to turn the tube
when the flare is seated in the inverted flare type fitting.
Air, refrigeration, and automotive service commonly use JIC 45 flare fittings. This is a two piece fitting
consisting of the nut and tube. Since the nut turns on the flare as the tube is pulled down tight over the cone,
there is a tendency for the nut to twist the tube.
Maintenance
Hydraulic tube is bent with a tube bender. Tube benders are available for a single size tube, or for multiple
size tubes. For example, a fixed radius hand held tube bender made for 3/8th inch tubing will bend only 3/8th
inch tubing properly. Bench mounted tube benders made for various sizes have interchangeable die blocks and
adjustable clamps that are suitable for a range of sizes, for example 5/8th inch to 7/8th inch tubing. A tube bender
made to bend seamless, mild steel, tubing is also suitable to bend soft copper and aluminum alloy tubing.
The standard bending radius is determined from the radius of the tube.
Each hydraulic tube has a standard bending radius to which the tube can be
bent without flattening, kinking, or wrinkling the bend. The rule of thumb
for standard bending radius is given by Eq. 2. Also notice in Fig. 17. that the
standard bend radius is measured to the centerline of the tube, rather than to
the outside of the tube on the inside radius as is done with hydraulic hose.
(Eq. 2)
Tube Standard Bend Radius in = 3 x Tube Outside Diameter in

TSBR = 3 x TOD
To give some idea about how short the bend can be, consider that if the
standard bend radius is three times the outside diameter of the tube, six tubes
could be laid between the center lines of the tubing in a 180 bend.
Fig. 17. Standard tube bending radius.
Review 17.1.
One advantage tubing has over pipe assemblies is that
it:
a. Is heavier.
b. Cap has more joints.
c. Is more rigid.
d. Is less likely to vibrate.
e. Is easier to reassemble.
Review 17.3.
The most common flare angle for air and refrigeration
tubing is:
a. JIC 30 flare.
b. JIC 37 flare.
c. JIC 45 flare.
d. JIC 60 flare.
e. JIC 75 flare.
Review: 17.2.
Which part in Fig. 17. prevents the tube from twisting?
a. Nut.
b. Sleeve.
c. Cone fitting.
d. Inverted nut fitting.
e. Inverted cone fitting.
Review: 17.4.
What is the distance between the centerlines of a 3/4
inch tube bent to 180 using the standard bending
radius, like that shown in Fig. 17?
a. 1-1/2
b. 1-3/4
c. 2-1/4
d. 3-3/4
e. 4-1/2
Maintenance
Task 18.0.
Outcome 18.1.
Test petroleum fluid for water. Also see Task 7.0.

Identifies symptoms of water in a petroleum base fluid.
Two major causes of hydraulic fluid degradation are water and contamination. Oxidation, a condition caused
by overheating the hydraulic fluid, is a third but less severe cause than water and contamination. Each cause of
degradation leaves tell-tale signs in the fluid. Water, depending upon the amount, causes the fluid to be hazy or
milky. Contamination increases the viscosity and acid number. Oxidation discolors the hydraulic oil, making it
darker. Varnish deposits also show up on valve spools and close fitting pistons.
Early detection is the key to solving water and contamination problems. Laboratory analysis is necessary to
identify the exact type and concentration of contaminants, but inspection at the site and a few simple tests can
identify the warning signs of water.
The presence of water in hydraulic fluid accelerates fluid oxidation, loss of anti-wear protection, and corrosion.
When the fluid is heated, the water combines with the air to oxidize the base stock. It also changes the composition
of rust inhibitors and viscosity improvers to form slimes and sludges. A petroleum base hydraulic fluid will usually
absorb 1 percent water, and a good warning level is 0.2 percent (2 parts per thousand or 200 ppm). Dissolved
water in hydraulic fluid cannot be seen in amounts less than the saturation point. The oil retains its color. In
amounts greater than the saturation point, the fluid takes on a hazy to milky look. This indicates that the water
has emulsified in the fluid. When there is more water present than the fluid can emulsify, or when it is allowed
to settle out, the water phase will emerge as free water at the bottom or top of the reservoir, depending upon the
specific gravity of the fluid. If petroleum base fluid is used, the specific gravity will be less than 1, and the water will
collect at the bottom when the machine is off and left standing. If a synthetic fluid is used with a specific gravity
greater than 1, the water will settle out on top of the fluid in the reservoir when the machine is off and left standing.
Water in concentrations of 50 to 100 parts per million can reduce the life of components as much as 50 percent.
Water also neutralizes the anti-wear protection of additives, causing wear from boundary layer breakdown and
contaminants, accelerates silting and component lock-up, etches components and causes pitting. Tests show pitting
and spalling after only 60 percent of rated component life. Free water in the reservoir creates rust particles that
circulate in the system, causing further damage.
A desiccant breather can prevent water from entering the reservoir with incoming air. The breather removes
both moisture and contamination from air as it enters the reservoir. Water can also be removed by gravity
separation, centrifugal separation, by coalescing separation, vacuum dehydration, desiccant absorption, and
super absorbent elements. Water absorbing filters use a polymer consisting of a starch-based molecule in powder
form that can absorb between 100 and 1000 times its weight in water. The polymer combines with the water to
form a gel. Water absorbent filters have a higher pressure drop than filters of the same size designed to removed
only solid contaminants.
To examine a hydraulic fluid sample for water, hold it up to the light, and examine it for a hazy appearance.
This would indicate the presence of water. Then perform the crackle test. AS A SAFETY PRECAUTION,
FACE PROTECTION MUST BE WORN. Place drops of the fluid sample on a 375 degree F. hotplate surface.
Listen for the crackling or popping sound of water vaporizing. This will indicate the presence of water in the
sample. If 0.1 percent or more of water is present in an oil sample, fine droplets of water will be readily seen
boiling through a film of oil to the surface. If no boiling is observed, the oil contains less than 0.1 percent water.
The higher the water content of the oil, the more violent is the boiling action.
Maintenance
Review: 18.1.
Which one of the following would indicate the presence
of water in a petroleum base hydraulic oil?
a. Oil turns dark color.
b. Control valve seizes.
c. Pump becomes noisy.
d. Jerky cylinder operation.
e. Oil has a hazy appearance.
Maintenance
Task 19.0.
Outcome 19.1.
Check reservoir for silt build up.

Knows that sludge, contaminants, and water that collect at the
bottom of the reservoir are removed through the access cover.
The reservoir is the storage place for hydraulic fluid. It supplies fluid to replace system leakage, stores
excess fluid when system volume changes, helps cool the fluid, separates out air, and provides a place where
sludges, slimes, and large particles can settle out. These contaminants come from five main sources: 1) built in,
2) system generated, 3) externally infiltrated, 4) induced, and 5) escaped.
Built in contaminants come with the system. They include dirt, hard particles, weld spatter, and contamination
picked up in the assembly process. Systems are flushed before they are delivered, but contamination may still
be in the reservoir.
System generated contamination includes metal particles from the pump and motors that wear during operation,
and metal and rubber-like material from cylinders. System generated contamination that is not trapped by filters
flows downstream from the component into the reservoir.
Externally infiltrated contamination is pulled into the system during operation. For example, if the cylinder
rods on a backhoe are exposed to the elements, water, mud, and dirt that stick to the rod can be pulled back into
the system when the cylinder retracts the rod. Notice that this is on a pressure stroke. When the rod extends the
next time, contaminants that have been pulled into the system are returned to the reservoir with the low pressure oil,
if they are not trapped by a filter. Another way to infiltrate contamination is through the breather on the reservoir. As
cylinders are extended, the fluid level drops and is replaced by air which may be moist and contain airborne particles. These are added to the fluid and, if they are not drawn into the pump inlet, settle to the bottom of the
reservoir. The best way to prevent this condition is to fit the reservoir with a filler cap filter that both filters the
air and traps moisture.
Induced contamination is put into the system, usually through the reservoir fill cap on vented reservoirs.
Often, it is added with the make-up fluid by the operator or maintenance mechanic. Sometimes, large particle
contamination as well as nuts and bolts are found in the reservoir, which could only have been dropped in the
reservoir, either by accident or on purpose. A major objective of preventive maintenance should be to eliminate
induced contamination. This is done by sealing the reservoir and adding fluid through a special fitting, and
enforcing procedures that reduce contamination when fluid is added to a vented reservoir, including filtering the
new oil and allowing only authorized personnel to add fluid to the system.
Escaped contaminants include trapped particles and silt in pressure line filters that are set free and migrate
down stream in the system by pressure surges, as well as other particulates that are jarred loose from the inside
of fluid pipes and tubing. Pressure shocks in systems that have pressure line filters located down stream of the
pump can cause the filter to release bursts of particles into the fluid stream as shock waves propagate through
the system. The same is true when shock waves rattle pipes and tubing, causing particles to be released from
joints and crevices inside the conductor wall joints into the fluid stream.
Contaminants mix with moisture to form sludges and slimes that lay in the bottom of the reservoir. To clean
the reservoir, the system is turned off and all pressure is relieved by lowering all vertical loads, discharging
accumulators, and blocking any load that could generate pressure or injure personnel.
Maintenance
Pump the fluid out of the reservoir into a drum or holding tank. Remove the drain plug from the bottom of
the reservoir, and allow the remainder of the fluid to drain into a catch pan. Leave the drain plug out until the
reservoir has been cleaned. Clean the exterior of the inspection cover using solvent and lint free shop towels.
Remove the end cover using appropriate tools, and place the cover on a clean work surface, reservoir side up.
Remove the old gasket from the mating surface and, if needed, use a square ground gasket scraper to remove any
gasket material or sealing compound residue. Wipe the inside of the reservoir with waste rags to mop up the
sludge. Solvent may be needed to flush loose contamination in the bottom of the reservoir. This will exit the
reservoir through the drain into the catch pan. Inspect the inside of the reservoir using a light to be sure it has
been thoroughly cleaned. Then, install and torque the drain plug.
Install the new gasket onto the end cover. Align the cover with the bolt holes, and place the cover against
the reservoir. Install the bolts in the mounting holes hand tight. Use a tightening sequence to secure opposite
bolts on the cover. Repeat this alternating sequence, moving from side-to-side and top-to-bottom until all
mounting bolts have been torqued to specifications. Finally, refill the reservoir, warm up the machine, and check
for fluid leaks.
Review: 19.1.
What would cause sludges and slimes to build up in the
reservoir?
a. Overloading.
b. Failed pump.
c. Wrong filters.
d. Normal operation.
e. Lack of proper maintenance.
Maintenance
Task 20.0.
Charge a hydropneumatic accumulator.
Outcome 20.1. Identifies appropriate and unsafe gases to charge an accumulator.
Outcome 20.2. Identifies common problems caused by under charged and over
charged accumulators.
Both piston and bladder type accumulators are used on mobile hydraulic applications, but the bladder type
is the most common. For example, some wheel tractors use a bladder type accumulator to provide emergency
power to operate the power steering and to operate the brakes in case of engine failure. Bladder type accumulators are
used to cushion loads on some fork lifts. A number of bucket trucks have used a bladder type accumulator and fixed
displacement pump in a closed center unloading circuit to provide the operating characteristics of a variable displacement, pressure compensated system.
Bladder and piston type accumulators are shown in Figure 18. The bladder type has a thick membrane bladder
inside a steel shell to separate the precharge gas from the hydraulic fluid. The piston type has a piston that slides
inside a precision bore. O-rings provide a gas tight seal around the piston to separate the precharge gas from the
hydraulic fluid.
Charging valve
Charging valve
Gas cap
Shell
Body
Bladder
Poppet
Spring
Piston
Hydraulic cap
Figure 18. Bladder and piston type accumulators.
Occasionally, the precharge of an accumulator becomes low and must be reset. This requires checking the
accumulator for internal and external leaks, and then recharging the accumulator with dry nitrogen. If the bladder is
found to be leaking, the accumulator must be repaired or replaced. If the accumulator shows dents or obvious
damage, it must be replaced.
A bladder type accumulator consists of a metal shell to contain the bladder under pressure, the bladder which
is charged with dry nitrogen, a foot valve in the bottom of the accumulator to prevent the bladder from extruding out of the accumulator and rupturing, and a gas valve, that may look like an automotive type Schrader valve. Most
manufacturers use an ISO 4570-8VI Stile Valve. The valve is used to charge the accumulator and release gas when
necessary. NEVER USE AUTOMOBILE TIRE VALVE CORES IN ACCUMULATORS. THEY ARE
RATED FOR LOW PRESSURE ONLY AND CAN CAUSE SERIOUS INJURY WHEN THEY FAIL.
Maintenance
The precharge pressure of an accumulator is the pressure reading in the bladder when the accumulator is
empty of fluid. If the precharge pressure is low, system operation will be sluggish if the accumulator is used for
system operation. Low precharge in accumulators used for surge protection will allow a system with high system shocks to knock and make noise. If the precharge pressure in a bladder type accumulator is high, because
the accumulator was precharged to a higher pressure than manufacturer specifications, the bladder may fail.
Under normal operation, the bladder is compressed in the shell by hydraulic oil, and only expands to rest against
the poppet valve in the bottom of the accumulator when the system is off. Higher than specified precharge pressures can cause the bladder to pound against the poppet valve in the bottom of the accumulator when system pressure drops, but is still within the operating range of the machine. This will make the bladder fail where it is pushed
against the foot valve.
There are a number of safety precautions that must be observed when charging accumulators. Safety goggles must
be worn, external leaks must be stopped before charging the accumulator, and the precharge gas must be released
before the charging operation begins. If there is fluid in the precharge gas in a bladder type accumulator, the bladder
is either passing fluid through the bladder membrane or has a leak. If the bladder is leaking, it must be replaced
before recharging. If there is fluid in the precharge gas in a piston type accumulator, the piston seal between the
charge gas and system fluid is leaking.
To charge the accumulator, lower all movable machine members, block those that could lower and injure personnel, turn off the machine and exhaust all hydraulic fluid from the accumulator by relieving the pressure from
the system.
Connect the charge hose to the pressure regulator on the nitrogen cylinder. Any inert gas can be used, however nitrogen is preferred. The charging assembly must have CGA 580 bottle fittings and be compatible with the
accumulator gas valve. Gas valves will vary with accumulator manufacturer and for pressures over 3000 psi.
CAUTION: NEVER USE OXYGEN TO CHARGE AN ACCUMULATOR. OXYGEN SUPPORTS
COMBUSTION AND COULD CAUSE AN EXPLOSION.
With the charging hose attached between the nitrogen tank and the accumulator charge valve, turn
the core opening handle in to depress the gas valve. Now open the nitrogen tank pressure regulator valve slightly to precharge the accumulator to about 10 psi before completely tightening the valve stem nut. Inflate the accumulator to the specified precharge pressure by SLOWLY opening the pressure regulator valve on the nitrogen
cylinder. After the accumulator has been charged, close the pressure regulator valve on the nitrogen cylinder
securely. The bleed valve can be used to bleed off excess pressure in the accumulator. Remove the hose and charge
valve assembly from the accumulator and install a tag on the accumulator noting the date and precharge pressure. Finally, be sure to install the charge valve protection cap.
Review: 20.1.
Oxygen must not used to charge a hydraulic
accumulator because it:
a. Is too expensive.
b. Contaminates the fluid.
c. Could cause an explosion.
d. Will leak through the bladder.
e. Has the wrong expansion characteristics.
Review: 20.2.
What would cause oil to come out of the gas valve
when the precharge gas is released from a bladder
type accumulator?
a. Bladder leaks.
b. Operation is normal.
b. Accumulator is over charged.
d. Hydraulic pressure was not released.
e. Foot valve in the accumulator is stuck open.
Field Repairs
Field Repairs
Field repairs involves the ability to fix inoperable machinery at the work site. Tasks include changing hoses;
verifying operating and relief valve pressures; checking cylinder alignment and mountings; replacing hydraulic
cylinders, and checking the operation of directional control valve solenoids.
Task 21.0.
Outcome 21.1.
Outcome 21.2.
Outcome 21.3.
Outcome 21.4.
Outcome 21.5.
Replace a hose assembly. (See also Task 4.0)

Knows that less than minimum bends, particularly at the
hose/fitting junction, can cause reduced hose life.
Knows to replace a hose when any of the following conditions
exist: fitting slippage on the hose; damaged, cut or abraded
cover (any reinforcement exposed); hard, stiff, heat cracked, or
charred hose; cracked, damaged, or badly eroded fittings; leaks
at fitting or in hose; kinked, crushed, flattened or twisted hose;
and blistered, soft, degraded, or loose cover.
Knows to tighten, repair, or replace a hose assembly as
required by the following conditions: leaking port connections;
excess dirt build-up caused by seepage; and missing clamps,
guards, or shields.
Distinguishes between hose installation terms: minimum bend
radius, twist angle and orientation, securement, proper
connection of ports, external damage, and system checkout.
Applies common characteristics of hydraulic hose to hose
installations (pressure, temperature, bend radius, fluid
compatibility, and conductivity).
Hoses are replaced when they fail or have become unsafe for continued use. A typical hose failure occurs
when the hose ruptures under pressure, disabling the machine and, in some instances, creating a spill. Hoses
break for other reasons. In some cases a hose is torn loose from a machine after catching on something during
movement in the work cycle. Less common is a low pressure hose failure, for example, a hose connected to the
inlet of a pump that can fail by collapsing.
Hoses that are bent more than the standard radius fail at the outside of the bend. If the bend enters a swaged
or crimped fitting, the hose will fail at the outside of the bend where the hose enters the fitting. It is difficult to
detect damage at a bend until the hose ruptures, because the outside of the wire reinforced hose may appear to
be smooth, even if the inner tube is kinked. This is why it is important to measure the radius of the bend to be
sure that it is greater than the minimum dimension. Also remember that the radius is measured from the center
of the bend to the inside of the hose, rather than to the center line as is the case with hydraulic tubing.
Even with proper selection and installation, hose must be replaced periodically because the risk potential of
a hose failure cannot be taken. This means that hoses must be inspected visually at frequent enough intervals
to identify hose problems so that they can be changed before they fail, causing down time, damage, or personal
injury.
Hoses should be changed if there are leaks at the fittings, or in the hose. If the fitting has slipped on the hose,
failure is likely to occur. Also inspect for damaged, cut or abraded covers which can expose the reinforcement
to deterioration. Check the hose ends for cracked, damaged, or badly eroded fittings. Look for installation errors
Field Repairs
to be sure the hose is not kinked, crushed, flattened, or twisted. Remember that a twisted hose has a torque
applied to the inner tube, reinforcement layer, and cover, and that this will shorten the life of the hose. Finally,
check to see if the hose cover is blistered, soft, or degraded. Blistered hose could be caused by heat. Soft hose
is an indication the fluid is not compatible with the material in the hose. A loose cover indicates the hose is failing
from aging, incompatible fluid, over pressure, or pin hole leaks that are blistering the hose.
Replacement intervals for hose take into account the specific application and type of service life of the hose.
Applications that expose the hose to adverse weather, high temperatures, high pressures and shocks, and rough
service require more frequent replacement. Some manufacturers identify the production date on the hose, and
this can be used to determine the number of years in service. If a hose on a machine fails, it is common practice to
replace other hoses on the machine of the same age that withstand the same pressure and duty cycles. If
repeated failures occur, have the machine checked by factory personnel to be sure the hose specified is properly
rated for the installation.
Hoses and fittings are also visually inspected for leaking port connections, excess dirt buildup, missing
clamps, guards and shields. These conditions are not as serious as fitting slippage, damaged reinforcement layer,
and cracked or damaged fittings, but they must be given attention at the next maintenance interval.
A leak at a port connection is commonly caused by a leaking O-ring seal at an SAE recess boss connection.
As the O-ring seal becomes hard and deteriorates, the leak will increase, causing loss of fluid, an oil soaked
machine in that area, and a hazardous condition for personnel.
Any hydraulic oil leak, no matter how small, will spread fluid over the surface of the hoses and machine in
that area, causing dirt to accumulate and build up on the machine. On a stack valve with three segments, for
example, a slight leak will cause dirt to accumulate over the whole valve and eight hoses that connect to it. If
the volume of the leak is not great enough to wash the valve in the area of the leak, the exact location of the leak
can be found only by cleaning the whole area.
Clamps, guards, and shields may be necessary to restrain the hose from contact with other machine components,
to guide the hose through machine members, or to protect it against chafing, or flexing under pressure. Here it
is important to remember that the securement must not cause stress to the hose, or wear at the place where it is
clamped.
Minimum bend radius is measured from the center of a circle around which the hose is bent to the inside of
the hose. The dimension is given in inches. If a hose is bent with a radius smaller than the minimum bend radius,
the life of the hose under operating pressure conditions will likely be significantly shorter than would otherwise
be the case. Adhering to the minimum bending radius rule is particularly important where the hose enters the
fitting at the end. This is where the hose is most likely to kink and fail at the outside radius.
Twist angle and orientation describe how a hose is installed to the machine. The twist angle of a hose is the
amount of twist that a hose has from the lay line that is inscribed along the length of the hose. If a hose has a
twist angle, the hose is torqued and under stress. Orientation has to do with how the hose is attached between
machine members where there is relative movement. If the orientation is correct, relative motion of machine
members will not twist the hose.
The term "securement" describes how the hose is attached to the machine at places along the hose to restrain,
protect, or guide the hose so that it is not damaged by flexing, pressure surges, and contact with other mechanical
Field Repairs
components. It is important that clamps and other restraints do not cause stress or damage to a hose under
working pressure.
Proper connection to ports is necessary during installation to keep from damaging the hose. Typical problems
that are caused by improper connection are twists, side loads, kinking, flattening, thread damage, sealing surface
damage, and installing the hose in a place where the cover will be worn or abraded. To prevent torquing the hose
when SAE O-ring connections are used, two wrenches must be used: one on the fitting, and one on the lock nut.
If the tube is connected at a union, one wrench is used on the fitting, and the other on the swivel connector. Tube
fittings are torqued to specifications, or tightened snug and then turned the prescribed amount. The hose must
be inspected after installation to be sure it was not twisted accidentally. Operating the machine through the work
cycle will determine if hoses have been routed properly to prevent over bending, twisting, and abrasion.
After all hoses have been installed, air must be purged from the system by operating the control valve to
direct fluid through all the lines, and then the machine should be operated at full pressure. This can be dangerous
if a leak should develop. The mechanic must wear eye safety protection and exclude unauthorized personnel
from the area. Of particular interest is the possibility of external damage while the machine operates through the
work cycle, including tensile loads that would pull the hoses tight, side loads on hoses and fittings, kinking,
flattening, routing where abrasion could occur, and possible leaks at all sealing surfaces.
The following characteristics are commonly found in hose specifications:
1. Pressure rating.
2. Temperature rating.
3. Bend radius.
4. Fluid compatibility.
5. Electrical conductivity.
Pressure ratings are given according to hose size and construction. For a given construction, a hose with a
smaller size will have a higher pressure rating. Two ratings are given in most hose tables: Burst pressure and
working pressure.
Burst pressure is the static test pressure at which an actual hose is expected to rupture. Working pressure is
the maximum pressure for which the hose is intended. Working pressure is determined by dividing burst pressure
by the safety factor given for the application, which is usually 4 to 1.
The operating temperature for hose is given as a range between a minimum and maximum temperature. The
operating temperature is determined by the material used to make the hose liner, reinforcement, fabric, and outer
covering. Most hoses are rated for 40 to +200. The best all around hose liner for temperature extremes is
Teflon, with a rating of 100 to +450.
Fluid compatibility with the hose is important to prevent the fluid from attacking the hose liner. Common
lining materials include Buna-N, Neoprene, EPR (ethylene propylene rubber), Teflon, and nylon. Applications
for each fluid and hose material are given in compatibility charts similar to that shown in Fig. 19. Each compound
can be used with particular fluids. For example, Buna-N and Neoprene can be used with common petroleum-base
hydraulic fluids. They are also suitable for use with water glycol and oil in water emulsions. Blended fire resistant
fluids commonly require nylon or Teflon liners. Ethylene propylene rubber hose is more compatible with
straight phosphate esters.
Field Repairs
Buna-N
Neoprene
EPR
Teflon
Nylon
Petroleum-base Oil
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Excellent
Excellent
Water-oil Emulsions
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Excellent
Excellent
Water-glycol Emulsions
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Poor
Good
Good
Good
Phosphate
Fig. 19 Fluid compatibility chart.
While of less concern than fluid compatibility with the liner, the hose cover and fittings are also subject to
attack from weather, heat, some gases, and the fluid, particularly synthetic fire resistant fluids. Electrical
conductivity is a term that describes the ability of a hose to carry a current flow. Some bucket truck applications
require that the hose on the boom, and near and around high voltage wires, must be nonconductive. Caution
should be exercised when selecting hose and fittings for these applications. Where hoses are specified for applications
near high voltage electric lines, only special nonconductive hose can be used, and the manufacturer of the equipment
must be consulted to be certain the hose and fittings that are selected are proper for the application. When hose
is being retro-fitted, for liability reasons, both the manufacturer of the hose, and the manufacturer of the equipment
must approve the hose and fittings for such use.
The specifications for nonconductive hose are covered by a number of standards, including SAE J517. A
typical hose would be an SAE 100R8 thermoplastic elastomer tube, single braid kevlar reinforcement with an
orange nonperforated polyurethane cover. A hose of this type would be used with petroleum base, fire resistant,
and water base fluids, fuel, and lubricating systems. One manufacturer specifies that their nonconductive hose
will be both orange and be marked "nonconductive", to assure that other hose that may look similar will not be
mistaken as being nonconductive. Because moisture tends to lower the nonconductive characteristic of
nonconductive hose, manufacturers specify that end caps must be installed in all hose, including bulk hose as
well as made-up hoses.
Field Repairs
Review: 21.1.
If a one inch 100R1 hydraulic hose with an outside
diameter l-l/2 inches has a minimum bend radius of 12
inches, what is the distance between the outside of a
hose with a 180 bend?
a. 12
b. 15
c. 18
d. 21
e. 27
Review: 21.2.
What would cause a hose covering on an installed hose
to be twisted?
a. Severe heat.
b. High pressures.
c. Installation error.
d. Cover separation.
e. Reinforcement deterioration.
Review: 21.4.
How do you prevent twisting a hose during installation?
a. Use two wrenches to tighten fittings.
b. Secure the hose to the machine first.
c. Always work from one end to the other.
d. Tighten the fitting before installing the
hose.
e. Turn the hose backwards before tightening the
fitting.
Review: 21.5.
Which one of the following has the most effect on the
dielectric strength of nonconductive hose?
a. Pressure.
b. Temperature.
c. Flow velocity.
d. Size of the hose.
e. Moisture content in the hose.
Review: 21.3.
Which one of the following would cause excess dirt to
build up on hoses connected to a stack valve?
a. Seeping leak.
b. Air entrapment.
c. Misaligned hose.
d. High cycle rates.
e. Missing hose guard.
Field Repairs
Task 22.0.
Verify operating pressure with a gauge.
Outcome 22.1. Distinguishes between no load pressure, operating pressure, relief
valve pressure, and reservoir return line pressure.
Outcome 22.2. Identifies places in the circuit where operating pressure can be taken.
The magnitude of the pressure in a hydraulic system varies, depending upon where the pressure reading is
taken and what the system is doing with respect to the load resistance. Most modern systems have pressure taps
just down stream of the pump where a pressure gauge can be installed simply by slipping the gauge over a special fitting. This reads the pressure between the pump and pressure relief valve.
In a typical mobile hydraulic system with a fixed
displacement pump and a through center stack valve like
that shown in Figure 20, the pressure would be only a few
psi when the system is operating in neutral because oil flow
would be from the pump, through the directional control
valve, and back to the reservoir. The pressure in the system
would result from friction losses and the pressure drop across
the return line filter. Shifting the valve to extend the cylinder will generate pressure in the system in proportion to the
load on the actuator. This would be the working pressure.
If the actuator stalled against the load, the pressure would
jump to the setting of the pressure relief valve. This would be
the relief valve pressure for the system.
In a hydraulic system with a pressure compensated
variable displacement pump, and a closed center directional
control valve (Figure 21, the pressure reading would be at
maximum when the control valve is in the center neutral position, because flow from the pump is stopped, and when the
control valve is shifted to power actuator and the actuator
stalls. The flow in both positions would be near zero. A
pressure relief valve may not be required when when the
system has a pressure compensated pump, because the
pressure compensator on the pump serves to limit maxiFigure 20. Pressure reading on a through center circuit.
mum pressure. Many systems have both, with the pressure
relief valve having the highest setting. Pressure compensators on some piston pumps will fail to an on-stroke
condition, thereby necessitating the inclusion of a full flow relief valve in the system.
System pressure results from three main sources:
1. Elevation of the fluid above or below the reservoir.
2. Load on the actuator.
3. Resistance to flow.
The elevation of the fluid above or below the reservoir has the most effect at the inlet to the pump. This is
commonly referred to as the elevation head, or head pressure. If the level of the fluid in the reservoir is below the centerline of the pump inlet, the pump draws a vacuum as fluid is forced by atmospheric pressure into the pump inlet.
Manufacturer specifications for hydraulic pumps commonly limit an inlet vacuum to no greater than 5 to 7 inches of
Field Repairs
mercury. If the level of the fluid in the reservoir is above the
level of the pump, the inlet is flooded under what is called a
positive head. If the fluid has a specific gravity of 1, like
water, the pressure on the inlet resulting from this head is
approximately 0.433 psi for each foot of elevation.
Petroleum base hydraulic oils have a specific gravity in the
range of 0.85 to 0.95, so the pressure is slightly less. Some
fire resistant fluids have a specific gravity up to 1.2, which
would make the pressure slightly more. From the standpoint of maintenance, a positive head virtually eliminates
the problem of having a pump fail from cavitation for lack
of fluid. Because the pump is mounted above the level of
the fluid, the pressure gauge shown in the inlet of the
pump as in Figure 22. will measure a negative pressure in
inches of mercury.
Figure 21. Pressure reading on a pressure compensated circuit.
The load on the actuator generates system operating pressure readings. When the cylinder in Figure 23 extends, a
constant load will generate less pressure than when the cylinder retracts. What this means is there will be two
working pressure levels. A high working pressure
when the cylinder retracts, and a lower pressure level
when the cylinder extends. If we consider a constant
load, and a two to one bore to rod end area ratio cylinder, the pressure with the rod retracting would be
approximately twice the pressure as when the rod was
extending. Notice in Figure 23 that pressure gauge 2 will
measure the working pressure as the cylinder extends
and retracts, but that pressure gauge 3 will measure the
working pressure only when the cylinder retracts.
Figure 22. Vacuum gauge reading at the pump inlet.
In the system shown in Figure 23, when this directional valve is in the neutral position, the pressure in
the system from resistance to flow is associated with
flow friction, rather than either elevation head or work
accomplished by the system. A stack valve on a
through center system directs oil from the pump to the
reservoir when all valves are in the neutral position. This
would be measured by pressure gauge 2 rather than
Field Repairs
pressure gauge 5, because the pressure loss
builds from the reservoir back to the pump.
Pressure gauge 5 is measuring the pressure
drop across the return oil filter in the circuit when the cylinder is actuated.
P4
P5
It is not recommended to crack lines to

determine whether or not pressure is
present.
Never test to atmosphere. For example,
never disconnect the fitting or flanges to
test for the presence flow or pressure.
Lower or block the load and
relieve the hydraulic pressure
before loosening fittings.
P3
P2
P1
Figure 23. Places where pressure readings can be taken.
Review: 22.1.
Review: 22.2.
What has the most effect on system pressure after the Which gauge in Figure 23 would determine the inlet
control valve is shifted to move the actuator?
head pressure (or vacuum) of the pump?
a. Load.
a. P1
b. Flow rate.
b. P2
c. Pump speed.
c. P3
d. Fluid temperature.
d. P4
e. Direction of actuator movement.
e. P5
Field Repairs
Task 23.0.
Outcome 23.1
Outcome 23.2.
Verify relief valve setting (Also see Task 8.0.).

Identifies relief valve setting from manufacturer specifications
(from a paragraph describing operation of the machine).
Identifies ways to produce relief valve pressure in the system.
The main pressure relief valve protects the pump. Circuit relief valves protect individual circuits. For example,
on a loader, the boom circuit may be protected by the main pressure relief valve, while the bucket tilt cylinder
is protected by a circuit relief valve. Circuit relief valves are set higher than the main pressure relief valve by
200-300 psi. Such a circuit was shown in Fig. 10.
The boom circuit is used to lift and lower the bucket. If the bucket is overloaded with the directional control
valve shifted to "lift", oil will flow over the pressure relief valve. The bucket is unlikely to be overloaded if the
boom is in the lifted position already, but if it were, and the directional control valve is in a blocked center position,
the machine will simply be overloaded.
The situation at the bucket tilt cylinder is different. If the bucket were positioned at a 45 angle, and the
machine were operated to ram the bucket into an immovable object with the directional control valve in the center
blocked position, there is the danger that enough force could be exerted against the bucket to damage the boom,
bucket, hoses, or tilt cylinder. Remember that the main pressure relief valve will not see the pressure at the cylinder
because it is on the pump side of the directional control valve, and the valve is in the center non-passing position.
This is where the circuit relief valve protects the components just mentioned. It allows fluid to be directed from
the pressurized side of the cylinder to the reservoir at a pressure setting 200-300 psi above the relief valve
setting. A loader bucket in the rollback position was shown
in Fig. 9.
The pressure setting of the circuit relief valve is higher
than the main pressure relief valve to prevent operation of
the circuit relief valve under normal working conditions.
That is, if the machine is overloaded with the directional
control valve in either the extend or retract position, the
circuit will relieve over the main pressure relief valve.
Thus, the circuit relief valve comes into operation only in an
overload condition, and then, only when the main pressure
relief valve is blocked off from the circuit by the directional control valve.
The common practice to produce relief valve pressure is
by stalling an actuator after the system has come to operating temperature. If the system is cold, the time to bring the
system to operating temperature can be shortened by directing flow across the relief valve. Heat is generated by the
pressure drop as fluid flows across the relief valve, and
since no useful work is done, all the energy is converted to
heat.
To read relief valve pressure, the pressure gauge is tied
into the line between the pump and relief valve. Figure 24
Figure 24. Pressure reading on a through center circuit.
Field Repairs
shows one installation. Remember that the fluid must have a place to go when the restrictor valve is closed to
build pressure in the system. Installing the pressure gauge in the wrong place in a system can damage the system and result in inaccurate relief valve readings.
Review: 23.1.
A hydraulic bucket loader circuit like that shown is
equipped with a main pressure relief valve, bucket rollback circuit relief valve, return line filter with bypass
check valve and boom circuit anti cavitation valves.
Which component could see the highest pressure.
a. Filter.
b. Pump.
c. Cylinders.
d. Reservoir.
e. System relief valve.
Review: 23.2.
If a pressure gauge is installed in the cylinder rod port
to check system relief valve pressure, when the directional
control valve is shifted to extend the rod, the:
a. gauge reading will be high.
b. gauge reading will be low.
c. gauge reading will be correct.
d. pressure will damage the pump.
e. pressure will damage the cylinder.
Field Repairs
Task 24.0.
Replace a hydraulic cylinder.
Outcome 24.1. Distinguishes between proper and improper mounting of hydraulic
cylinders.
Outcome 24.2. Recognizes the procedure to bleed a hydraulic cylinder safely.
Hydraulic cylinders are replaced on mobile equipment when the cylinder fails. They are also exchanged
sometimes between one piece of agricultural equipment and another to save the cost of duplicate cylinders. For
example, a cylinder assembly with hoses attached may be used on a disc, a mower, and a plow.
Removing a hydraulic cylinder similar to that shown in Figure 25 would require removing the clamps which
restrain the hose, uncoupling (disconnecting) the quick disconnects between the hose and tractor, and then removing
the clevis pins at each end of the cylinder. Notice that the cylinder barrel is mounted to the stationary member of
the machine, and that the cylinder rod is mounted to the moving member of the machine. This is done so that the
hoses will not be torn loose as the cylinder extends. Notice in Figure 25 that if the cylinder were installed backwards (with the ends reversed) the cylinder rod would move the cylinder farther away from the tractor and take
the slack out of the hose. On a cylinder with a stroke of 16-20 inches, this could be enough to tear the hoses
loose.
Agricultural cylinders are commonly connected
with quick disconnects that would allow fixing a
reversed cylinder problem quickly, but other types of
mobile equipment cylinders, such as aerial lifts and
boom trucks are often enclosed and installed using
tapered or SAE O-ring fittings. This makes the installation more permanent, and it also increases the possibility of damage to equipment and injury to
personnel should a cylinder that is installed backwards be
operated.
Figure 25. Mobile hydraulic

cylinder installation.
When a hydraulic cylinder is replaced, it must be bled to get the air out of the cylinder. Remember that air
is compressible and there is a potential safety hazard present if the cylinder is exended or retracted against a load.
The safest method of removing the air is to cycle the unmounted cylinder, cap the ports, and then install it. This
method will not work if the oil will drain out of either of the cylinder ports when connecting the lines after the
cylinder if mounted. An alternate solution in this case is to install the cylinder before bleeding it. Depending on
the orientation of the cylinder, the rod may be extended or retracted. Assuming the cap end of the cylinder is
down, install the cylinder with the rod retracted. Then connect the cap end line. Next, shift the directional control valve to slowly extend the cylinder with the rod end fitting open, allowing the air to escape without being
circulated back to the tank. When the cylinder is fully extended, connect the rod end line. When extending the
cylinder, it is advisable to plug the open cylinder connection on the directional control valve to prevent any
escape of fluid that may escape due to backpressure in the tank line. When extending the cylinder it is also prudent to connect a hose from the cap end fitting into a container. Ensure that both the free end of the hose and the
container are securely restrained. Do not bottom cylinders until air is bled out of a system.
If large or very long return lines are in the system, the air in these lines will, if allowed, aerate the fluid in the
reservoir. Aerated fluid will cause the pump to aerate and the system to operate erratically. Careful analysis and
preparation must be made before and during the air bleeding process.
Field Repairs
It may be possible to connect the cap end of the cylinder to the stationery mounting and cycle the cylinder
under no load conditions, but there is the possibility that the rod end will be rammed into another machine member as it extends. Therefore, before mounting one end of a hydraulic cylinder and then trying to bleed it, be sure
that the rod eye will not be forced into another member of the machine when the rod extends.
Review: 24.1.
Review: 24.3.
In Figure 25, which one of the following could cause Which one of the following is the safest procedure to
bleed air from a hydraulic cylinder?
a hose to fail?
a. Cylinder mounting reversed.
a. Crack a pressurized fitting.
b. Tractor hose connections reversed.
b. Cycle a mounted cylinder under load.
c. Cylinder hose connections reversed.
c. Cycle unmounted cylinder with hoses
d. Directional control valve connections reversed.
connected.
d. Operate the system in neutral until it warms up.
e. Any one of the above would cause the hose to fail.
e. Cycle the cylinder by hand with the hoses
connected.
Review: 24.2.
What is the reason behind bleeding a hydraulic cylinder
when it is installed?
a. Safety.
b. Pump damage.
c. Hose rupture.
d. Fluid contamination.
e. Cylinder seal damage.
Field Repairs
Task 25.0.
Outcome 25.1.
Check cylinder alignment and mounting.

Associates cylinder misalignment with rod cocking, bent
cylinder rod, galling on one side of the rod, and uneven wear at
the opposite edges of the rod or cylinder bushing and rod pins.
Cylinder misalignment means that the load is not applied along the centerline of the cylinder as the rod
extends and retracts. Most cylinder misalignment problems occur when the rod is extending. When the rod
retracts, the cylinder has a tendency to pull on the center line of the rod, even when the load is misaligned.
Misalignment is associated with rod cocking, a bent cylinder rod, galling on one side of the rod, and uneven
wear at the opposite edges of the rod or cylinder bushing and rod pins.
Engineering problems and misapplication account for some cylinder misalignment problems, but most are
caused by operator error and abuse. For example, if a cylinder is over extended under load, there is a tendency
to cock because the two bearing points at the rod bushing and around the piston inside the barrel are too close
together to provide the required rigidity. This problem is solved by using a cylinder with a longer cylinder barrel, or a rod stop, which is a sleeve inserted over the rod between the piston and head end to prevent the cylinder from over extending. This type of problem is not normally present when a machine is built, but may surface
with a replacement cylinder that was incorrect for the application.
More likely causes of cylinder misalignment are extending a loaded cylinder when it is in a bind, or overloading a cylinder that is near the end of the extension stroke. For example, mechanics who work on garbage
trucks report that hydraulic packer cylinder rods bend and break near the rod eye if operators try to compact
immovable objects that are off center in the body of the truck. This condition is exaggerated if the rod eye pin
is dry and seizes. As another example, mechanics in the utility industry report that the upper boom cylinder on
an over center boom aerial lift will cock and bend the rod if the boom is lowered against the ground when the
upper boom is in the over center position. To prevent this type of operator error, it is common practice never to
lower an over center boom closer than two or three feet from the ground when it is in the over center position.
A cylinder rod will leave tell-tale signs of misalignment, including scuff marks that show on one side of the
rod when it is extended, a bent cylinder rod, and uneven wear side-to-side in the rod eye and cap end clevis. This
would not include oval shaped eyes that wear straight across the pin, which is caused by lack of lubrication or
extended use. Another way to detect misalignment is to watch the cylinder as it extends under load, to see if it
cocks and bows to one side when it stalls near the end of the extension stroke.
Review: 25.1. All of the following would cause a
cylinder rod to bind when it stalls near the end of the
extension stroke except:
a. worn rod eye.
b. bent cylinder rod.
c. cylinder rod cocking.
d. over extended cylinder rod.
e. uneven loading of tandem mounted cylinders.
Field Repairs
Task 26.0.
Outcome 26.1.
Check directional control valve solenoids.

Knows that a "good" solenoid will shift with a click when
connected to proper DC power source; whereas a "shorted"
solenoid will not shift and may make a "hummm" sound, while
an "open" solenoid will not shift and make no noise whatsoever.
Most solenoid operated directional control used on mobile equipment valves operate on 12 volt or 24 DC
current. Once in a while, a solenoid will fail.
When the solenoid operates, the soft iron core is drawn into the electromagnetic field causing the valve to
"click" when it bottoms. If there is much background noise, the click may not be heard, but can usually be felt
by placing a hand on the valve. If the solenoid is good but the valve does not shift, the likely problem is a stuck
spool. However, once in a while the solenoid coil will fail from burning out or shorting.
The winding of a good solenoid has a resistance close to the specification given by the manufacturer. This
means that the wire that makes up the winding of the coil is insulated from one end to the other, and that there
is no leakage between wires in one turn of the coil and wires in another. If there were a breakdown in the
insulation, and current could leak across the coil, from one wire to another, the coil would be shorted within the
coil or to ground, and the resistance would be lowered. As the resistance lowers, the coil will run hot, may
"buzz", and will eventually burn out. A "short" can be caused by moisture or high voltage. Because the full
current flow is not available to create a magnetic field, a shorted solenoid will not shift. A burned out solenoid
can be recognized by overheated insulation and smell.
High voltage may cause the solenoid to burn out, but in some cases, a wire may burn in two before the solenoid
is overheated. When a solenoid is "open", it means that a wire is disconnected or broken inside the coil, which
will not allow the coil to pass current. If there is no noise and no heat when the control on a solenoid valve is
shifted, and required voltage is present at the solenoid, the coil of the solenoid is probably "open". The valve can
be shifted by hand to be sure the spool is not stuck, and then the solenoid should be checked for continuity with
a light bulb or Ohm meter. Of course something could have been left out of the valve or solenoid, but this is
usually not the case. Solenoids that are "open" cannot shift because there is no magnetic field.
Review: 26.1.
When a directional control valve solenoid has a "shorted" solenoid, it means:
a. a wire is broken.
b. no current is flowing.
c. the solenoid has burned out.
d. the coil is internally grounded.
e. the solenoid has shifted, but is stuck.
Shop Repairs
Shop Repairs
Shop repairs involve fixing machinery that has been taken out of service. Representative tasks include replacing
hydraulic pumps and motors; draining, flushing and refilling the system; replacing directional control stack
valves; mounting pumps and aligning the couplings; and installing overhaul kits in hydraulic cylinders.
Task 27.0.
Outcome 27.1.
Outcome 27.2.
Outcome 27.3.
Replace a hydraulic pump unit.

Knows that a new pump must be primed before it is started to
prevent it from cavitating and running dry.
Knows that jog-starting is the safest way to start a new pump
and to check flow.
Knows that pressure relief valve spring force is released to
permit low pressure flow to the reservoir from a new pump
installation.
Hydraulic pumps can fail gradually over time from continued wear, or catastrophically when they disintegrate
inside and send metallic particles downstream into the rest of the system. Common causes of hydraulic pump
failure include contaminated fluid, improper fluid, improper operating procedures, cavitation, coupling misalignment,
and improper pump maintenance.
When a pump is replaced because of internal failure, the fluid must be cleaned or changed because there is
the probability that metal particles from the pump have been spread throughout the system. The fluid can be
cleaned by recycling fluid from the reservoir through a filter cart, or by pumping system fluid into a drum that
is connected to a portable filtration system. The filter also must be changed.
Before replacing the pump, review the repair manual for the equipment for the proper procedure, special
instructions, and for pump and drive unit shaft tolerances. Clean the pump, lines, and fittings at the pump with
an approved solvent. Disconnect the pump inlet line, outlet line, and drain line if one is used. Cap the lines and
ports. Disconnect the pump from the prime mover coupling, and remove the pump from the mounting bracket,
if one is used. Clean and inspect the mounting bracket for damage. Install the coupling on the new pump shaft.
Some pumps have isolation valves at the inlet and outlet, and these are turned off before the pump is removed
to prevent fluid from spilling. This is particularly important if the pump inlet is flooded because a lot of oil can
be drained from the reservoir in a very short time. It is also critical after the pump is installed, to be sure that
the valves are open to prevent the pump from cavitating or stalling when it is started, which can ruin the unit
within a few seconds.
Before connecting the coupling and bolting the pump to the mounting, fill the pump with hydraulic fluid, and
rotate the shaft to check for binding. Then mount the pump, connect the pump inlet, outlet, and drain lines using
approved fittings. Remember that for pumping to take place, air must be purged from the suction lines and pump
cavities. If the pump is not self priming and operates in an un-primed condition, it will be damaged due to lack
of lubrication. Hydraulic fluid must be poured into the pump housing to act as a lubricant during start-up on
many types of pumps. On some pumps, a fitting at the pump outlet is loosened to release trapped air when the
pump is started. On others, the relief valve is vented to release trapped air. On fixed displacement systems with
the directional control valve in neutral, the system is operating properly when there is full flow in the return line
to the reservoir, and a low pressure reading at the pump outlet. On pressure compensated systems, the compensator
setting is reduced before the pump is started to reduce the pressure at which the pump will destroke. In both
Shop Repairs
fixed and pressure compensated systems, a pressure reading at the outlet will indicate the pump is operating
properly.
Before starting the system, lower the main pressure relief valve setting for the system so that the pump can
start against minimum back pressure. After the system warms up, the pressure relief valve will need to be reset.
In industrial hydraulics applications, where the pump is driven by an electric motor, it is common practice to
"jog start," a new pump, which means that power to the electric motor is switched on and off intermittently. This
is done to be sure there is flow from the pump at a pressure fitting, or in the return line from the relief valve,
before running the unit at full power and speed. The procedure is difficult to apply to units that couple directly
to the engine, because the engine is either running or not running. Many units, however, have separate drive
coupling arrangements that are engaged with a clutch, and it is recommended that in these cases, the unit be jog
started to be sure the pump is rotating in the correct direction, and there is flow from the outlet of the unit in the
first few seconds.
Review: 27.1.
Which one of the following would let the mechanic
know that a new pump installation was operating properly?
a. cavitation at the inlet.
b. pressure reading at the outlet.
c. no leaks at any of the fittings.
d. proper rotation of the pump shaft.
e. no vibration at the drive coupling.
Review: 27.3.
What is the purpose for lowering the relief valve or
pressure compensator setting when installing a new
pump?
a. Increase flow.
b. Lower the flow resistance.
c. Test system at low pressure.
d. Let air out of the reservoir.
e. Prevent air shocks from damaging the valves.
Review: 27.2.
How long will a new pump operate dry without causing
damage?
a. An hour.
b. Indefinitely.
c. Five minutes.
d. Thirty minutes.
e. A few seconds.
Shop Repairs
Task 28.0.
Outcome 28.1.
Outcome 28.2.
Drain, flush, and refill a system. Also see Task 19.0.

Knows when to drain, flush, and refill a system (preventive
maintenance schedule, contaminants such as water, and
component catastrophic failure).
Knows that system is brought to operating temperature to put
contaminants in suspension before draining hydraulic fluid.
The hydraulic fluid is considered to be the "lifeblood" of the system. This means that the composition of the
fluid, including contaminants, is the best indicator of system condition. Draining, flushing, and replacing the
hydraulic fluid is common practice, particularly for new machinery put into service, when there has been a pump
failure, or when one type of fluid is replaced with another. Cleanliness is important. So too are cleaning the system
so as not to introduce additional contamination, and sealing the reservoir properly.
Most hydraulic equipment manufacturers issue a fluid recommendation list for use in their equipment. This
list states what specifications the fluid used in the system must meet. It also gives the cleanliness level the
machine should meet.
Before draining the fluid, the system is run until the fluid reaches operating temperature. The oil must then
be drained before the system cools to prevent contaminants from settling out of the fluid.
Relieve system pressure, including accumulators, and relieve any pressure in the reservoir. Block any
machine members that might fall. Remove the reservoir inlet strainer to allow access to the fluid. Use a portable
filtration unit to transfer the fluid from the reservoir to a clean oil drum. Place a clean container under the reservoir,
and drain the remaining fluid from the bottom of the reservoir.
Remove the cleanout plate on the reservoir, and wipe out the sludge and foreign material that has settled out
in the bottom of the reservoir with lint-free shop towels. Continuing wiping out the reservoir until it is clean.
Replace the inspection plate and drain plug. See Task 19.0.
Drain and clean replaceable filter housings and replace the filter elements on the system. Fill the system with
clean flushing fluid by pumping it into the reservoir through a filter. Start the pump. It may have to be primed.
Check the outlet pressure to be sure that it is low (less than 1000 psi). Warm up the system, and cycle the actuators, changing directions often. Monitor the condition of all filters, and change those elements that become
loaded. If fluid samples are being taken and tested, continue flushing until the samples indicate the specified level of
cleanliness has been achieved.
Shut off the system, relieve system pressure, and remove the flushing fluid while the fluid is hot. Drain the
remaining fluid from the reservoir and replace the drain plug. Open the inspection plate on the reservoir again,
and wipe out the contaminants that have settled to the bottom of the reservoir with lint-free shop towels. Replace
the inspection plate on the reservoir. Drain and clean the filter housings and replace the filter elements. Clean
or replace the inlet strainer. Fill the reservoir with the recommended type and grade of fluid. Avoid introducing contaminants or excessive air into the system by transferring the fluid to the reservoir through a portable filtration unit.
Fill to the recommended level. Do not overfill the reservoir. Remember that fluid expands when it becomes hot.
Also be aware that the reservoir can overflow if a charged accumulator in the system is drained back to tank after
the reservoir has been filled.
Shop Repairs
Cycle the new fluid through the system several times and recheck the fluid level. The system may have to
be vented at the high places to remove all the air. Finally, check the system for leakage. Enter the fluid drain,
flush, and fluid change in the machine record.
Review: 28.1.
Which one of the following would justify removing the
fluid and flushing a hydraulic system?
a. Filter blows off.
b. Hoses become brittle.
c. Pump grinds itself up inside.
d. Cylinders are removed for rebuild.
e. Stack valve seals are being replaced.
Review 28.2.
Which one of the following is an important step in the
recommended procedure when draining the fluid and
flushing a hydraulic system?
a. Remove the pump.
b. Warm up the fluid.
c. Drain the fluid cold.
d. Drain each major component.
e. Reverse the pump to back flush the system.
Shop Repairs
Task 29.0.
Outcome 29.1.
Outcome 29.2.
Replace a directional control stack valve (module).

See also Task 10.
Knows the purpose of the following parts of a stack valve
module: through port, spool seals, load drop checks,
metering notch, overload relief valves, anti-cavitation check,
and SAE straight thread port recess.
Knows that the seal between stack valve modules is made by
tightening bolts through the sections evenly, compressing new
sealing rings evenly inside at the through port recesses. Also,
when a segmented stack valve is separated, that all
segment seals are disturbed and must be replaced.
Mobile hydraulic valves are designed to be mounted in valve banks. This allows operating several functions
from one position on or beside the machine from a single fluid source. Valve are available as single castings or
as segmented valves made up of individual segments that are bolted together with tie studs of varying lengths.
A mobile hydraulic tree spade, for example, may have one bank with seven or more directional control valve
segments like those shown in Fig. 12.
A typical segmented valve bank consists of an inlet body section with a passage for the inlet line, a pressure
relief valve section, individual directional control valve segments, and an outlet body section that contains the
outlet passage. Each valve segment typically contains a four-way valve, but these are easily convertible for
three-way operation by plugging one of the outlet ports. Each segment contains a through port so that flow from the
pump can be used by any valve downstream in the stack. In addition to directional control, individual segments
may contain additional functions including a load check, circuit pressure relief valve, anti-cavitation valve, and
flow control orifice.
In a power beyond valve, flow passes through the stack valve from the inlet to the outlet and each segment
has access to the flow. If any stack valve segment is fully shifted, it receives full pump flow. Two or more actuators can be operated by feathering the valves. This meters partial flow to two or more actuators at once.
A load check is added to a valve segment to prevent a load from dropping when the pump comes to pressure,
and to prevent one loaded cylinder from interacting with another actuator if two functions are operated at once.
A cylinder holding a loaded machine member, for example, could deliver fluid to the second actuator if both
valves were partially opened.
Circuit relief valves are incorporated in segments to protect actuators that could be overloaded when the
valve is in the neutral blocked position, for example, a bucket roll-over cylinder on a front end loader. When the
directional control valve is in the neutral blocked position, the cylinder is isolated from the pressure relief valve,
and if the load cannot be controlled, a circuit relief is commonly provided to protect the actuator.
Anti-cavitation valves prevent the actuator from moving ahead of pump flow. An anti-cavitation valve
consists of a one-way check valve that allows fluid from the return line to enter the actuator should the pressure
drop below atmospheric pressure.
Equipping a directional control valve with a flow control is used to prevent a loaded actuator from dropping
suddenly. The metering arrangement typically consists of a fixed orifice. Farm tractors have a flow control built
into various valves to control the speed of implement movement. Some of these are adjustable. For example,
Shop Repairs
fold-up discs, planters, mowers and tillage implements could drop out of control if the flow rate were not
metered.
While a stack valve may leak between only two segments, all seals are replaced while the valve is off the
machine and apart. Stack valves often run hot, and seals fail because they have become brittle. One seal failure probably means the rest of the seals are near failure. Also remember that disconnecting the lines from the
stack valve, removing the valve from the machine, disassembling and assembling the valve at the bench, and
then installing the valve back on the machine is a labor intensive task that cannot be repeated without good reason. This makes replacing any valve segments that are damaged, and replacing all seals in the stack at the same
time, a must operation.
Review: 29.1.
The purpose for the anti-cavitation check in a stack valve
segment is to prevent the load from:
a. dropping.
b. damaging the pump.
c. damaging the circuit.
d. running away from the oil.
e. interacting with the rest of the system.
Review: 29.2.
If tightening the through studs on a segmented directional
control stack valve does not stop a leak between two
segments, what should be done next?
a. Replace the entire valve with a new one.
b. Replace the leaking stack valve segments.
c. Replace all the seals between the segments.
d. Replace the through studs with shorter bolts.
e. Isolate the leaking segments from the rest of the
valve.
Shop Repairs
Task 30.0.
Outcome 30.1.
Outcome 30.2.
Mount a pump and align the coupling.

Identifies basic pump coupling arrangements.
Knows that hydraulic pump drive shafts are offset slightly
to promote U-joint lubrication, and that U-joints must be
aligned (in phase) to prevent shaft vibration.
A number of arrangements are used in mobile applications to connect the pump to the prime mover. Each
time the pump is replaced the coupling must be aligned.
Installing the pump directly to the prime mover with an SAE flange face mounting is the simplest arrangement
because the pump case mates with a recess in the prime mover to center the spline or tang coupling. Care must
be exercised, however, to be sure the splines or slotted drive coupling mesh properly to prevent side loads on the
pump shaft when the mounting bolts are tightened. This type of assembly error will damage the splines, pump
shaft, and bearing in the pump housing.
Jaw type couplings use a flexible material, called a spider, that mates into alternating recesses between the
metal coupling halves. Axial and angular misalignment are absorbed by slippage in the coupling. Jaw type couplings
are commonly called Lovejoy couplings, but this is a brand name rather than a coupling type.
SAE flange
Jaw
Chain
Universal joint
Spline shaft
Fig. 26. Common types of pump to prime mover couplings.
Chain couplings use a common roller chain to couple matching toothed sprockets. Axial and angular misalignment
are absorbed by movement of the sprockets in the roller chain.
Universal joint couplings are used when the pump is driven by a shaft between the prime mover and the
pump. The cardan type U-joint consists of two yokes connected through four bearings. Cardan type U-joints
have an operating angle of 3 to 11 degrees, depending upon the rpm, with at least 1/2 of a degree continuous operating
angle to promote lubrication. When the prime mover output shaft centerline and pump shaft centerline are parallel,
that is, the U-joint angle is in one plane, the maximum operating angle equals the length of the drive shaft divided
by five. For example, a short coupled drive shaft with a 15" length would be limited to 3 degrees maximum
Shop Repairs
operating angle. If the shaft length were extended to 30", the
maximum U-joint angle would be 6 degrees. High angles combined
with high rpm is the worst condition for a U-joint.
U-joints must have a minimum of 1/2 degree angle to cause
the needle bearings to rotate on the trunnions as the joint flexes.
Such a mounting is shown in Fig. 27. If the angle were 0
degrees, the needle bearings would be static and wear ridges in
the trunnions. The process whereby the needle bearings wear
ridges in the trunnion is called brinnelling. Brinnelling is also
caused by lack of lubrication or by over torquing the U-joint.
U-joints must be assembled with the yokes in phase to prevent
vibration. Vibration can also be caused by a bent drive shaft,
loose U-joint, out of balance drive shaft, unequal U-joint
angles, or a U-joint made for slower rpm. However, if the shaft
was not vibrating before the pump was changed, it is likely that
Fig. 27. Hydraulic pump driven through a shaft
the shaft was assembled out of phase. When the yokes are in
with U-joints.
phase, the slip yoke lugs (ears) and tube lugs (ears) are in line.
Where the shaft has a splined slip shaft, there should be an alignment arrow stamped on the slip yoke and on the
tube shaft to assure proper phasing. If the slip shaft has a rectangular cross-section, as many agricultural equipment
shafts do, the shaft can only be assembled correctly in two positions, which are one half turn (180 degrees)
different from each other.
Review: 30.1.
Misaligning an SAE flange mounted pump to the
prime mover can:
a. offset the pump shaft.
b. cause the pump shaft to vibrate.
c. apply a side load on the pump shaft.
d. pump fluid in the wrong direction.
e. rotate the pump shaft out of phase.
Review: 30.2.
What is the minimum drive shaft angle required to
lubricate a U-joint?
a. 1/2 degree
b. 3 degrees.
c. 5 degrees.
d. 7 degrees.
e. 9 degrees.
Shop Repairs
Task 31.0.
Outcome 31.1.
Replace a hydraulic motor unit.

Associates shaft seal leaks, case seal leaks, and loss of rpm
caused by slippage (loss of volumetric efficiency) with need to
change hydraulic motor.
Knows that proper direction of rotation for a gear motor is
determined by which hydraulic lines are connected to which ports.
Outcome 31.2.
Leakage around the shaft seal is usually the first sign that a hydraulic motor needs attention. Before changing
the motor seal to stop the leak, warm up the system and operate the motor under full load to determine whether
there is also a loss in speed. If the motor loses rpm as the load is increased, and the pump maintains rated flow
and pressure, the motor is slipping and should be replaced.
If the motor is operating properly, but leaking at the shaft seal, the seal should be changed. The primary
considerations here are to keep contaminants from entering the system and replace the faulty seal without damaging
the motor. Just because the motor seal leaks does not mean the seal is at fault. A loose bearing, for example,
can prevent a seal from maintaining the proper contact, causing it to leak. When the seal is changed, the bearing
must be checked for side play that would allow the shaft to wobble and distort the seal. It also may be necessary
to replace the static seals to prevent the bearing retainer from leaking. An exploded view of a hydraulic motor
is shown in Fig. 28.
Seals are press fit in the front
seal mounting flange around their
outer perimeter. This provides a
static seal between the rigid body
of the seal and the case. The
inner lip of shaft seals is flexible
and faces the pressure. Installed
in this position, fluid pressure
acts against the seal, forcing it
against the rotating member. Lip
seals will seal only if the lip
faces the pressure and if the drain
from the seal is open to the return
line. If the seal is blown or, in
the case of an externally mounted
seal, is pushed out of the case, it
means the case drain is plugged.
Static
seals
Shaft
seal
Outboard
bearing
Snap
ring
Fig. 28. Motor front seal assembly.

O-rings seal by being compressed in a confined space. When they are used as static case seals, they are confined in an annular space that
reduces the cross-section by 10% to 15% in one direction, while expanding 10% to 15% in the other. Pressure
acting against the confined O-ring forces it against the opposite parting line of the confinement, making the seal.
The sealing capability of an O-ring is not improved by tightening the case bolts to a torque greater than specifications.
Over tightening the case bolts may bind the motor but will not improve the O-ring seal.
The shaft seal may be replaced with the motor on or off the equipment, as long as the motor can be kept clean
and spillage can be contained. Remove the drive coupling and shaft key, if there is one, as well as any burrs on
Shop Repairs
the shaft or at the edge of the keyway that might damage the new seal. If the manufacturer suggests removing
the seal mounting flange, remove the flange bolts, flange, and O-ring seal. Check the front bearing for signs of
wear or looseness. Also check for shaft wear at the point at which the shaft seal rides.
Make sure the new parts match the shaft seal and O-rings being replaced. Wipe the seal recess clean with a
lint free shop towel, lubricate the outer face of the seal, and drive it into the adapter. Be sure the lip seal faces
the pressure. To prevent damage to the seal and adapter, use a driver with an outside diameter slightly smaller
than the outside diameter of the seal. Drive the seal square with the adapter until it bottoms in the recess.
Lubricate the O-ring static seal and place it in the seal mounting flange, and install it over the pump shaft, using
a torque wrench to tighten the bolts. Turn the motor shaft from time to time to be sure that tightening the case
bolts does not bind the motor. Insert the key in the shaft and reconnect the motor to the application.
Review: 31.1.
A hydraulic motor is leaking at the shaft seal when the
motor is operated. What should be done next?
a. Replace the seal.
b. Change the pump.
c. Determine if there is slippage in the motor.
d. See if the operation is the same in reverse.
e. Check the motor shaft to see if the bearing is
loose.
Review: 31.2.
What would cause a hydraulic gear motor shaft seal to
be pushed out of the case?
a. Reverse rotation.
b. Worn shaft bearing.
c. Overloading the motor.
d. Obstruction in the drain.
e. Flow by-passing the gears.
Shop Repairs
Task 32.0
Outcome 32.1.
Outcome 32.2.
Outcome 32.3.
Replace a pressure relief valve.

Distinguishes between a pressure relief valve that is set
incorrectly, and one that is faulty (leaks across the valve seat or
is not opening and closing).
Knows that a leaking pressure relief valve will run hot because
of flow friction, and make a squealing or hissing noise as fluid
returns to the reservoir across the valve.
Knows that relief valve should be set at minimum pressure
setting to safeguard the system when it is installed.
The main pressure relief valve on systems with fixed displacement pumps protects the pump, hoses, and
other components from over pressure. It also lowers operating cost and improves system efficiency by relieving
system pressure at the lowest level above operating pressure. Relieving fluid at pressures that are higher than
necessary requires the pump to work harder, generates wasted heat, and costs more money to operate the prime
mover. On some hydraulic systems, the actuators are stalled repeatedly, which causes the relief valve to open
and close frequently. Common problems associated with relief valves are sticking open, or leaking after they
close. A relief valve cannot stick closed without causing damage to the system.
The pressure relief valve receives unauthorized adjustment because even small increases in the relief valve
pressure setting will generate large, though temporary, force outputs at actuators. Thus, there is the natural inclination
to tinker with the pressure relief valve to get more out of the system. One common by-product of changing relief
valve settings, often without the proper tools, is to damage the component, which makes it necessary to install a
replacement.
A pressure relief valve that leaks across the seat will become hot because fluid passing through the restriction
generates heat. Hot in this case means the valve is hotter than other components and too hot to touch. The valve
will also make a whistling or hissing noise. Also remember that a leak across the seat divides the flow from the
pump between the actuator and the leaking relief valve, so that actuators will slow down because of the loss of
flow. For example, if a hydraulic motor that should receive 20 gpm operates at half rated rpm, and a leak across
the pressure relief valve accounts for the loss, the flow across the leaking relief valve is 10 gpm.
To test the pressure relief valve for leaks and sticking, a flow meter equipped with a pressure gauge and
restrictor valve is tied into the pressure line upstream of
the pressure relief valve. One circuit for applying the
tee-test with a flow control is shown in Fig. 29. With the
restrictor valve in the tester open, shift the directional
control valve to stall an actuator. Then close the restrictor
valve slowly to increase system pressure against the
pressure relief valve. Observe the readings on the pressure
gauge and flow meter to determine whether the pump or
relief valve is at fault, and the extent of the problem. Do
not exceed relief valve pressure to prevent damage to the
system. Be sure to operate the system long enough to
bring the temperature of the fluid within the operating
range, and to operate the prime mover (internal combustion
engine) at constant rated rpm for the system.
Restrictor
Valve
Fig. 29. Tee-test for checking pressure and flow

through a relief valve.
Shop Repairs
When the restrictor valve is adjusted to bring the pressure to 90% of relief valve setting, the flow meter reading
should still be within 80% to 90% of rated pump flow. Also notice that as the restrictor valve is closed, the pressure
reading should increase smoothly. Erratic pressure and flow readings would indicate that the pressure relief
valve may be sticking and opening below rated pressure. To check the pressure relief valve setting, continue to
close the restrictor valve to bring the pressure to the setting at which the pressure relief valve should open. If
the valve does not open when the pressure setting is reached, it is stuck or set too high.
For example, if the output from a 40 gpm fixed displacement pump is restricted to 38 gpm, and an accurate
pressure gauge reads 2500 psi when the relief should be set at 2000 psi, it is likely that the relief valve is not
leaking, but has been set too high. If the same procedure reduces the flow to 20 gpm and the pressure gauge read
400 psi, it is likely that the pressure relief valve is stuck open or has something holding it open, because 20 gpm
is unaccounted for from the pump and must be flowing across the relief valve. Of course this assumes that the
pump is good.
To fix the problem, start by shutting off the system, relieving any pressure in the system, and then disassembling
the pressure relief valve. If the cause of the problem is an obstruction, and the valve has suffered no damage,
removing the debris and resetting the pressure valve will solve the problem. If the valve is damaged, however,
it should be replaced.
Remember when replacing a relief valve to lower the setting to minimum pressure to safeguard the system.
With a pressure gauge installed in the system, stall an actuator to check the setting. After warming up the system,
set the pressure to manufacturer's specifications. Also see Task 8.0.
Review: 32.1.
When the flow from a 42 gpm fixed displacement
pump is restricted to 30 gpm, an accurate pressure gauge
reads 700 psi. If rated relief valve pressure is 2200 psi,
what does this indicate?
a. Pressure relief valve is stuck open.
b. Pressure relief valve is stuck closed.
c. Pressure relief valve is operating properly.
d. Pressure relief valve is leaking across the seat.
e. Not enough is known at this point to make a
determination.
Review 32.3.
Why is the pressure setting of a new pressure relief
valve reduced when it is installed in a hydraulic system
with a fixed displacement pump?
a. To warm up the fluid.
b. To break the valve in.
c. To protect the system.
d. To relieve trapped air.
e. To set the relief valve spring.
Review 32.2.
What causes a leaking pressure relief valve to run hot?
a. Reverse flow.
b. Flow friction.
c. System pressure.
d. Fluid compression.
e. Fluid contamination.
Shop Repairs
Task 33.0.
Outcome 33.1.
Install an overhaul kit in a hydraulic cylinder.

Identifies parts that show normal wear in a hydraulic cylinder
(rod bushing, rod seal, piston seal).
Knows that cylinder tie rod bolts are torqued to pre-stretch the
tie rods.
Knows that cup seals used on pistons and in rod glands
are assembled with the cup facing the pressure.
Knows that threaded rod eye and piston nut must be torqued to
specifications to be safe and to have rated strength.
Outcome 33.2.
Outcome 33.3.
Outcome 33.4.
Mobile hydraulic cylinders are commonly rebuilt. This requires inspecting the assembly for damage, replacing
faulty parts with a rebuild kit, and assembling the cylinder. The critical steps in the task are cleaning and inspection
of the parts, lubrication and installation of seals to face the pressure, and torquing the various threaded connections
when the cylinder is assembled. Square capped cylinders are aligned by placing them on a flat surface when the
tie rods are torqued. Torquing the tie rods does not over-compress the O-ring seals because the barrel bottoms
in the end caps. An assembly view of a mobile hydraulic cylinder is shown in Fig. 30.
Barrel
Piston nut
Piston
O-ring
O-ring
Back-up ring
O-ring
Head
U-cup packing
Wiper
Rod
Fig. 30. Assembly view of a mobile hydraulic cylinder.
Most mobile hydraulic cylinders are of the single rod type, which means the cylinder can leak externally at one
or both ends of the barrel, and at the rod U-cup packing. Internally, the cylinder can by-pass oil between the
dynamic piston seal and cylinder bore, and between the static seal where the piston mounts on the rod. Cylinders
are rebuilt when they leak externally or bypass fluid internally.
If the cylinder is not damaged, it can be rebuilt by replacing the rod bearing in the head and the seals. Before
making the decision to rebuild the cylinder, extend it to inspect the rod for scoring, nicks, and abrasions. Also
Shop Repairs
look down the rod and turn it to see if it is bent. Measure the diameter of the rod at two points 90 apart at
frequent intervals along its length. If it is undersized by more than 0.002 inch per inch of rod diameter, it must
be replaced, because replacing the seals and bearing will not compensate for the wear and the cylinder will leak.
On larger and more expensive cylinders it is common practice to recondition the rod by first grinding it, then
replating it to bring the diameter to within specifications, and finally, polishing the surface.
Before disassembling the cylinder, check with the manufacturer to be sure that rebuild parts are available.
Begin the rebuild by retracting the cylinder rod, remove all port connections, and drain the hydraulic fluid from
the cylinder by manually cycling the cylinder rod over a catch tray. Secure the cylinder for safe working
conditions while avoiding damage to the cylinder barrel. If the rod eye is welded to the rod, it means that the
head end is removed from rod after the piston nut and piston have been removed.
If the cylinder has a threaded cylinder barrel, remove the head end with a spanner wrench and pull the rod
out of the bore. It is common practice to work on the cylinder over a catch tray because oil will be dripping from
the assembly. If a vise is used, the jaws must be equipped with copper pads to protect the cylinder rod finish.
Remove the cup type piston seals by placing a dull screwdriver shaped tool behind the seals and stretching them
out of the grooves. Remove the lock screw or nut and then remove the piston. Some are threaded, while others
simply pull off. Measure the piston. If it is scored, undersized, or egg shaped from side loading, it must be replaced.
With the piston removed from the rod, the head end that contains the rod bearing and seal can be slid off the
rod. Clean all the metallic parts thoroughly. Inspect all sealing surfaces for damage, for example, the inside of
the piston barrel and outside of the piston rod. Replace the rod bearing, if necessary. Then replace the seal in
the head end, lubricate it with clean hydraulic fluid, and slide it back over the rod. Remember that the lip of the
seal faces in toward the pressure. Now, lubricate and replace the static O-ring seal that will be compressed
between the head and cylinder barrel.
Replace the O-ring seal between the rod and piston, and install the piston. If the rod is threaded, consult the
manufacturer's specifications for the torque on the nut. If the nut is not torqued properly, the cylinder can leak
and fail internally.
Lubricate the new wear ring (if the piston is so equipped) and piston seals with hydraulic fluid. Install the
wear ring first, then install the piston seals by placing one side of the seal in the piston groove and stretching the
seal around the circumference with a thin tool. If the cylinder uses cup seals, be sure the lips face the ends of
the piston. This means they will face the pressure applied from each side of the piston when it is operating under
load. Lubricate the piston seals again with hydraulic oil, and insert them in the cylinder bore using a dull tool
pulled around the circumference to lead the seal into the bore. Assemble the head to the body. Be sure the body
O-ring stays in place.
If the cylinder is equipped with tie rods, replace the static O-ring seal in the cap end and assemble the cap
end over the barrel. Place the cylinder on a flat work surface to align the head and cap ends, and torque the tie
rod nuts to the values in the service manual. Applying the correct torque is important because it pre-stretches
the tie rod bolts so there will be no movement between the ends and cylinder barrel when the cylinder is pressurized
at working temperature.
Shop Repairs
Review: 33.1.
Which dynamic seal would cause a hydraulic cylinder
to by-pass fluid?
a. Rod bearing seal.
b. Rod to piston seal.
c. Cap end barrel seal.
d. Head end barrel seal
e. Piston to barrel seal.
Review: 33.3.
Why is it important for the lip on piston cup seals to
face the ports on a double acting cylinder?
a. Lubricate the seal.
b. Seal under pressure.
c. Reduce seal friction.
d. Prevent the seal from rupturing.
e. Cushion the load at the end of the stoke.
Review: 33.2.
Cylinder tie rod bolts are pre-stressed by:
a. pressurizing the cylinder.
b. heating the bolts in an oven.
c. work hardening them with a hammer.
d. changing their position around the cylinder.
e. torquing the tie rod nuts to specifications.
Review: 33.4.
Threaded connections at the rod eye and rod nut are
torqued to:
a. work harden the rod.
b. insert the safety wires.
c. align the rod eye to the mounting.
d. prevent threads from working loose.
e. make them easier to remove in the future.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting means to find and fix the failure in the component or system. The steps used to isolate
component and system malfunction are followed. Typical tasks include determining why cylinders will not
extend; determining causes for no pressure, low pressure, or high pressure; finding the cause of erratic system
operation; isolating failures in pressure and control valves; and determining the cause of excessive heat, noise,
or vibration.
Task 34.0.
Outcome 34.1.
Outcome 34.2.
Outcome 34.3.
Outcome 34.4.
Outcome 34.5.
Determine why a cylinder will not extend.

Distinguishes between pressure, flow, leakage, heat, and noise
problems in a hydraulic system.
Computes areas on blank and rod sides of single rod cylinders.
Recognizes sources of pressure in the system.
Recognizes causes for a cylinder not extending.
Associates operation of a hydraulic system with both pressure
and flow.
Troubleshooting means finding the problem. What the troubleshooter does is focus attention on the symptoms,
formulate problem statements that account for these symptoms, and then follow a procedure to identify the
component or condition that is causing the problem.
Testing is part of troubleshooting, but making repairs is not. Some repairs may have to be made to find the
problem, but troubleshooting does not mean repairing the machine, performing routine maintenance, replacing
components, or reworking a circuit. It simply means to perform the diagnosis and then outline a course of action
that will bring the machine to satisfactory operation.
Problems can be divided into five types:
1. Pressure.
2. Flow.
3. Leakage.
4. Heat.
5. Noise and vibration.
Pressure problems are checked with a pressure gauge tapped in near the pump. Flow problems can be
checked with a flowmeter installed in series with the line from the pump, or by timing actuator movements and
comparing them with cycle times in the operator's manual. If an actuator under load moves the required distance
within the time specified, it can be assumed that both pressure and flow for the system are up to specifications,
although the pressure could still be set too high.
There are two types of leakage problems: external and internal. External leakage is the easiest to find. The
reservoir will be low on fluid, and there will be tell-tale signs where the oil has leaked out. Internal leakage is
caused by fluid slipping past the close fitting parts in components, or it might be past a stuck or broken component,
for example a broken control valve spool or stuck pressure relief valve poppet. Loss of fluid past the pump or
cylinder is an example of leakage past the close fitting parts of a component. Internal leakage is more difficult
to find and isolate to a particular component. Leakage problems can be isolated by raising the load with the actuator
and then turning the system off. If the load causes the actuator to drift back, there is internal leakage somewhere.
Agricultural equipment cylinder lifts, bucket truck booms, and outrigger cylinders are checked using this procedure.
Troubleshooting
Heat affects the life of the fluid. If a system is running hot, it can oxidize the fluid and reduce its useful life.
Some components run hot. This is usually caused by fluid running over an orifice of some sort which causes a
pressure drop. For example, if a spring centered directional control valve does not quite return to the center position,
the pressure drop caused by fluid flowing over the sharp edge of the spool is converted to heat, and the control
valve segment and valve operator (handle) will get hot.
Noise and vibration problems can originate from mechanical sources or from fluid vibrations within the system.
For example, loose mountings, bent drive shafts, or out of phase U-joints will cause a mechanical vibration that
will be transmitted throughout the system. Hydraulic system problems that will cause a system to make noise
and vibrate are cavitation, aeration and sticking valves. While less common, leaving a vane out of a vane pump
will cause the pump to generate an abnormal pulsation, resulting in a pump vibration.
Single rod hydraulic cylinders extend and retract under load because fluid is directed to one side of the piston or the other. The cylinder extends when fluid is directed to the cap end of the piston, and retracts when fluid
is directed to the rod side of the piston. Directing fluid to both sides of the piston from a common pressure source
at the same time will cause the cylinder to extend if the net force is greater than the load, but with less potential
force than when fluid is directed to the cap end of the piston. This is called a regenerative circuit because fluid
from the rod end of the cylinder is added to fluid from the cap end of the cylinder as the rod extends. Force is
developed only by pressure acting on the rod area portion of the piston, therefore, the force developed is reduced.
An often misunderstood concept is that pressure develops at the pump because of a load at the actuator. That
is, the pump does not pump pressure, it pumps fluid. For example, a fixed displacement gear pump turning at
rated rpm will deliver approximately the same amount of fluid, no matter what the pressure is, up to the pressure
rating of the pump, or until something breaks. What causes pressure is the resistance of the load against the actuator.
Figure 31. illustrates this principle. What causes the pressure to build in the cylinder is the weight of the car on
the boom. A heavier car would generate more pressure, whereas a lighter car would generate less pressure.
If the actuator cannot move, the pressure will rise to the setting of the pressure relief valve, and the pump
will continue to pump fluid to the reservoir across the valve. A lack of pressure may be caused by failure of the
pump or by a bypass condition elsewhere in the circuit. If the pump has failed, or is bypassing, it may not have
the capacity to raise the pressure against the
load resistance. The pressure, however, is still
caused by the load holding back on the actuator.
If a cylinder fails to extend when the
Fig. 31. Pressure results from load on the actuator.
directional control valve is shifted, the symptom should first be identified as a pressure, flow, or leakage problem. Look for the big picture. Start by checking the fluid in the reservoir. See if the pump is turning. Listen to the system for abnormal noises such as pump
rattle, whine, or noise in the control or relief valve. Remember that pressure has to build at the cap end of the
cylinder to cause it to extend.
See if the machine is overloaded. Some backhoes, for example can be equipped with a bucket that may hold
two or three times the rated load. An operator complaint about the machine may be only a misapplication of the
machine. Look at the mechanism of the machine to see if it has been bent or is binding. A machine in a bind,
particularly one that is loaded, can be expected to seize.
Troubleshooting
Try to get a pressure reading from the pump when the control valve is shifted to extend the cylinder rod.
Fixed displacement pumps are normally plumbed to tank when the control valve is in the neutral position and
stand-by pressure falls off. Fluid flow from pressure compensated pumps is blocked in the neutral position and
stand-by pressure rises. If pressure in the pump line is below relief valve pressure or compensator valve pressure when the control valve is shifted to extend the cylinder rod, either the pump is not delivering rated flow or
the flow is bypassing the load. This could occur across a blown cylinder piston seal, inside a directional
control valve with a broken valve spool, or across a stuck or leaking pressure relief valve.
System pressure is generated by the load, but cycle rate is a function of flow from the pump. To operate
properly, the pump must deliver rated flow at rated load. Of course if the machine is overloaded, the relief valve
or pressure compensator will come into operation when the machine stalls.
Remember that working pressure is less than relief valve or pressure compensator pressure. This means that
under ordinary circumstances, the pump is delivering rated flow at less than relief valve pressure. The flow of
most pumps drops off a little (10% or less) as pressure increases, but cycle times should still be achieved so long
as the machine is not overloaded.
As the pump wears, increases in pressure will cause increased bypass leakage past the pumping elements,
such as gears, vanes or pistons, which will still allow the machine to move the load, but at slower cycle times.
Because clearances are critical in pumps, a slight increase in bypass leakage may not be noticeable. One way to
know that the pump is slipping is if cycle times become longer than specifications allow as fluid temperature
increases. This would mean that as the fluid warms up and thins out, more of it is bypassing the close fitting
parts of the pump.
Troubleshooting
Review: 34.1.
The tractor implement shown in Fig. 32.
raises and lowers slower than it should.
What kind of a problem is this?
a. Flow.
b. Heat.
c. Leakage.
d. Pressure.
e. Vibration.
Review: 34.2.
If fluid is directed to both ends of a single rod
hydraulic cylinder, it will:
a. leak.
b. retract.
c. lock up.
d. free float.
e. regenerate.
Review: 34.4.
Which one of the following would cause a cylinder to
fail to extend?
a. Air in the fluid.
b. Reservoir over full.
c. No flow from the pump.
d. Open flow control valve.
e. Pressure relief valve set too high.
Review: 34.3.
Which one of the following would increase the pressure
in the lift cylinder on the tow truck shown in Fig. 31?
a. Heavier car.
b. Shorter boom.
c. Bigger pump.
d. Longer truck.
e. Larger bore cylinder.
Review: 34.5.
Which one of the following would increase cycle times
on a loaded backhoe?
a. Worn pump.
b. Fast operator.
c. Cold machine.
d. Clogged return line filter.
e. Pressure control set too high.
Troubleshooting
Task 35.0.
Outcome 35.1.
Outcome 35.2.
Outcome 35.3.
Outcome 35.4.
Determine cause of no, low, or high pressure.

Knows that no pressure or low pressure, and no flow against the
load, indicates that the pump has failed or that the coupling is
broken or slipping.
Associates no or low pressure but maximum pump flow with
open pressure relief valve, bypassing piston seal, stuck
directional control valve, broken directional control valve
spool, or other open circuit condition.
Associates high system pressure with incorrect pressure relief
valve setting, or sticking (restricting) pressure relief valve.
Prescribes tests for system that is not operating properly.
When the directional control valve is shifted from the neutral position to start an actuator, the load is applied
to the system and the pressure should rise to a value equal to the working pressure. The value of the working
pressure is a function of the load. Larger loads should generate higher pressures than smaller loads.
Movement of an actuator is a good indicator of flow rate from the pump, but no movement of the actuator
does not automatically mean there is no flow from the pump. To determine if there is flow from a fixed
displacement pump, a flowmeter is plumbed in series with the pressure line between the pump and pressure relief
valve. In this position flow from a fixed displacement pump will be seen by the flowmeter even if the pressure
relief valve is returning fluid to the reservoir and the flowmeter will see rated flow no matter what position the directional control valve is in. If the valve is shifted from neutral to a position to move the load, the pressure should rise
to working pressure, and rated flow should continue. On a closed center system that uses a pressure compensated pump, pressure will climb to stand-by pressure in neutral, with no flow. Shifting the directional control
valve to move the load will cause the pressure to drop to a value necessary to move the load resistance, the compensator will stroke the pump, and the flow meter should see rated flow.
If there is no pressure or low pressure at the pump, and the flowmeter indicates there is no flow, either the
drive coupling to the pump has broken, or the pump has suffered an internal failure. Check the pump drive coupling
first with a tachometer or strobe light. The coupling could be slipping without being loose to the feel if a shaft
key were sheared. Feel the pump to determine if parts rattle while it operates above idle speed. If the pump is
face mounted, it will have to be removed to inspect the coupling. Check the pump shaft for signs of looseness
that would indicate an internal failure.
If the pump delivers rated flow but at low pressure when the directional control valve is shifted to move the
load, this is a sign the pump is good, but that flow is by-passing some other component, rather than building pressure.
Possible causes for by-pass leakage are the main pressure relief valve, cylinder relief valve, crossport relief
valve, bypassing cylinder piston seal, or broken directional control valve spool. If the pump will build pressure
and work against a loaded cylinder in one direction but not the other, the pressure relief valve can be eliminated
from the list. A cylinder or crossport relief valve could be stuck open, or the cylinder could be bypassing in one
direction. If other cylinder functions in the same stack valve work, it might indicate the spool in the
directional control valve is broken and will work only in one direction, or that there is something wrong with the
cylinder.
Pressure and flow characteristics for fixed displacement pumps and pressure compensated pumps will be
different. A fixed displacement pump, which is typically used with a tandem, open, or through center system,
Troubleshooting
unloads rated flow to the reservoir at low pressure in the neutral position, and delivers rated flow at working
pressure when the directional control valve is shifted to other positions. A pressure compensated pump, which
is used with a closed center system, destrokes the pump at a pressure setting above working pressure when the
directional control valve is in the neutral position. When the control valve is shifted and pressure drops to the
working pressure level, the compensator strokes the pump to deliver full flow. This means that the normal
condition for a pressure compensated pump in the neutral position is no flow at the pressure setting of the
compensator, and full flow at working pressure when the directional control valve is shifted to move the load.
High pressure readings occur when the system is overloaded and the pressure relief valve is set too high or
sticking. Erratic pressure can also be caused by low fluid level in the reservoir.
Erratic pressure readings at or above the pressure setting of the relief valve usually indicate the pressure relief
valve is malfunctioning, but erratic pressure readings when a cylinder is extended near the end of its stroke could
also be an indication of air in the system caused by low fluid level. Before coming to any conclusions about the
relief valve, be sure to check the fluid level in the reservoir, and run the machine through the work cycle. One
tell-tale sign of low fluid level is that system pressure will be erratic but still in the load range of the machine
when cylinders are extended near the end of the stroke.
Before resetting the pressure on the relief valve, determine if the valve is sticking or simply set too high. If
the valve is sticking, it should be disassembled to remove the obstruction or replaced. Resetting a pressure relief
valve that is sticking will not solve the problem.
With a pressure gauge installed near the pump outlet, slowly increase system pressure until the relief valve
opens by feathering the directional control valve against a stalled cylinder. Be careful not to over-pressure the
system because this will break the pump, a hose, or rupture another component. Cycle the valve open and closed
several times and notice if it opens and closes at the same pressure each time. If operation is smooth and
consistent, but the pressure reading is high, the valve pressure is set too high. If the operation is erratic and the
system is not cavitating or aerating, the valve is sticking and should be disassembled or replaced.
A number of references, including the two listed here, also give specific steps to troubleshoot a hydraulic system.
In addition to using a prescribed method to troubleshoot a system to identify the type of problem that a hydraulic
system has, the mechanic must make decisions about which tests are quickest and least costly to perform. This
gets at the larger issue facing the mechanic, and that is how to restore the machine to safe and dependable operation
in the least amount of time, because an idle machine usually means down time expense for the machine and
several other workers.
A pressure test is the easiest and quickest test to apply. All that is required is an accurate pressure gauge
installed near the outlet of the pump. Hydraulic systems that do not have a pressure tap should have one
installed. Thereafter, the pressure gauge is slipped over the special fitting. A pressure test by itself will identify
whether there is sufficient pressure available from the pump to move the load resistance. Movement, or lack of
movement, can be interpreted to indicate whether or not fluid is flowing.
While the source of some problems can be identified simply by observing the pressure, others involve both
pressure as well as flow, and this is where a flow meter is used. These vary from very simple flow meters that
are installed in the pressure line from the pump, to combination pressure and flow meters that have a restrictor
valve and temperature meter. Usually, the more sophisticated the meter is, the more tests that can be performed.
Where simple flow meters allow measuring the flow from the pump in neutral, work cycle, and stalled conditions,
Troubleshooting
combination pressure-flow meters with a built-in flow restrictor allow continuous variation of system pressure
to identify how the pump and pressure relief valve operate under different conditions. Feathering a control valve
against a stalled actuator can accomplish the same purpose, but operating some systems in this manner is not
always practical.
External leakage tests are performed by inspecting the machine at all places where fluid can escape, including
cylinder rods, valve spools, fittings, hoses, pump and motor shaft seals, and at other components.
Internal leakage tests typically compare pump flow rate with machine movement. This means that actual
flow rate from the pump, for example 10 gpm, is compared with how much movement an actuator provides, for
example, how far a 3 inch bore cylinder will extend in a given time. If actuator movement is less than the flow
would indicate, there is likely an internal leakage problem. Usually, the problem is worked backward. The work
cycle of the machine is timed and compared with the time given by the manufacturer. If cycle times are longer
than the times given by the manufacturer, the actuators have by-pass leakage, or there may be bypass leakage in
the pump. Of course there could be by-pass leakage in other parts of the system including the directional
control valve, circuit relief valves, or pressure relief valve.
Heat problems are likely to occur when the machine is operated at capacity in a hot environment. Of course
"hot" is relative. A component can be too hot to touch and still not be hot by machine standards. Ideal oil
temperature for mobile equipment is between 110F and 140F, but oil temperatures commonly exceed 180F
under actual conditions. If the oil is run too hot it will oxidize. That shortens its useful life. Hot oil also can
make the operator uncomfortable. For example, mechanics report that the shift levers on some stack valves on
waste disposal trucks can become too hot to handle.
Mobile machinery that is expected to generate excessive heat is equipped with an oil cooler. Usually the
cooler is mounted in front of the radiator. If it clogs with leaves, small twigs, or even mud, the oil cooler loses
its effectiveness. If the oil is running hot, always check the cooler first. There is some chance the oil cooler can
become clogged, but the likelihood of that is small. It is more common to find the oil level in the reservoir low.
Mobile reservoirs are small by design anyway, and being low on oil will only aggravate a heat problem.
The typical reason for a heat problem on a piece of mobile equipment is a component that is throttling the
flow of oil and generating wasted heat. For example, a directional control valve with a broken centering spring
could cause a system to generate heat, even when the control valve is supposedly in neutral. The same could
happen if a fixed displacement pump is equipped with an unloader valve to return flow to the reservoir when the
equipment is being moved from one location to another. Waste trucks with large fixed displacement pumps
commonly have such a valve. If the valve is not shifted to put the pump in the standby mode, the fluid will be
heated just from circulation. One way to locate the problem is to feel for a hot component, and then determine
if it is malfunctioning.
Noise and vibration problems are easily identified. What is more difficult to determine is the source of the
problem. A stethoscope is useful to pinpoint the source of vibration because it separates background noise from
noise picked up by the probe. It also keeps one's hands away from moving parts. A worn carrier bearing, for
example, may cause both noise and vibration when running that are difficult to isolate, and a stethoscope would
probably pinpoint where the problem is.
Troubleshooting
Review: 35.1.
A combination pressure gauge and flow meter is
installed in the pump pressure line to determine why a
front end loader will not raise a loaded bucket. If the
loader has a fixed displacement pump and through center
system, what should the pressure and flow gauges read
when the directional control valve is in the neutral
position and the pump is turning at rated rpm?
a. Low pressure, no flow.
b. Low pressure, rated flow.
c. Working pressure, no flow.
d. Working pressure, rated flow.
e. Relief valve pressure, rated flow.
Review: 35.3.
Which one of the following would cause erratic pressure
readings above the main pressure relief valve setting of
2250 psi.
a. Overloaded machine.
b. Binding machine member.
c. Low oil level in the reservoir.
d. Sticking pressure relief valve.
e. Deadheading one of the cylinders.
Review: 35.4.
Shifting a through-center stack valve to extend a cylinder
that is under load causes the system pressure relief
valve to open. Which one of the following should be
Review: 35.2. A front end loader that has a variable checked next?
volume pressure compensated pump and a closed cena. Pump flow.
ter system will not raise a loaded bucket when the
b. Engine rpm.
directional control valve is shifted. After disconnecting
c. Relief valve setting.
the pump from the system, a flow meter, pressure
gauge, and load valve is connected to the pump. The
e. Noise and vibration.
outlet of the test assembly is connected to tank. The
pump is then loaded to just under its compensator setting. What condition indicates that the pump is okay?
Troubleshooting
Task 36.0.
Outcome 36.1.
Outcome 36.2.
Outcome 36.3.
Outcome 36.4.
Identify components in a circuit diagram.

Distinguishes between symbols for pressure relief, pressure
reducing, counterbalance, pilot operated check, flow control,
and sequence valves.
Distinguishes between symbols for uni-directional and
bi-directional, and variable and fixed displacement pumps and
motors.
Understands features of open center, closed center, tandem
center, through center (power beyond), and motor center
directional control valves.
Distinguish between characteristics of open center and closed
center hydraulic systems.
Pressure relief valves limit maximum system pressure. Notice in Fig. 33. that they sense the pressure
upstream of the valve. When the pressure reaches the setting of the valve, it relieves the over pressure fluid to
the reservoir. Notice that the symbol shown for the pressure relief valve has an arrow on a line at a 45 degree
angle, which means that it is adjustable, and that the internal pilot shown by a dotted line is connected to the
upstream side of the valve. Since no drain is shown, the valve can be assumed to be internally drained to the
reservoir at low pressure. Circuits with fixed displacement pumps must have a pressure relief valve.
Pressure reducing valves are used to control the force of cylinders in branch circuits. They control the force
by sensing the pressure at the outlet port and then throttling the flow to reduce the downstream pressure to the
setting of the valve. Notice in Fig. 33. that the symbol shown for the pressure reducing valve has the adjustable
pressure feature, that the internal pilot shown by a dotted line is connected to the downstream line, and that the
valve has an external drain, because both upstream and downstream lines are pressurized.
Pressure Relief
Pressure Reducing
Counterbalance
Fig. 33. Pressure relief, pressure reducing, and counterbalance valves.
Counterbalance valves prevent a loaded cylinder with potential energy from falling (extending or retracting).
They can be internally or externally piloted, and are internally drained. If conditions exist that would interfere
with internally draining a counterbalance valve, it can be externally drained, but usually this is not necessary.
Counterbalance valves are equipped with a free reverse flow check valve to actuate the cylinder against the load.
For safety reasons, the counterbalance valve is usually installed in the cylinder in case a hose were to burst or a
fitting were to shear off. With a counterbalance valve in the system, the load supported by the counterbalance
valve is literally powered down. This means that pressure is applied to the unloaded side of the cylinder piston,
while pilot pressure from the same line releases the counterbalance valve to let fluid return to the reservoir from
the loaded side of the piston. The symbol for the counterbalance valve shown has both external and internal
pilots. The external pilot is used during normal operation. The internal pilot acts to allow controlled lowering
of the boom in an overloaded situation. Also notice the valve is not adjustable. This is done to prevent
tampering with the pressure setting.
Troubleshooting
Pilot operated check valves can be pilot operated to open or pilot operated to close. Pilot operated to open
check valves are used to hold a loaded cylinder in a stationary position. The symbols for pilot operated to open
and pilot operated to close check valves are shown in Fig. 34. The holding valves on the outriggers of a bucket
truck are typical applications. A pilot operated check will hold a load indefinitely if there is no internal by-pass
or external leakage at the cylinder. The pilot for the pilot operated to open check valve shown opens the valve
and is supplied with pressure from the line that supplies fluid to the opposite port of the cylinder.
The common practice is to use pilot operated to open check valves to hold static loads, and to use counterbalance valves to hold dynamic loads. In an aerial lift like those used on bucket trucks, for example, the manlift
boom is commonly held in position by a counterbalance valve, while the outriggers that steady the truck frame are
held in position by pilot check valves. The boom is a dynamic load in that it is moved frequently, while the outriggers are
set and remain stationary during operation of the aerial lift.
Flow control valves are used to regulate the extension and
retraction speeds of cylinders and rotary actuators. Both
fixed and variable valves are used in mobile hydraulics. Where
Pilot operated to close
safety of personnel and equipment are involved, it is common Pilot operated to open
Fig.
34.
Pilot
operated
check
valve symbols.
practice to use a fixed orifice valve. Symbols for both fixed
and variable orifice valves are shown in Fig. 35.
Sequence valves are used to cause one cylinder to extend or retract before
another. For example, a three section ladder truck would extend the end section before extending the center section. When the ladder is retracted, the
center section would be retracted before the end section. If two or more
cylinders were connected to a pressure source without sequence valves, the
Fixed
Variable
cylinder with the least resistance would move first. Sequence valves may be
internally or externally pilot operated, but they must have an external drain
because the outlet port is subject to back pressure which would interfere Fig. 35. Flow control valve symbols.
with the operation of the pilot section of the valve. Sequence valves are also commonly equipped with reverse
free-flow check valves. Notice from the symbol in Fig. 36 that sequence valves are normally closed, pilot operated to open, and have a reverse free-flow check valve to allow return free flow from a cylinder port to which they
are connected. In operation, if one of two cylinders connected to the same pressure source is equipped with a
sequence valve, the cylinder without a valve will extend first. When the first cylinder stalls, pressure will rise
to the setting of the sequence valve, causing it to open and direct flow to the second cylinder. When the directional
control valve is reversed, both cylinders will retract together because the valve has a reverse free-flow check
valve, unless one of the cylinders is equipped with a sequence valve in the pressure line that retracts the cylinder.
Hydraulic systems that are illustrated with symbols will show the pump, motor
if one is used, and other components in the system. Figure 37 illustrates the symbols
for a number of pumps as well as motors. The symbols are easy to identify, but there
are some differences that should be noticed. The symbol to identify both pumps and
motors is a circle with a shaft connection. The shaft connection is shown as two
horizontal parallel lines that connect to one side of the circle at the mid-point. If the
component is a pump, it will have one or two solid triangles pointing outward
inside the circle at 90 degrees from the shaft connection. One triangle indicates
Fig. 36. Sequence

valve symbols.
Troubleshooting
pump flow is unidirectional. Two triangles indicate the pump can flow fluid in either direction, even though the
pump shaft rotates only in one direction.
If the symbol has a line at a 45 degree angle with an arrow at one end, the pump has a variable displacement.
Various operators can be shown attached to the pump symbol to indicate how the displacement is varied, including
manual control, pressure compensated control, and servo control. The control is shown as a rectangle with the
appropriate designation. The pressure compensated operator symbol has a vertical line with an arrow at the top of
the rectangle, and the end line does not extend past the horizontal lines of the operator symbol.
Hydraulic motor symbols are very much like pump symbols except that the solid triangle points inward rather
than outward. Both pump and motor symbols commonly show case drains.
The center position on three-position directional control valves is used most often to provide an idle or atrest function for the circuit. The term "center" describes the design of the control valve as well as the flow status when the system is at rest with the pump operating. How the center position ports are connected depends
upon whether a fixed or variable displacement pump is used and whether the circuit has an open or closed center.
Fixed displacement pumps are normally connected to open center, tandem center, or through center circuits and
fluid is relieved to the reservoir at low pressure in the center position. This reduces power loss that would be
wasted if the circuit had a closed center position and full flow from the pump were returned to the reservoir over
the relief valve.
Pumps
Motors
Uni-directional
fixed-displacement
Uni-directional
fixed-displacement
Uni-directional
variable displacement
pressure compensated
Uni-directional
manual operator
Bi-directional (over center)

manual operator
Flow in either direction
Variable displacement pressure compensated pumps have

the P-port on the directional control valve blocked when the valve
is in the center position and the compensator reduces flow to near
zero at a pressure setting that is determined by the adjustment of
the compensator spring.
Bi-directional (over center)

manual operator
Shaft turns in either direction
Fig. 37. Pump and motor symbols.

Troubleshooting
The center position of open center, closed center, tandem center, through center (power beyond), and motor
center directional control valves is shown in Fig. 38.
Open
Closed
Tandem
Through
Float/Motor
Fig. 38. Open center, closed center, tandem center, through center, and motor center directional control valve center positions.
In an open center valve all ports are connected and the fixed displacement pump unloads to the reservoir. In
a closed center valve all ports are closed and a pressure compensated variable displacement pump will destroke
the pump.
A tandem center valve connects the P to T port, and the A and B cylinder ports are closed. If the circuit has
one control valve, the T port unloads the fixed displacement pump to the reservoir. If the valve is in series with
a second valve, then the T port will connect to the P port of the second valve. For example if two tandem center
directional control valves are connected in series to extend and retract two cylinders, only one cylinder could be
operated at a time at full force, with the first cylinder having priority flow. If both directional control valves were
operated at the same time, return flow from the first cylinder would operate the second.
Through center valves are commonly found in stack valves. The P port is connected through the valve to the
reservoir when the valve is in the center position. In the valve symbol shown, the A and B ports are blocked and
the through port is connected to reservoir when the valve is in the center position. The check valve is a load
holding valve to prevent the cylinder from dropping the load when the valve is shifted to lift it before the fixed
displacement pump comes to pressure. This is a common configuration in a stack valve.
The float center valve is used with hydraulic cylinders, or motor center valve as it is called when connected
to a hydraulic motor, to allow the actuator to coast to a stop in the center position. In the float or motor center
position, the A, B, and T ports are connected and relieved to tank. If a fixed displacement pump is used with no
accumulator in the circuit, the valve would have an open center (all ports relieved to tank) to unload the pump.
And if a pressure compensated, variable displacement pump is used, the P-port would be blocked, and the A, B,
and T ports would be connected because the compensator destrokes the pump.
The center position of directional control valves is important in determining which valve is appropriate for
a particular application. The center position of four-way valves also influences the operation of the remainder
of the hydraulic system when the valve is in the neutral position. Two basic center arrangements are available:
open center and closed center. Several options in both open and closed center valves are available.
Open center directional control valves connect the pump to reservoir in the center position. System pressure
drops and the fixed displacement pump is unloaded. This reduces power consumption during the time that the
system is idling and diverts circulating fluid for cooling and filtration. The load can be locked in position or
allowed to float, but before movement can be initiated, the system must come to pressure.
Troubleshooting
Open center systems are used when system idling time is high, actuators are independently powered,
manual or electric solenoid operators are used, and machine response time is not critical, or a fixed displacement
pump is used. Fixed displacement pumps generally cost less than variable displacement pumps of equal flow and
pressure ratings.
In a closed center system, the pump port is blocked when the directional control valve is in the neutral position.
When the control valve is shifted to the center position, system pressure remains at operating pressure or above.
Either fixed or variable displacement pumps can be used, but if a fixed displacement pump is used, there will be
pressure surges in the system unless an accumulator circuit and pressure unloading and relieving valve is used
to moderate the pressure by diverting flow across the unloading valve at low pressure after the accumulator has
been charged (filled). This eliminates the need for the unused flow to dump over the relief valve at full system
pressure.
Closed center systems maintain pump pressure at all times and flow is available anywhere in the system.
They are used where the cost of a variable displacement pump can be justified, where system idling time is small,
where the system must operate more than one actuator using more than one independent control valve, where
pilot oil pressure is needed, and where machine response time is more critical.
Review: 36.1.
Why would a counterbalance valve symbol be shown
non-adjustable?
a. Prevent valve adjustment.
b. Valve is pressure balanced.
c. Pressure is adjusted by second pilot.
d. Internal drain prevents valve adjustment.
e. Spring adjustment would interfere with
check valve.
Review: 36.3.
In the bucket cylinder circuit of a front end loader, the
position shown in the directional control valve would
cause the bucket to:
a. float.
b. dump.
c. regenerate.
d. load the pump.
e. extend the cylinder.
Review: 36.2.
What component does the symbol shown illustrate?
a. Unidirectional pump.
b. Bi-directional pump.
c. Unidirectional motor.
d. Bi-directional motor.
e. Pressure compensated pump.
Fig. 39. Figure for

Review 36.2
Review: 36.4.
If a pressure compensated pump is used, which one of
the following valve centers could be used?
a. open center.
b. closed center.
c. tandem center.
d. through center.
e. throttle center.
Troubleshooting
Task 37.0.
Outcome 37.1.
Outcome 37.2.
Outcome 37.3.
Outcome 37.4.
Outcome 37.5.
Determine why cylinder fails to hold the load.

Knows that "cylinder drifts out" or "cylinder drifts in" can be
caused by leaking cylinder piston or rod seal, directional control
valve spool leakage, or load holding valve leakage.
Identifies correct and incorrect pressure settings in a boom
extension cylinder circuit.
Distinguishes between cylinder piston seal leakage, load holding
valve leakage, and directional control valve spool leakage.
Knows that in a counterbalance valve used in a boom lift
cylinder circuit, the external pilot opens the valve to retract the
cylinder during normal retraction, and the internal pilot opens
the valve to retract the cylinder should maximum safe operating
pressure be exceeded.
Identifies problems associated with load holding counterbalance
valves.
Cylinder drift occurs when fluid bypasses a seal. In a typical mobile hydraulic circuit that has the A and B
ports of the directional control valve non-passing in the center position, an elastomer piston seal prevents fluid
from transferring from one side of the piston to the other and the rod seal prevents fluid from leaking out at the
rod. In order to drift out or in, there must be leakage at one of these three places.
Some leakage may occur at the directional control valve after the system has worn some from usage. For this
reason, applications that require precision positioning and human safety isolate the cylinder from the directional
control when the valve is in the center neutral position. The outrigger circuit shown in Fig. 41. does this by
placing pilot operated (to open) check valves in each end of the cylinder and, as an added safety precaution,
places two manual shut-off valves in the lines.
Fig. 41. Outrigger circuit.
Troubleshooting
To stabilize the vehicle, the cylinder rod is extended to push the outrigger arm down. Notice that the vehicle
is raised. The control valve is now centered draining both pilot operated checks through the float center valve
to reservoir and the manually operated valves are closed. The cylinder should now hold position indefinitely.
For the rod to retract in this circuit, the piston seal would have to bypass fluid from the cap end to the rod end
of the cylinder. The standard test to check for a bypass condition is to install a pressure gauge in the rod end
port of the cylinder. Any increase in pressure at the rod end while the cylinder rod is extended under load indicates the piston seal is bypassing. If the cylinder rod retracts any appreciable distance, there also would have to
be leakage around the rod seal if the cylinder is full of oil and both ports are blocked.
In the transport position the outrigger cylinder
will be retracted to raise the outrigger. If the outrigger
cylinder drifts out, it would indicate that fluid is
bypassing the piston seal from the rod end to the cap
end of the cylinder, or past the rod seals. This would
have the effect of pulling a vacuum at the cap end of
the cylinder.
Figure 42. is a regenerative circuit which, if

equipped with a 2 to 1 cylinder, will extend and
retract at the same velocity. The circuit also uses a
counterbalance valve to prevent the cylinder from
retracting should a hydraulic line rupture, and a flow
control orifice (6) to regulate the speed at which the
cylinder can retract. Valves 2 and 3 are cross-port
relief valves to protect the cylinder against over pressure when the directional control valve is in the blocked
center position. Notice in this case that the counterbalance valve is adjustable and has both internal and
external pilots.
The counterbalance valve is connected in the circuit
to control retraction of the cylinder. When the directional
control valve is shifted to the left to direct fluid to the
rod end of the cylinder, pilot pressure from the
hydraulic line connecting to the rod end of the cylinder
pilot operates the counterbalance valve open, which
allows fluid to return to reservoir from the cap end of
the cylinder, with the flow rate controlled by the fixed
orifice in the flow control valve.
6
3
A typical counterbalance valve will have a 10 to 1

Fig. 42. Boom extension circuit.
ratio, meaning that the external pilot pressure
required to open the valve is 1/10th the internal pilot pressure to open the valve. For the valve shown, if the pilot
pressure required from the rod side of the cylinder were 100 psi, the internal pilot pressure required to open the
valve would be approximately 1000 psi. Not shown is the main relief valve for the system which would be set
above the 1000 psi internal pilot operating pressure of the counterbalance valve which would already be open
when the relief valve opens. Cross-port relief valve pressures would be set above the pressure setting of the relief
valve, as well as the counterbalance valve setting, to prevent the crossport valves from relieving when the cylin92 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide
Troubleshooting
der stalls against a load and pump flow returns to the reservoir at the relief valve pressure setting.
A common symptom of leakage in a hydraulic system is that a boom protected by a counterbalance valve
drifts down when it is left standing. A circuit
which can be used to illustrate the problem is
shown in Fig. 43. The dotted lines around the
Boom
cylinder, counterbalance valve and flow control
valve mean that both valves are incorporated within the cylinder.
The cylinder could drift because of bypass
leakage across the piston, or leakage across the
counterbalance valve, either at the reverse flow
check or at the counterbalance valve element.
Some manufacturers provide permissible leakage
rates for counterbalance valves. Acceptable
leakage rates are in the range of a few drops per
minute which would not allow a boom to drift any
appreciable distance within 15 to 30 minutes. If
the boom actually drifts, there is something more
wrong than leakage within the specified range.
The circuit shown drains the rod end of the
cylinder when the directional control valve is in
the center position so that when the cylinder drifts
down, there would be no leakage at the rod seal
Fig. 43. Boom raising circuit.
because the cylinder is not pressurized on the rod
side of the piston. A tell-tale leak at the cylinder rod on a system with a closed center directional control valve
could be a sign of bypass leakage across the piston, but such a leak would not indicate bypass leakage in the
present circuit.
While the pressure setting of the counterbalance valve is adjustable, most manufacturers recommend replacing
the valve rather than adjusting it and having adjustments made only by factory personnel. One exception is to
make an adjustment to the valve to lower the boom in case of hydraulic system failure.
If the boom drifts down, the problem should first be isolated to the valve or cylinder. This is done by lowering
the boom, removing all pressure from the cylinder, and then changing the counterbalance valve. This is the least
expensive and time consuming operation that can be taken to isolate the problem. If the boom still drifts down,
the cylinder is bypassing and should be replaced or repaired.
Counterbalance valves can be pilot operated internally, externally, or both internally and externally. Under
normal operating conditions the valve is externally pilot operated. The internal pilot comes into operation to protect
the boom from being overloaded. Recall that pressure in the cap end of the cylinder is caused by the load on the
boom. If the load increases to the place where the boom could be damaged, cylinder pressure will pilot operate
the counterbalance valve internally to direct the oil to reservoir and provide controlled lowering of the boom.
Two problems that are common to load holding counterbalance valves are impropper pressure adjustment
and debris which interferes with operation of the valve. If the pressure setting is too high, the boom can be overMHM Manual #401 - 8/03
Troubleshooting
loaded; if the setting is too low, the internal pilot will prevent the boom from holding the load. If the valve has
picked up debris, the valve will remain open and the cylinder will drift down. The recommended procedure is to
replace the valve rather than to take it apart and clean it.
The internal pilot pressure setting of the valve is checked by raising the boom, applying a test load, and then
making adjustments to the valve. As a general rule, the valve pressure setting is reduced until the boom begins
to creep, and then increased until the boom stops creeping. However, a common procedure cannot be recommended
to check and set all counterbalance valves because each valve and circuit are engineered for a specific application.
It is important to follow the procedure given by the manufacturer because using the wrong procedure could
damage the boom and endanger personnel.
The most common cause of counterbalance valve failure is contamination. Merely changing out the valve
will not solve the cause of the problem, as the cause of the problem will remain uncorrected. As in the case of
any component failure, the valve should be analysed by a qualified technician in order to determine how and why
the failure occured so that proper corrective action may be taken in order to prevent continued failures.
Review: 37.1.
If an outrigger cylinder like that shown in Fig. 41.
leaks off and lowers the truck to the ground, and the
manual shut off valves are open, you should expect to
find a:
a. cap end check valve seat leak.
b. pressure line leak.
c. rod seal leak.
d. rod end check valve seat leak.
e. control valve spool bypass leak.
Review: 37.2.
Which valve in Fig. 42. would have the lowest pressure
setting?
a. Main relief valve.
b. Extension cross-port relief.
c. Retraction cross-port relief.
d. Counterbalance valve internal pilot.
e. Counterbalance valve external pilot.
Review: 37.4.
How does the counterbalance valve in Fig. 42. prevent
overloading the boom?
a. Internal pilot opens the valve.
b. External pilot opens the valve.
c. Over pressure flow closes the valve.
d. Check valve redirects flow around the valve.
e. Counterbalance valve will act as a pressure
reducing valve.
Review: 37.5.
If a counterbalance valve does not hold the load, which
one of the following is the most likely cause?
a. Debris in the valve.
b. Machine is overloaded.
c. Pressure relief valve set too high
d. Counterbalance valve set too high.
e. Reverse flow check installed backwards.
Review: 37.3.
Which one of the following would indicate that the
piston seal on the boom cylinder circuit shown in Fig.
43 is bypassing?
a. Boom drifts up.
b. Tell-tale leak at the cylinder rod.
c. Changing the counterbalance valve fixes the
problem.
d. Changing the counterbalance valve does not fix
the problem.
e. With the machine off, shifting the control valve
makes no difference.
Troubleshooting
Task 38.0.
Outcome 38.1.
Determine why system operation is erratic.

Knows that erratic hydraulic system operation can be caused by
low fluid level (aeration), restricted pump inlet (cavitation), and
loose or binding hydraulic components and machine members
(and occasionally, by a rolling piston seal).
Erratic operation includes jerky actuator motion, abnormal noises, and sticking and binding machine members.
Low fluid level, loose or restricted pump inlet, and loose or misaligned components are common causes associated
with erratic hydraulic system operation. Binding machine members, and dry pivot pins, hinge pins, sheave pins,
and cylinder rod eye pins are common causes for noise and erratic machine operation. Misalignment and bent
machine members and cylinder rods are usually caused by operator error, whereas lack of lubrication results
from maintenance oversight.
Low fluid level will cause the pump to aerate, but so too will loose connections or a cracked fitting in the
inlet line. Air leaks in the inlet line can admit air and still not leak fluid. If the fluid level is full, trace back
along the line to determine if there is a crack that can admit air. With the pump running in the mid-rpm range,
use an oil can with clean hydraulic oil to test suspected places. Connections that leak air will be visible when
fluid is sucked into the crack.
A restricted pump inlet can be caused by a pump isolation valve that is not fully open. A restricted pump
inlet will make the pump cavitate. Cavitation is accompanied by a high vacuum reading at the pump inlet. A
vacuum gauge on the inlet of a pump that is cavitating will read a vacuum in the range of 17 to 21 inches of mercury. Some inlet lines have a hose in them somewhere, even in the reservoir, that can collapse. It is also common practice to fit the inlet line with a coarse filter, but if the filter becomes loaded, the bypass relief should
open. Another feature common to mobile hydraulic systems is isolation valves at the pump. Isolation valves are
installed when the reservoir is above the pump to prevent dumping hydraulic fluid when the pump is changed,
but they are also found on systems where the pump is mounted above the fluid. If the isolation valve on the inlet
side of the pump is partially closed, the pump can cavitate and even aerate. A typical design locates a gate valve
before and after the pump, and the valves may or may not be marked to indicate whether they are open or closed.
The most obvious place that a restriction could occur with this kind of a system would be at the isolation valve
on the inlet side of the pump, followed by a collapsed inlet line outside the reservoir if tubing or hose is used, or
inside the reservoir if hose is used.
Review: 38.1.
A bucket truck with a hydraulic lift aerates the fluid. If
the fluid level is ok, what should the mechanic check
next?
a. Inlet strainer.
b. Pump inlet line.
c. Pump outlet line.
d. Relief valve pressure.
e. Boom cylinder rod seal.
Troubleshooting
Task 39.0.
Outcome 39.1.
Determine the cause of excessive heat.

Knows that excessive heat can be caused by high cycle rates,
leaking pressure relief valve, and using open center tools on
closed center systems.
Heat is generated by a hydraulic system from flow friction as fluid is pumped through components, and conductors,
and across the relief valve if a fixed displacement pump is used. Heat generation is caused by a pressure drop when
no useful work is done. Under normal operating conditions, as much as 25 percent of the energy that goes into
the pump is converted into heat, while the rest of the energy is available to do useful work. Directional control valves,
particularly stack valves, generate heat as the fluid is throttled by valves in the stack as various machine functions are
operated. Pressure reducing valves and flow control valves generate heat. Depending upon how often it is
cycled, the pressure relief valve can generate the most heat of all. Hoses and tubing usually give off more heat
than they generate because of flow friction.
Mobile hydraulic systems have small reservoirs. For the same horsepower, an industrial hydraulic system
may have three times the capacity of a mobile hydraulic system. Mobile hydraulic systems also operate within
a wider range of ambient temperatures, from sub-freezing to 150F. This may push oil temperatures in excess
of 200F during operation. Some applications, for example backhoes and front end loaders, come equipped with
oil coolers to keep the temperature of the fluid within acceptable limits.
The pressure relief valve generates heat by dumping full flow from the pump across the valve at maximum
system pressure. To give an idea about how much heat is generated, if a 35 gpm pump dumps fluid across the
relief valve at 2000 psi, the horsepower equivalent that is converted into heat is approximately 41 hp. This is
why repair manuals frequently recommend bringing the hydraulic fluid to operating temperature in a short time
by stalling a cylinder. Total pump flow is dumped across the pressure relief valve and the heat generated will
bring the temperature of the fluid in the reservoir to operating temperature in a matter of minutes. If this procedure is used, remember to operate all the circuits of the machine so that all the fluid is brought up to temperature. Some
machines generate more heat than others by design. If the machine is stalled each time the cylinders are extended against the work load, for example refuse truck packer cylinders, a lot of wasted heat will be generated during
the time the cylinder is held in the stalled position. Machines with stack valves that constantly throttle the fluid
also generate heat on a continuous basis while the machine is operating.
Operator error also contributes to heat generation. For example, bucket trucks are commonly equipped with
remote hydraulic tool connections at the bucket so that power tools can be used. Open center systems with fixed
displacement pumps should use open center tools. Closed center systems with pressure compensated pumps
should use closed center tools. If a closed center tool is used on an open center system, pump flow will be
dumped across the relief valve when the tool is not in use. Similarly, if an open center tool is used on a closed
center system, the pressure compensated pump will be stroked to circulate pump flow through the tool when the
tool is not in use. Both conditions generate wasted heat on an application that does not incorporate an oil cooler,
overheating the fluid as well as the tools. Some tools are equipped with a selector valve so they can be used on
either system.
Review: 39.1.
Which one of the following hydraulic components can
generate the most heat from friction losses during
operation?
a. Pump.
b. Cylinder
c. Hoses and tubing.

d. Pressure relief valve.
e. Directional control valve.
Troubleshooting
Task 40.0.
Outcome 40.1.
Outcome 40.2.
Outcome 40.3.
Determine the cause of no flow, low flow, or high flow.

Associates no flow with faulty fixed displacement pump, or
faulty variable displacement pump compensator.
Associates low flow with fluid slippage past the close fitting
parts of the pump.
Understands that flow is constant for a fixed displacement pump,
regardless of pressure; and that flow is reduced by the pressure
compensator for a variable displacement, pressure
compensated pump.
Positive displacement pumps deliver flow because the fluid is physically displaced by the pumping chamber
from the inlet of the pump to the outlet of the pump. Figure 44. illustrates the pumping action of a gear pump
as gear action divides flow at the inlet and transports fluid in the teeth around the outside of the gears as they
turn. The fluid from each gear is joined at the outlet and exits the pump. The amount of fluid the pump will
deliver is approximately the same for each revolution of the input shaft, regardless of output pressure, and while
slippage past the close fitting parts varies, estimates of delivery will be within 5 to 10 percent of the
displacement volume if the pump is in good condition.
If a fixed displacement pump operating at rated
rpm will not deliver flow at the outlet, there is something wrong with the pump. This assumes the inlet
receives fluid and is not obstructed or open to atmosphere, and that the drive gear, which is commonly
keyed on the input shaft, has not sheared. What this Inlet side
means is that the pumping chamber cannot be sealed
and back pressure against a load causes the pump to
simply churn the fluid inside the case.
The same symptom on a variable displacement
vane or piston pump could be caused by faulty pump
compensator, or one that has been incorrectly set to a
pressure below the requirements of the load, but if
the compensator is ok, the problem is the same. The
pumping chamber is not sealing.
Outlet side
Fig. 44. Pumping action of a spur gear pump.
Occasionally, a pump will deliver more than rated flow. The most likely reason for this could be the pump
is operating at higher than rated speed. A second but less obvious reason could be the pump has been replaced
with a pump that has a larger displacement. Before deciding that a pump delivers more than rated output, recheck the specification for rated gpm, and then check pump operating rpm. If the pump still delivers more than
rated flow at rated pressure, consult with the supplier to determine if the pump was oversized in the manufacturing process.
"Low flow" from the pump causes slow cycle rates. This means that cylinders under load extend and retract
slower than cycle times given for the machine by the manufacturer. The cause of "no flow" from a pump is
relatively easy to find because something is definitely wrong. The problem of "low flow" from the pump is a
more difficult problem to isolate, because it is a matter of establishing how much slippage through the pump can
be tolerated. That is, how much flow must be lost before the flow is considered to be "low flow," and the pump
Troubleshooting
must be changed out? Some mechanics report that if a pump will deliver 70 percent of rated volume at load pressure,
the pump is still considered to be usable. This would be "low flow," however, when compared to manufacturer
specifications. So in many cases, changing the pump because of "low flow" is a judgement call. In these cases,
manufacturer recommendations should be followed.
The standard test for pump "low flow" checks the flow rate in 500 psi increments from 0 psi to relief valve
psi at rated pump rpm. This is done by connecting a combination flow meter, pressure gauge, and temperature
gauge at the pump outlet. A restrictor valve downstream of the flow meter is used to create back pressure against
the pump. A good pump will deliver rated flow throughout the pressure range, whereas a worn pump may deliver
rated flow when the system is cold at pressures below 1000 psi, but as the fluid warms up and thins out, the flow
will drop off as the pressure is increased. To make a valid judgement about the condition of the pump, and
whether it should be replaced, the fluid must be at operating temperature.
Be sure the pressure compensator on a variable displacement pump keeps the pump stroked to provide full
delivery within the operating pressure range. A weak compensator spring, for example, could allow the pump
to de-stroke and reduce pump flow at a lower pressure, which would invalidate flow meter readings as pump
pressure is increased by the restrictor valve.
Review: 40.1.
Which one of the following could cause "no flow"
from a good variable displacement hydraulic pump?
a. Low operating rpm.
b. Bypassing actuator.
c. Leaking relief valve.
d. High operating temperature.
e. Incorrect pump compensator setting.
Review: 40.3.
When pressure testing a fixed displacement pump that
is not defective, what might be expected to happen as
the outlet is restricted?
a. Pump will cavitate.
b. Pump flow will increase.
c. Pump flow will decrease significantly.
d. Pump pressure will decrease.
e. Pump pressure will increase.
Review: 40.2.
Which one of the following would not be monitored
during a hydraulic pump flow test?
a. Flow rate.
b. Operating rpm.
c. Test pressures.
e. Pump displacement.
Troubleshooting
Task 41.0.
Outcome 41.1.
Outcome 41.2.
Determine the cause of excessive noise (See also Outcome 34.1).

Knows that noise can be generated by the hydraulic system
(restricted pump inlet, low fluid level, air in the system, and
chattering pressure control valve), or by the mechanical system
(carrier bearing, dry bushing, loose pump, or other loose or
misaligned parts).
Distinguish between noise generated by the hydraulic system,
and noise generated by the mechanical system.
Troubleshooting a noise in a hydraulic machine attempts to identify the source and cause of a noise that
should not be present. This is a discriminating activity. That is, a hydraulic system generates moderate noise
under normal conditions. For example, it is difficult to have a conversation standing next to a machine because
of engine and pump noise. What the troubleshooter tries to do is identify which operating noises are foreign to
normal operation, and then determine what is causing the problem before serious damage is done to the machine.
Two sources of foreign noise made by the hydraulic pump are aeration and cavitation. To fix these problems
one must be able to tell the difference between the two conditions. Aeration is a condition during which air is
entrained in the fluid, while cavitation is a condition during which bubble-like pockets are formed on the suction
side of the pump and then collapse in the pumping chamber. Either condition will destroy the pump and may
damage other components.
Aeration makes the pump whine, with the loudness of the noise being proportional to the amount of air that
is entrained in the fluid. The sound can be distinguished from cavitation which makes a higher pitched shriek.
Aeration is accompanied by the presence of air bubbles in the fluid stream. Cavitation noise is proportional to
the vacuum at the pump inlet. The fluid vaporizes under the vacuum created, and then the bubbles travel through
the high pressure chamber and collapse (implode). This action erodes the metal from the pump housing near
where the bubbles collapse, sending metal particles downstream with the fluid. Cavitation for only a short period
of time will destroy the pump. To distinguish cavitation from aeration, remember that cavitation noise is more
harsh, and will be accompanied by higher than recommended vacuum at the pump inlet.
Both cavitation and aeration can occur at the same time since the high vacuum is more likely to cause air to
be drawn in around a pump seal, line fitting, or hose connection at the inlet.
Other sources of noise include: chattering relief valve, detent valves that hammer when they return to the
center position, loose cylinder pins and mountings that make a "cracking" sound when they change positions,
turning shafts that are misaligned, dry bearings that "growl", and dry lubrication points that "creak" as dry parts
moving together gall.
Hydraulic system noises can be distinguished from machine system noises, even though noises telegraph the
sound away from the source. Out of phase U-joints, for example, commonly telegraph noises back into the gear
box through the power take-off shaft.
Some noises are peculiar to hydraulic components, for example, a "whine" for aeration, "shriek" for cavitation,
clunking sounds for shock loading in hydraulic tubing between the control valve and a cylinder, or a "cracking"
sound as a stuck detented valve kicks back into the neutral position. Internal leaks, for example a sticking pressure
relief valve, or blown piston seal, commonly make "whistling," "squealing," and "whooshing" sounds.
Troubleshooting
There are a number of noises that are peculiar to the machine itself. For example, "creaking" sounds are
caused by flexing of machine members or rotation of a cylinder rod mounting on a pin. Hollow metallic sounds
can be caused by a dump body or waste disposal body flexing under the force exerted by a cylinder. "Growling"
sounds usually come from carrier bearings or transmission gears that are damaged. And "clanking" sounds can
be caused by shaking machine members, for example a backhoe or front end loader bucket operated to shake out dirt.
Skilled operators become familiar with a machine, and know when it is making uncommon noises. One way
to locate the source of the sound is to have the operator describe the sound and then demonstrate when the
machine makes it. This may also provide the opportunity to learn if the machine is being damaged by improper
operation. Having the schematic available is also useful to aid in locating specific components that might have
malfunctioned and are generating the sound.
Review: 41.1.
Which one of the following could cause hydraulic
pump cavitation?
a. Cold fluid.
b. High fluid level.
c. Worn shaft seal.
d. Cracked inlet fitting.
e. Return line above the fluid level.
Review: 41.2.
A pounding noise felt in a hydraulic tubing manifold
when the directional control valve is shifted is probably
caused by:
a. stuck cylinder
b. operator error.
c. shock loading.
d. sticking relief valve.
e. dry cylinder clevis pin.
Troubleshooting
Task 42.0.
Outcome 42.1.
Determine the cause of excessive vibration (See also Task 30.0).

Distinguishes between various sources of vibration.
Vibration is often caused by a rotating shaft member. For example: bent drive shafts, out of phase drive
shafts, off-center pump couplings, loose components, including hose and tubing, and even an internal pump part,
such as a missing vane in a vane pump.
A typical truck mounted mobile pump mounting is shown in Fig. 27. Recall that the drive shaft has a U-joint
at each end, that the angle of each U-joint is equal because the shafts are parallel, that the U-joints are off-set
slightly to promote bearing lubrication, and that the yokes are in alignment so that the U-joints will be in phase.
Locating the source of the vibration can be difficult. A vibrating pump driven by an auxiliary drive shaft
from the engine or transmission that is found to be vibrating may be loose. One might reasonably expect that
simply tightening the mounting bolts will fix the problem when, in fact, it might not. The pump itself may be
vibrating, the drive shaft may be bent, U-joint angles may be too great for the application, the speed could be too
high, and the drive shaft could be assembled out of phase. When the job returns with the bolts loose a second
time, the temptation is to use larger bolts in the belief that the pump is the vibrating member, and that the original
bolts were simply too small for the application. If the source of the vibration is not found, it is likely that
strengthening mounting members and bolt attachments will only delay failure of the pump, or whichever rotating
member is the weakest. A better approach is to try to isolate the source of the vibration by testing each rotating
member individually to determine the cause of the problem. This is not always easy. Seeking expert opinion
from the manufacturer should be part of the strategy. If a test bench is available, the system can be run on a
bench. Finally, switching parts, such as a drive shaft, from one machine to another also may be required to
duplicate operating conditions that cause the problem to occur.
Review: 42.1.
In how many positions can a balanced drive shaft slip
joint with eight splines that connects two U-joints be
assembled correctly?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 4
d. 6
e. 8
Troubleshooting
Task 43.0.
Outcome 43.1.
Outcome 43.2.
Determine cylinder rod and barrel damage (see also Task 33).
Distinguishes between normal wear and damage from abuse.
Associates cylinder bore galling with misalignment and cocking.
Under ideal conditions a hydraulic cylinder will operate several hundred hours without being rebuilt.
Eventually, dynamic seals and O-ring static seals harden, become brittle, lose resiliency, and leak. The cap end
clevis and rod end bushing also wear. The cylinder is then removed and rebuilt. Occasionally, a twig, wire or
piece of metal will get caught in a rod seal accidentally, causing the seal to fail prematurely, but this is not a
frequent occurrence. What this illustrates is that hydraulic cylinders are the most likely component to receive
physical abuse because they are close to the work.
Actual conditions under which hydraulic equipment operates also are different from ideal conditions.
Adverse environments include high temperatures, dust, grit, dirt, water and mud, and physical abuse. Heat, for
example, will cause seals to harden prematurely and fail. Actual operating conditions sometimes make it difficult
to determine which wear is normal, and which wear was caused from abuse. Where the machine must operate
in an adverse environment, the operator or owner makes the determination about whether the machine should be
operated at the risk of damage. Clearing vegetation from waterways and ponds with a backhoe or excavator, for
example, may submerge the rod end of the cylinder and pull it through mud. Contaminants on the rod damage
rod seals, mix with the hydraulic fluid, are pumped through the system and, hopefully, are caught by the return
line filter. If the cylinder is equipped with a rod scraper as a first line of defense, service life of the rod seal will
be extended. Better still, a booted rod would prevent exposure and reduce the potential for machine damage, but
it is not likely that cylinders in this service will be booted. Most operators will continue operating the machine
in this manner until it fails, and such operation is normally not considered to be abuse. It is simply normal
operation under actual conditions.
A better case for operator abuse can be made when cylinder rods are nicked or dented, or bent, and cylinder
barrels are dented or bent. Continued operation with a dented cylinder barrel will cause the piston seal to fail.
Similarly, a scratched or dented cylinder rod will cause the rod seal to fail. This type of damage commonly
occurs when the work comes into contact with a rod or cylinder barrel that is not protected by shields.
Three conditions that cause the piston to cock and gall the cylinder are misalignment, bent cylinder rod, and
over extension of long stroke cylinders. When the cylinder rod cocks, rather than riding smoothly in the bore,
the piston is thrust against one side of the bore causing metal-to-metal contact. Continued operation galls the cylinder bore and wears the piston on one side. Boring, or at least honing, is required to rebuild the cylinder, and piston replacement may be necessary.
Review: 43.1.
Which one of the following would indicate hydraulic
cylinder failure under normal conditions?
a. Worn rod seal.
b. Bent cylinder rod.
c. Dented cylinder rod.
d. Bent cylinder barrel.
e. Galled cylinder bore.
Review 43.2.
"Rod cocking" from misalignment or over-extension
can cause the cylinder rod to:
a. gall.
b. became dented.
c. seize.
d. chatter.
e. stretch.
Troubleshooting
Task 44.0.
Outcome 44.1.
Determine cylinder by-pass leakage (see also Task 37.0).

Distinguishes between cylinder by-pass leakage and
leakage across a counterbalance valve or pilot operated check.
Where a loaded cylinder is held by a counterbalance or pilot operated check, it is common practice to replace
the load holding valve before testing the cylinder. This is done because it is a quick and inexpensive means to
verify whether the valve or cylinder is causing the cylinder rod to drift.
A common testing procedure to check for by-pass leakage on cylinders held on one side by a load holding
valve applies fluid under pressure to the port with the load holding valve and removes the line from the return
port to see if fluid by-passes the piston and leaks out the open port. Personnel safety and the possibility of an
oil spill require that special precautions be taken.
Referring to Fig. 46., a similar procedure removes the line from the rod end port of the loaded cylinder and
installs a pressure gauge in the cylinder port. Bypass leakage will raise the pressure on the rod side of the cylinder
piston, so if the pressure gauge reading increases during the interval time the test is being conducted, it means
the piston is bypassing hydraulic fluid. The chance of an oil spill is reduced because the cylinder port is plugged
with the pressure gauge.
To bench test a hydraulic cylinder, first connect the lines and cycle the cylinder to remove the air. The cylinder
is then extended and stalled against the head end stop. The head end line is then removed and the port is
observed for bypass leakage while the cap end port is held under constant pressure.
Fig. 46. Test to diagnose cause for cylinder drift.

Troubleshooting
Review: 44.1.
In an effort to find out why the circuit shown in Fig. 46.
drifts down when the directional control valve is left in
the center position, the lift is raised and a pressure
gauge is installed in the vent port. Within a few minutes
the pressure reading on the gauge is 3000 psi and cylinder
drift stops. If relief valve pressure is set at 2000 psi,
what is the problem?
a. Cylinder is by-passing fluid.
b. Pressure relief valve is stuck.
c. Flow control load check is stuck.
d. Control valve load check is stuck.
e. Pump is by-passing across the control valve.
Troubleshooting
Task 45.0.
Outcome 45.1.
Verify condition of hydraulic fluid (See also Task 6.0, Task 7.0,
Task 18.0, Task 38.0 and Task 41.0).
Identifies causes of foaming (aeration), cavitation (high inlet
vacuum), oxidation (overheating), and water (leakage or
condensation).
Much can be learned about a hydraulic system by examining the hydraulic fluid which transmits the power.
Some sources go so far as to describe it as the "life blood" of the system, which is a metaphor used to compare
similarities between blood in the human body and fluid in the hydraulic system. And while the comparison is
useful to emphasize the importance of examining the fluid to determine the condition of the system, restraint
must be exercised not to overstate the comparison.
During preventive maintenance it is routine practice to examine the condition of the fluid on any system,
whether problems are suspected or not. Various tests that can be performed by listening to the system, visual
inspection and smell, while not as accurate as laboratory analysis, are important to identify warning signs of
problems. Both aeration and cavitation can be identified by sound, and verified by installing a vacuum gauge at
the inlet of the pump. The causes of both these conditions have been discussed in related tasks. Visual inspection
can identify foam, color, and clarity.
For example, the presence of foam indicates the system is aerating. Causes could include aeration at the
pump, air being drawn into the system at a cylinder, severe agitation of fluid in the system, or returning fluid to
the reservoir above the level of the fluid. Hydraulic oil contains an anti-foaming additive, which releases trapped
air in the fluid. Some reservoirs also are equipped with sieve-like screen dividers which separate air bubbles
from the fluid as the fluid passes from the return line in the reservoir to the inlet of the pump.
Color and clarity, which means clearness, are indicators of fluid cleanliness level. Various brands of
hydraulic oil have a characteristic color, and if the fluid is clean, a bottle sample will seem to sparkle when held
up to the light. For comparison purposes, labeled test samples of new and used hydraulic fluid should be kept
for reference. Here a word of caution is in order. It must be remembered at the outset that visual inspection, as
well as smell, feel, or other tests with the senses, are used as indicators. And because they are qualitative rather
than quantitative measures, they are not a substitute for laboratory analysis of the fluid. For example, most
particles that wear the hydraulic system cannot be seen without magnification.
Mixing fluids of various types and brands is not recommended and a change in color may indicate either that
an oil other than one authorized for a machine has been added, or that some other condition has caused the oil
to deteriorate. For example, the presence of water in amounts greater than 200 to 300 parts per million, which
is the saturation point, will cause oil to take on a hazy to milky look, depending upon the amount. From an operation
standpoint, water in concentrations of 50 to 100 parts per million can reduce the service life of components as
much as 50%.
Review Tasks 7.0 and 18.0 to determine if the a hydraulic oil sample contains water.
If hydraulic oil appears to be contaminated, it is very contaminated because one cannot tell how "clean" or
how "dirty" a hydraulic oil is simply by looking at it. This means oil that can be identified as contaminated by
visual inspection is in much worse condition than it appears.
Troubleshooting
A color change also can be caused by oxidation, which darkens the oil. The oil will also take on a burnt or
rancid smell if it has been overheated or has not been changed for several hundred hours. Oil that has been
oxidized cannot be reclaimed by filtration and must be replaced.
Review: 45.1. If a hydraulic oil sample that has been
standing overnight looks hazy when held up to the
light, what should be done?
a. Replace the oil.
b. Replace the filter.
c. Replace the oil and filter.
d. Check the relief valve pressure.
e. Check nothing. This is a normal condition.
Troubleshooting
Task 46.0.
Outcome 46.1.
Determine the cause of pump vibration

(See also Task 30.0 and Task 42.0).
Distinguishes between pump vibration caused by hydraulics
(broken pump parts, missing vane) and vibration caused by
mechanical machinery (misalignment, loose couplings, loose
mountings, failed bearings).
Vibration from a bent drive shaft, out of phase drive shaft, off-center pump couplings, and loose components
was discussed in Task 42.0.
The three most common types of pumps used on mobile hydraulic applications are gear, vane and piston.
Spur gear pumps are the simplest, consisting of a driver and driven gear and two shafts set in bearings. There is
nothing to get out of balance. The vibration felt from a gear pump is caused by pressure pulsations generated by
the pumping action of the gears. Fixed displacement vane pumps consist of a rotor, vanes set in slots, and the
outer ring. As a rule, vane pumps generate less vibration than gear pumps because there is less pulsation at the
outlet. A vane pump with a missing vane will generate more vibration, but it must be remembered that this is an
assembly error. A vane will not simply get lost in the pump without destroying the pump. Piston pumps generate less vibration from pump pulsation than gear pumps. It is also unlikely that a piston pump will operate properly with missing parts.
Before operating the pump with the prime mover, inspect the pump, pump mounting, shaft couplings, carrier
bearings, and drive shaft for movement as the unit is rotated by hand. Any free movement in a shaft, U-joint, or
drive coupling could cause vibration. Also inspect for loose or missing bolts at the pump mount, and at U-joint
couplings, if used.
Also be aware of the service record of the machine to identify if it was repaired recently. Look for the tell-tale
signs on bolts and fasteners that would show if a component had been replaced, perhaps improperly. Also look
for signs of physical damage, for example, if something had been pulled into and wrapped around the drive shaft
between the prime mover and the pump during operation.
To identify the source of vibration, listen at the pump, at the pump drive, and along fluid lines when the pump
is operating. Determine if there is a difference when the pump is under load and when it is under no load.
Vibration from the pump, coupling, or drive will not be transmitted downstream through the outlet line if the
fluid is transmitted through hose connections. If the vibration is caused by bent, misaligned, or loose parts, or a
dry carrier bearing in the drive shaft, there will likely be some movement near the point of generation, particularly
when the pump is put under load. Dry carrier bearings also emit a rumbling sound as the bearings self destruct.
Usually, but not always, some movement can be felt in the bearing.
If the vibration seems to be downstream of the pump, feel the lines when the pump is under load. The vibration
could be caused by a misaligned or unrestrained metal tube connected to the pump that is working against another
machine member.
Review:46.1. Which one of the following would
cause a hydraulic pump to vibrate?
a. Worn U-joint.
d. Pressure relief valve set too high.
b. Low fluid level.
e. Over lubricated drive shaft slip joint.
c. Over tightened case bolts.
Troubleshooting
Task 47.0.
Outcome 47.1.
Determine why a hydraulic cylinder binds (See also Task 16.0).

Associates dual cylinders in tandem binding with unequal
counterbalance valve pressure settings, or misalignment.
The discussion with Task 16.0 identified causes of binding with overloading, bent cylinder mountings and
machine members, bent cylinder rods, over extended cylinders, misalignment, and unequal loading of tandem
mounted cylinders.
Figure 47. illustrates two cylinders that lift a
piece of rolling equipment. Both cylinders
receive fluid from a common source, and are
connected mechanically to the same load.
Common applications of this circuit are no-till
seeders and other agricultural equipment that
are either lifted or lowered completely rather
than positioned, and which place approximately
the same load on each cylinder. That is, the
equipment being lifted is a balanced load.
Under this condition, cylinders mounted 10-12
feet apart will lift and lower the seeder evenly.
The circuit is simple, inexpensive, and trouble-free.
Fig. 47. Tandem mounted cylinders on a seeder.
If one cylinder in the circuit supports more load than the other, the cylinder with the smallest load will fully
extend first, followed by the second cylinder, and retract last. This occurs because the pressure equalizes in the
circuit. If both cylinders are held in an intermediate position, and the load shifts, for example if a no-till seeder
were pulled from a level field to a hillside, fluid will transfer from one cylinder to the other, letting the side with
the largest load lower and raise the side with the smallest load.
Tandem mounted cylinders on boom truck and crane
applications use load holding counterbalance valves
to prevent the boom from falling should a hose break.
The cylinders would be mounted 1-2 feet apart and
work in unison to raise and lower the boom. The circuit
in Fig. 49. allows fluid to reach the cap end of the
cylinder unrestricted through the check valves to
extend the cylinders and raise the boom.
To retract the cylinders and lower the boom, fluid is
routed to the rod end of the cylinders and, at the same
time, the external pilot operates the counterbalance
valves open so that fluid can return from the cap end of
the cylinders. The internal pilot is for overload
Fig. 48. Tandem mounted cylinders supporting an unequal load.
protection and will provide controlled lowering if the
boom is overloaded. The internal pilot pressure is higher than the external pilot pressure, usually in the range
of 4 to 1 to 10 to 1. For a 10 to 1 ratio, and an external pilot pressure of 250 psi to open the valve when the
cylinder retracts, the internal pilot pressure to open the valve in an overload situation would be 2500 psi.
Troubleshooting
Notice that both counterbalance valves are adjustable. To keep the
cylinders from binding when they are retracted, the pressures must be
set at the same pressure. Otherwise, the cylinder that has the counterbalance valve with the lowest setting will begin to lower first, putting
a twist on the boom.
Fig. 49. Tandem mounted cylinders with

counterbalance valves.
Review: 47.1.
Two tandem mounted cylinders that lift a front loaded
refuse truck container bind when the load is lifted.
Which one of the following would not be the cause?
a. Even overload on the forks.
b. Uneven overload on the forks.
c. One side of the fork misaligned.
d. Cylinder piston by-passing fluid.
e. Cylinder packing gland over tightened.
Troubleshooting
Task 48.0.
Outcome 48.1.
Outcome 48.2.
Isolate solenoid control valve failure (See also Task 26.0).

Identifies connections to take solenoid voltage readings.
Identifies connections to take solenoid resistance readings.
Solenoid operated directional control valves fail to shift for a number of reasons: including a stuck valve,
lack of electrical current, and burned out solenoids.
The first check is to be sure the valve is receiving current. Feel the valve when the solenoid is energized.
You should feel the solenoid "click" and the valve should shift. If the solenoid operates but the valve fails to
shift, use the manual operator to shift the valve. If the manual operator will shift the valve, but the solenoid fails
to shift the valve, the solenoid should be checked.
To check the electrical circuit, connect a volt meter across the solenoid leads and take a reading when the
solenoid switch is operated. This is reading "B" in Fig. 50. The reading should be line voltage when the leads
are disconnected from the solenoid, and slightly lower when the leads are connected to the solenoid.
The first check of the solenoid is a continuity check to verify if the coil is burned out, internally shorted, or
shorted to ground. This is reading "A" in Fig. 50. To check the resistance, set an Ohm meter to the 100 Ohm
scale and calibrate to a full scale reading with the leads connected. Disconnect one lead to the solenoid to protect
the Ohm meter from the possibility of being connected to a voltage source. A full scale reading indicates that
the resistance is zero. The resistance check of the solenoid coil should match manufacturer specifications. For
example, a typical 24 volt DC directional control valve solenoid that draws a holding current of 1.8 amperes
should have a resistance of approximately 13 Ohms. If the solenoid is shorted or burned out, the replacement
should have approximately the same resistance as the opposite solenoid if the valve has two solenoids.
In illustration "C" of Fig. 50. the meter is
reading the current flow to the solenoid when
it is operated. In illustration "D" the meter
is reading the voltage drop across the solenoid and two connections when the solenoid
is operated. In illustration "E" the meter is
being used to take a resistance reading
across a connection.
Meter
Meter
Sol
Sol
Meter
Meter
Sol
Sol
Meter
A
C
Sol
If the solenoid checks out, the problem
could be an incomplete ground or a bad conFig. 50. Meter connections for voltage, current, and resistance readings.
nection somewhere in the wiring. That is, the
solenoid may be ok, and the voltage check could be ok, but when the line to the solenoid is put under load, a
high resistance connection would prevent full current flow from reaching the solenoid.
Troubleshooting
Review: 48.1.
When taking a resistance reading, one lead to the solenoid
is disconnected to protect the:
a. meter.
b. wiring.
c. solenoid.
d. connections.
e. electrical circuit.
Review: 48.2.
Which meter shown in Fig. 50. would check for a bad
connection?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
e. E
Troubleshooting
Task 49.0.
Outcome 49.1.
Outcome 49.2.
Verify hydraulic check valve installation and assembly.

Knows that proper operation requires correct assembly and
installation.
Identifies function of various check valves in a hydraulic circuit
(hi-low, accumulator, reverse flow around a valve, cylinder
lock, and bypass valve).
A check valve is the simplest of the directional control

valves, which by definition stop, start, and redirect
fluid in a circuit. Figure 51 illustrates the cutaway
view of an in-line check valve and the check valve symbol. Free-flow is from right to left, which pushes the
check valve off the seat against light spring pressure.
Flow is obstructed from left to right through the valve.
Cutaway
Symbol
In mobile hydraulic applications, check valves are

used to control accumulator and hi-low pump circuits,
as load checks, as cylinder locks, as reverse flow
valves, and for a number of other purposes. Several
Fig. 51. Cutaway view and symbol for an in-line check valve.
of these applications have been discussed in previous
tasks. Check valves allow free flow in one direction and no flow in the opposite direction, unless there is some
means of lifting the valve off its seat.
For a check valve to work properly the valve element, which is usually a poppet or ball, must be seated to make
a leak-free seal. In addition, the valve must be oriented to allow flow in the proper direction. For check valves
that are inserted in other components, for example, anti-cavitation valves in stack valves, the direction of flow
is established by porting within the body of the main valves.
However, for valves that are mounted in the line, the direction
will be given on the side of the valve. Reversing a check valve
defeats its purpose, and will likely prevent the circuit from working. This is why it is important to understand the function of various check valves in the circuit.
Figure 52. illustrates the placement of a number of check
valves in a circuit that can be used for explanation purposes.
This is not an actual circuit, since several of the components
shown would not ordinarily be combined in the same circuit.
The check valve identified as "A" is used to isolate the
high-pressure low-volume pump as the low-pressure high-volume pump is unloaded when the system reaches a pre-set
pressure, say 600 psi, and continues delivering flow from the
high-pressure low-volume pump up to relief valve pressure, say
2000 psi. This circuit is used for rapid advance of a cylinder,
followed by a slow advance work cycle. Hi-low pump circuits
use two inexpensive fixed displacement pumps rather than one
large expensive variable displacement pump. Notice that the
Troubleshooting
check valve is between the two pumps, and must allow free flow in the direction of pump flow.
Check valve "B" separates the accumulator from the high-pressure low-volume pump, so that fluid under
pressure can be maintained at the directional control valve while the fixed displacement pump is unloaded at low
pressure by the unloading relieving pressure relief valve. The check valve must be located downstream of the
pump, between the unloading-relieving pressure relief valve and the accumulator, and face the direction of flow
toward the directional control valve. This allows the check valve to both unload the pump and still protect the
pump with the internally piloted pressure relief function. An accumulator used in this manner gives a circuit
with a fixed displacement pump the characteristics of closed center circuit because fluid under pressure is available
on demand. Most circuits with fixed displacement pumps unload the pump in the neutral position, and the pump must
be brought to pressure before an actuator can be used.
Check valve "C" is a free-flow check valve that allows flow around the counterbalance valve to extend the
cylinder. The counterbalance valve acts to prevent the load from causing the cylinder to retract, which if
mounted directly to the cylinder, would prevent the load from dropping should a hydraulic line become severed.
Reverse flow check valves are also used with sequence valves.
Check valve "D" is a pilot operated check valve which will prevent the cylinder from extending when the
valve is seated. The pilot operated check valve will allow free flow to the rod side to retract the cylinder, but
must be pilot operated open by fluid under pressure from the cap side of the cylinder to extend the
rod. Pilot operated check valves are used to hold a
load in place indefinitely, for example, to support
the weight of a bucket truck or backhoe on the outriggers.
Check valve "E" is the by-pass valve in the
hydraulic filter. The symbol indicates that a spring
is used to generate a back-pressure in the free-flow
direction so that fluid will flow through the filter
element until the by-pass pressure is reached. At
pressures above the by-pass pressure, fluid will
by-pass the filter element and flow through the
check-valve to the reservoir without being filtered.
Back pressures are in the range of 15 to 25 psi for
return line filters.
C
B
Review 49.1.
Which check valve in the circuit shown is in the
correct location to control the accumulator?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
e. E
Fig. 53. Circuit for Review 49.1

References
544G Loader Operation and Test Technical Manual. (1992). "Main Hydraulic Pump Flow Test". Moline, Illinois: Deere and Company.
p. 9025-25-3. Task 3, 8, 23, 26.
Altec Hydraulic School. (AT250G). St. Joseph, Missouri: Altec Industries, Inc. Task 37.
Design Engineers Handbook (Bulletin 0224-B1). "Cylinder Application." Cleveland, Ohio: Parker-Hannifin Corporation. B-33-b-38. Task 25.
Fitch, J. C. (1989). Filters Can Remove Water from Hydraulic Fluid. Hydraulics & Pneumatics 42, (1) 79-80, 98-106. Task 18.
Fitch, J. C., and Allred, J. B. (1988). Hydraulic Fluid Analysis: Avoiding the Potential Pitfalls. Part 2: interpretation of test results, plus
do-it-yourself on site tests. Hydraulics & Pneumatics 41 (1), 98-106. Task 18.
Fitch, E. C. (1983). Encyclopedia of Fluid Contamination Control. Stillwater, Oklahoma. Fluid Power Research Center. Task 45.
Fitch, E. C. "Control of Hydraulic Fluid Contamination." Hydraulics & Pneumatics. Cleveland, Ohio: Penton Publishing. March, 1983. Task 45.
Fluid Power Data Book. (1991). Dallas, Texas: Womack Educational Publications. Task 15.
Fluid Power Designers' Lightning Reference Handbook (7th ed.). (1990). "SAE O-ring Port Dimensions", and "O-ring sizes - ARP, AN,
MS" Whittier, California: Paul-Munroe Hydraulics, Inc. pp. 91 and 93. Task 1, 4.
Fundamentals of Service. 1992. "Relief Valve Diagnosis". Moline, Illinois: Deere and Company. p. 12-11. Task 8, 35.
Hose and Fitting Assembly Manual. (Bulletin 3401-B4). Cleveland, Ohio: Parker-Hannifin Corporation. p. 27. Task 1, 5, 17, 21.
Hose and Reusable Fittings. (Catalog 261E). Jackson, Michigan: Aeroquip Corporation. p. 27. Task 5.
Industrial Connectors: Fluid Products Handbook. (1993). Van Wert, Ohio: Aeroquip Corporation. Task 21.
Industrial Tube Fitter's Manual. (1977). (Bulletin 4306-B2). Cleveland, Ohio: Parker-Hannifin Corporation. Task 17.
Installation and Maintenance Manual. (1980). City of Commerce, California: Greer Olaer Products Division. Task 20.
Mobile Hydraulic Valve Components. Cat 1750. March 1984. p. B51-B-52. Task 29.
National Fluid Power Association. (1976). (NFPA T2.9.9). Method for Extracting Fluid Samples From a Reservoir of an Operating
Hydraulic Fluid Power System. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Task 14.
Oil Analysis. (1983). Sturtevant, Wisconsin: Fairey Arlon, Incorporated. Task 45.
Parkrimp No-Skive Hose Assembly System (Cat. 4480). (1988). Cleveland, Ohio: Parker-Hannifin Corporation. Task 21.
Safety Guide for Selecting and Using Hose, Fittings, and Related Accessories (Pub. No. 4400-B.1). (1988).
Parker-Hannifin Corporation. Task 21.
Cleveland, Ohio:
Selection, Installation, and Maintenance of Hose and Assemblies (J1273) (1991). J516 Hydraulic Hose Fittings. J517 Hydraulic Hose.
Available from Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001. Task 4, 21.
Service Manual for Spicer Universal Joints and Drive Shafts. (1990). Toledo, Ohio: Dana Corporation. Task 30, 42.
Spencer, John. (1980). Effective Contamination Control in Fluid Power Systems. Rochester Hills, Michigan: Vickers Incorporated. Task 18.
Sullivan, James A. (1989). Fluid Power: Theory and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publishing. pp. 252-269.
Task 1, 6, 34, 35, 36.
"What is a Solenoid?" 2435 Hilton Road, Ferndale, Michigan, 48220, Detroit Coil Company. Task 26.
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Certification Answer Manual

Answers to Review Questions
Job Responsibility: Maintenance
1.1. c.
1.2. c.
2.1. e.
2.2. e.
3.1. e.
3.2. d.
4.1. e.
4.2. c.
4.3. d.
4.4. b.
4.5. b.
5.1. e.
5.2. b.
5.3. a.
6.1. d.
6.2. d.
6.3. a.
6.4. d.
7.1. d.
8.1. d.
8.2. e.
8.3. a.
8.4. b.
8.5. a.
8.6. c.
9.1. c.
10.1. b.
11.1. a.
12.1. b.
13.1. d.
13.2. d.
13.3. c.
14.1. d.
14.2. e.
15.1. d.
15.2. e.
15.3. a.
15.4. e.
15.5. d.
16.1. d.
16.2. a.
17.1. e.
17.2. b.
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Answer Manual 115

17.3. c.
Job Responsibility: Shop Repairs
17.4. e.
27.1. b.
18.1. e.
27.2. e.
19.1. e.
27.3. b.
20.1. c.
28.1. c.
20.2. a.
28.2. b.
Job Responsibility: Field Repairs
29.1. d.
29.2. c.
21.1. e.
30.1. c.
21.2. c.
30.2. a.
21.3. a.
31.1. c.
21.4. a.
31.2. d.
21.5. e.
32.1. e.
22.1. a.
32.2. b.
22.2. a.
32.3. c.
23.1. c.
33.1. e.
23.2. b.
33.2. e.
24.1. a.
33.3. b.
24.2. a.
33.4. d.
24.3. c.
Job Responsibility: Troubleshooting
25.1. a.
34.1. a.
26.1. d.
34.2. e.
34.3. a.
34.4. c.
116 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Answer Manual

34.5. a.
44.1. a.
35.1. b.
45.1. c.
35.2. d.
46.1. a.
35.3. d.
47.1. a.
35.4. c.
48.1. a.
36.1. a.
48.2. e.
36.2. e.
49.1. b.
36.3. a.
36.4. b.
37.1. a.
37.2. e.
37.3. d.
37.4. a.
37.5. a.
38.1. b.
39.1. d.
40.1. e.
40.2. e.
40.3. e.
41.1. a.
41.2. c.
42.1. b.
43.1. a.
43.2. a.
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Answer Manual 117
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Certification Pre-Tests
Additional pre-tests should be taken after individual

study or attendance at an RTS to further evaluate test
Pre-tests are used to evaluate candidate preparedness readiness. In some instances, it may be desirable to
for certification tests. Pre-tests may be either taken take all three pre-tests at different times during the
individually or in a group setting such as during a study process to better access preparedness and
Review Training Session (RTS). As a part of an RTS, effectiveness of study.
Pre-tests are used to allow the instructor to tailor the
subject matter coverage to the needs of the audience.
The answer sheets provided have been developed
When a candidate is studying individually or in a small such that each question is referenced to a particular
group, pre-tests provide insight into which areas subject matter area of the study manual and of the test.
require further study and whether the candidate should The candidate is encouraged to fold the answer sheet
consider other study options, such as an RTS.
vertically along the dotted line before taking the pre-test.
This will eliminate any bias that may occur by having
Included in this manual are three separate pre-tests the appropriate outcome statement appear with the
for the Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic certification test. answers and more closely mimics actual test conditions.
Each pre-test has its own separate answer sheet which After checking the answers, the answer sheet may be
appears at the end of the pre-tests. Individual pre-tests opened to reveal the areas where further study is needed.
are numbered MHM-1, MHM-2, and MHM-3. The This should enable directed study in the areas where a
answer key for all three pre-tests appears at the end of deficiency exists.
the manual.
Candidates should be advised that each pre-test
Candidates are encouraged to take a pre-test early covers only a representative sample of the types of
in the study process. Pre-tests should be taken under questions found on the test. Due to the need to keep
timed conditions. A maximum of forty-five minutes the pre-test brief, not all subject matter is covered on
should be allotted for each pre-test. This should be every pre-test. Thorough preparation for the certification
sufficient time to answer all twenty-five questions on test is strongly encouraged.
the pre-test. The results of the pre-test will guide the
candidate to one of four possible courses of action
The experience of taking pre-tests under timed
regarding tests preparation.
conditions should reduce test anxiety associated with
the actual certification test. If necessary, candidates
1. Take the test: Preparation is sufficient.
may wish to retake the pre-tests after some period of
time has elapsed to recheck their knowledge.
2. Study the material using the Study Manual.
Introduction
3. Attend a Review Training Session (RTS):

Preparation is good, but not sufficient to pass
the test.
Suggestions or comments for improvements of

these pretests and other certification materials should
be sent to:
4. Participate in a formal (general) course: A

Review Training Session would not provide
adequate preparation to pass the test.
Fluid Power Certification Board

c/o FPS
3245 Freemansburg Avenue
Palmer, PA 18045-7118
Tel: 610-923-0386
Fax: 610-923-0389, E-mail: FPS@IFPS.org.
Pre-Test Instructions
Please write your name at the top of the answer sheet and record your answers in the circles provided. Make sure there are no stray marks on the answer sheet and that all erasures are removed completely.
Please do not mark on the test. Each test item has only one best answer. There is no correction for guessing, so select the answer you feel is the most correct. Be sure to answer every item. You will have 60 minutes to complete the 25 items. YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR AND TWO STANDARD REFERENCE GUIDES.
When you have finished, please give the test and your answer sheet to the test proctor.
118 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Pre-Test
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Certification Pre-Test - MHM - 1

Maintenance
1. The washer on the SAE O-ring fitting shown is
used to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
lock the nut.

seal the fitting.
compress the O-ring.
position the fitting.
set the depth of the
fitting.
2. Cleaning the area around the hydraulic filter when

it is changed is done to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
inspect the assembly for leaks.

keep the filter from running hot.
identify the replacement filter element.
meet manufacturers warranty requirements.
prevent contamination from entering the system.
3. Which part of the hose must be compatible with the

fluid?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Covering.
Inner tube.
Ply or braid.
Friction layer.
Wire reinforcement.
6. When warming up a hydraulic machine by stalling

an actuator, the engine should be run at:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
slow idle.
fast idle.
mid-range rpm.
normal operating rpm.
maximum governor speed.
7. Which one of the following will damage the rod

seal?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Rod burr.
Low oil level.
Low pressure.
Stalled cylinder.
Loose cylinder mount.
8. A hydraulic cylinder Chevron V-packing is

lubricated by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
port lubrication.
graphite packing.
controlled leakage.
rotating cylinder rod.
increased system pressure.
4. Which hose shown had a twist put in it during

installation?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
A
B
C
D
E
5. Which test would identify the presence of air in a

hydraulic oil?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Feel test.
Patch test.
Crackle test.
Visual inspection.
Laboratory analysis.
MHM Manual #401 - 10/02
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Pre-Test 119

9. At how many places does a 37 JIC tube assembly
seal?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1
2
3
4
5
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10. If cylinder rod eye seizes at the pin for lack of

lubrication, continued operation can:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
13. Which one of the following has the most effect on

the dielectric strength of nonconductive hose?
bend the rod.

overload the cylinder.
reduce operating speed.
cause the rod seal to leak.
cause the system to over heat.
14. In the figure shown, which one of the following

could cause a hose to fail?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
11. Which one of the following would indicate the

presence of water in a petroleum base hydraulic
oil?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Oil turns dark color.

Control valve seizes.
Pump becomes noisy.
Jerky cylinder operation.
Oil has a hazy appearance.
Field Repairs
Pressure.
Temperature.
Flow velocity.
Size of the hose.
Moisture content in the hose.
Cylinder mounting reversed.

Tractor hose connections reversed.
Cylinder hose connections reversed.
Directional control valve connections reversed.
Any one of the above would cause the hose to
fail.
Shop Repairs
15. Which one of the following would let the mechanic
know that a new pump installation was operating
properly?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Cavitation at the inlet.

Pressure reading at the outlet.
No leaks at any of the fittings.
Proper rotation of the pump shaft.
No vibration at the drive coupling.
12. If a 1 inch 100R1 hydraulic hose with an outside

diameter l-l/2 inches has a minimum bend radius of
12 inches, what is the distance between the outside
of a hose with a 180 bend?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
12
15
18
21
27

16. Which one of the following is an important step in
the recommended procedure when draining the
fluid and flushing a hydraulic system?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Remove the pump.

Warm up the fluid.
Drain the fluid cold.
Drain each major component.
Reverse the pump to back flush the system.
17. A hydraulic motor is leaking at the shaft seal when

the motor is operated. What should be done next?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Replace the seal.

Change the pump.
Determine if there is slippage in the motor.
See if the operation is the same in reverse.
Check the motor shaft to see if the bearing is
loose.
18. Why is the pressure setting of a new pressure relief

valve reduced when it is installed in a hydraulic
system with a fixed displacement pump?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
To warm up the fluid.

To break the valve in.
To protect the system.
To relieve trapped air.
To set the relief valve spring.
20. Which one of the following would increase cycle

times on a loaded backhoe?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Worn pump.
Fast operator.
Cold machine.
Clogged return line filter.
Pressure control set too high.
21. Why would a counterbalance valve symbol be

shown non-adjustable?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Prevent valve adjustment.

Valve is pressure balanced.
Pressure is adjusted by second pilot.
Internal drain prevents valve adjustment.
Spring adjustment would interfere with check
valve.
22. If an outrigger cylinder like that shown leaks off

and lowers the truck to the ground, and the manual
shut off valves are open, you should expect to
find a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
cap end check valve seat leak.

pressure line leak.
rod seal leak.
rod end check valve seat leak.
control valve spool bypass leak.
Troubleshooting
19. The tractor implement shown raises and lowers
slower than it should. What kind of a problem is
this?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Flow.
Heat.
Leakage.
Pressure.
Vibration.

23. A bucket truck with a hydraulic lift aerates the
fluid. If the fluid level is ok, what should the
mechanic check next?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Inlet strainer.
Pump inlet line.
Pump outlet line.
Relief valve pressure.
Boom cylinder rod seal.
24. When pressure testing a fixed displacement pump

that is not defective, what might be expected to
happen as the outlet is restricted?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pump will cavitate.

Pump flow will increase.
Pump flow will decrease significantly.
Pump pressure will decrease.
Pump pressure will increase.
25. Rod cocking from misalignment or over-extension

can cause the cylinder rod to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
gall.
become dented.
seize.
chatter.
stretch.
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Answer Sheet - MHM - 1

Maintenance
Outcome:
1.1 Identifies sealing and positioning components of SAE O-ring fittings.
3.1 Knows the installation procedure for spin-on canister and replaceable
element filters.
4.4 Identifies the parts of a hydraulic hose assembly.
5.3 Distinguishes between properly and improperly mounted hydraulics
hoses.
7.1 Identifies basic tests to check for fluid contamination (for aeration,
water, and oxidation).
8.4 Identifies ways to cycle the pressure relief valve to check the settings.
11.1 Associates seals and packing wear with age and normal usage,
abuse, nicks or burrs on the rod, bearing wear, and improper
adjustment (in the case of adjustable packings).
13.3 Knows that Chevron V-packing lubrication is provided by controlled
leakage.
15.3 Identifies mating surfaces that seal a tube flare.
16.2 Identifies cylinder wear points caused by side loading (binding
cylinder rods, cylinder rod bearing and seal, rod end eyes or other
mounting attachments).
18.1 Identifies symptoms of water in a petroleum base fluid.
Field Repairs
21.1 Knows that less than minimum bends, particularly at the hose/fitting
junction can cause reduced hose life.
22.1 Distinguishes between no load pressure, operating pressure, relief
valve pressure, and reservoir return line pressure.
Page Answers
8 1. A B C D E
12
14
2.
3.
A B C D E
A B C D E
17
4.
A B C D E
24
25
5.
6.
A B C D E
A B C D E
31
7.
A B C D E
33
37
8.
9.
A B C D E
A B C D E
40
43
10. A B C D E
11. A B C D E
49
12. A B C D E
54
13. A B C D E
24.1 Knows the cylinder barrel must be mounted correctly to operate properly.
59
14. A B C D E
Shop Repairs
27.1 Knows that a new pump must be primed before it is started to prevent it
from cavitating and running dry.
63
15. A B C D E
28.2 Knows that a system is brought to operating temperature to put

contaminants in suspension before draining hydraulic fluid.
65
16. A B C D E
31.1 Associates shaft seal leaks, case seal leaks, and loss of rpm caused by
slippage (loss of volumetric efficiency) with need to replace hydraulic
motor.
71
17. A B C D E
32.3 Knows that relief valve should be set at minimum pressure setting to
safeguard the system when it is installed.
73
18. A B C D E

Troubleshooting
34.1 Distinguishes between problems associated with pressure, flow, leakage,
heat, and noise and vibration.
78
19. A B C D E
34.5 Knows that operation of a hydraulic cylinder is affected by pressure

or flow.
78
20. A B C D E
36.1 Distinguishes between symbols for pressure relief, pressure reducing,

counterbalance, pilot operated check, flow control, and sequence valves.
86
21. A B C D E
37.1 Knows that cylinder drifts out or cylinder drifts in can be caused by
leaking cylinder piston rod seal, directional control valve spool leakage,
or load holding valve leakage.
91
22. A B C D E
38.1 Knows that erratic hydraulic system operation can be caused by low fluid
level (aeration), restricted pump inlet (cavitation), erratic directional control
valve and loose or binding hydraulic components and machine members
(and occasionally by a rolling piston seal).
95
23. A B C D E
40.3 Understands that flow is constant for a fixed displacement pump,

regardless of pressure and that flow is reduced by the pressure
compensator for a variable displacement, pressure compensated pump.
97
24. A B C D E
102
25. A B C D E
43.2 Associates cylinder bore galling with misalignment and cocking.

Maintenance
1. On a 90 SAE ORB fitting the O-ring is positioned
in the cavity between the machine member and the
fitting by:
a.
b.
c.
c.
e.
5. Which component would be protected by a circuit

relief valve on a bucket loader?
Overheating.
Slow operation.
Loss of pressure.
Leak at the filter.
Increased machine noise.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Over pressure.
Internal leakage.
No load operation.
Low rpm operation.
Stalling the load.
7. What might cause a gear pump to pressurize the

shaft seal?
3. Which of the following can cause a crimped hose

assembly to fail?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pump.
Return line filter.
Pressure relief valve.
Bucket rollover cylinder.
Directional control valve.
tightening the locknut.

backing off the locknut.
turning the fitting in by hand.
rotating the position of the fitting.
6. Which condition can cause catastrophic pump
installing the O-ring in the machine member
failure?
recess.
2. What is the most likely symptom from a machine

with a return line filter that is incorrect for the
installation, or has been installed incorrectly?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Bottoming the crimping dies.

Under crimping the assembly.
Seating the nipple in the hose.
Lubricating the nipple with oil.
Lubricating the angled surfaces of the crimp
dies.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Plugged case drain.

Cracked end housing.
Over torqued housing bolts.
Worn bearing on the pump shaft.
Restriction at the pump outlet.
4. Which filter shown

would be used to
clean up a system?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pressure
Line Filter
Inlet filter.
Return line filter.
Pressure filter.
Off-line filter.
Relief line filter
Off-Line
Filter
Inlet
Filter
Return
Line
Filter

8. What would cause a hydraulic oil sample taken 13. Where in the circuit shown, would the pressure
gauge be connected to determine the inlet head
from the reservoir to contain large particles in the
pressure (or vacuum) of the pump?
50-100 micron range?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pump failure.
Filter bypass.
Fluid agitation.
Sampling error.
Sediment build-up.
9. What determines the length of the flare made by a

flaring tool?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Load
P3
P4
Length of the sleeve.

Inside diameter of the nut.
Outside diameter of the nut.
Clamping force on the die block.
Tube extension out of the die block.
P5
P2
10. One advantage of tubing over pipe assemblies is

that it:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
is heavier.
has more joints.
is more rigid.
is less likely to vibrate.
is easier to reassemble.
11. What would cause sludges and slimes to build up

in the reservoir?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Overloading.
Failed pump.
Wrong filters.
Normal operation.
Lack of proper maintenance.
P1
14. What is the reason behind bleeding a hydraulic

cylinder when it is installed?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Safety.
Pump damage.
Hose rupture.
Fluid contamination.
Cylinder seal damage.
Shop Repairs
Field Repairs
12. What would cause a hose covering on an installed
hose to be twisted?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Severe heat.
High pressures.
Installation error.
Cover separation.
Reinforcement deterioration.
15. How long will a new pump operate dry without

causing damage?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
An hour.
Indefinitely.
Five minutes.
Thirty minutes.
A few seconds.

16. The purpose for the anti-cavitation check in a stack
valve segment is to prevent the load from:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
dropping.
damaging the pump.
damaging the circuit.
running away from the oil.
interacting with the rest of the system.
17. What would cause a hydraulic gear motor shaft

seal to be pushed out of the case?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Reverse rotation.
Worn shaft bearing.
Overloading the motor.
Obstruction in the drain.
Flow by-passing the gears.
18. Which dynamic seal would cause a hydraulic

cylinder to by-pass fluid?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Rod bearing seal.

Rod to piston seal.
Cap end barrel seal.
Head end barrel seal.
Piston to barrel seal.
Troubleshooting
19. If fluid is directed to both ends of a single
rod hydraulic cylinder, it will:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
leak.
retract.
lock up.
free float.
regenerate.
20. A combination pressure gauge and flow meter is

installed in the pump pressure line to determine
why a front end loader will not raise a loaded
bucket. If the loader has a fixed displacement
pump and through center system, what should the
pressure and flow gauges read when the directional
control valve is in the neutral position and the
pump is turning at rated rpm?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Low pressure, no flow.

Low pressure, rated flow.
Working pressure, no flow.
Working pressure, rated flow.
Relief valve pressure, rated flow.
21. What component does the symbol shown illustrate?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Unidirectional pump.
Bi-directional pump.
Unidirectional motor.
Bi-directional motor.
Pressure compensated pump.
22. Which valve in the circuit shown would have lowest

pressure setting?
a. Main relief valve.
b. Extension
cross-port relief.
c. Retraction
cross-port
relief.
d. Counterbalance
valve internal
pilot.
e. Counterbalance
valve external
pilot.

23. Which one of the following hydraulic components
can generate the most heat from friction losses
during operation?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pump.
Cylinder
Hoses and tubing.
Directional control valve.
24. Which one of the following could cause hydraulic

pump cavitation?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Cold fluid.
High fluid level.
Worn shaft seal.
Cracked inlet fitting.
Return line above the fluid level.
25. In an effort to find out why the circuit shown drifts

down when the directional control valve is left in
the center position, the lift is raised and a pressure
gauge is installed in the vent port. Within a few
minutes the pressure reading on the gauge is 3000
psi and cylinder drift stops. If relief valve pressure
is set at 2000 psi, what is the problem?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Cylinder is by-passing fluid.

Pressure relief valve is stuck.
Flow control load check is stuck.
Control valve load check is stuck.
Pump is by-passing across the control valve.

Maintenance
Outcome:
1.2 Identifies the correct procedure to install an SAE O-ring fitting.
3.2 Identifies symptoms of a machine operating with an incorrect filter,
or filter that has been installed incorrectly.
4.5 Knows the consequences of under-crimping and over-crimping
when making up a hydraulic crimped hose assembly.
6.1 Knows the location of various filters on a mobile hydraulic system.
8.1 Distinguishes between the purpose of the main system pressure
relief valve, and circuit pressure relief valves for the machine.
8.5 Knows consequence of pressure relief valve that is stuck closed or
set above safe operating pressure for the machine.
12.1 Knows that pump and motor leaks can be caused by improperly
torqued bolts, improperly sealed fittings, worn or abraded seals,
misaligned shaft, and cracked housings.
14.1 Knows that hydraulic fluid samples from the reservoir should be taken
near the pump inlet after the system has warmed up.
15.4 Knows that if the flare is too long it will interfere with the nut, and if it
is too short, it may pull out the sleeve when the fitting is pressurized.
17.1 Knows that hydraulic tubing makes a neater more compact
installation than pipe and is less likely to leak, particularly after
reassembly.
19.1 Knows that sludge, contaminants, and water that collect at the
bottom of the reservoir are removed through the access cover.
Field Repairs
21.2 Knows to replace a hose when any of the following conditions exist:
fitting slippage on the hose; damaged, cut or abraded cover (any
reinforcement exposed); hard, stiff, heat cracked, or charred hose;
cracked, damaged, or badly eroded fittings; leaks at fitting or in hose;
kinked, crushed, flattened or twisted hose; and blistered, soft,
degraded, or loose cover.
22.2 Identifies places in the circuit where operating pressure can be taken.
24.2 Knows that cylinder must be bled to operate properly and safely.
Shop Repairs
27.2 Knows that jog-starting is the safest way to start a new pump and
check flow.
29.1 Knows the purpose of the following parts of a stack valve module:
through port, spool seals, load drop checks, metering notch,
overload relief valves, anti-cavitation check, and SAE straight thread
port recess.
Page
8 1.
Answers
A B C D E
12
2.
A B C D E
14
20
3.
4.
A B C D E
A B C D E
25
5.
A B C D E
25
6.
A B C D E
32
7.
A B C D E
35
8.
A B C D E
37
9.
A B C D E
41
10. A B C D E
45
11. A B C D E
49
54
59
12. A B C D E
13. A B C D E
14. A B C D E
63
15. A B C D E
67
16. A B C D E

31.2 Knows that proper direction of rotation for a gear motor is determined
by which hydraulic lines are connected to which ports.
33.1 Identifies parts that show normal wear in a hydraulic cylinder (rod
bushing, rod seal, piston seal).
Troubleshooting
34.2 Knows that pressure acts on the cap end (moveable area) of the
piston to extend a hydraulic cylinder, and against the rod side of the
piston to retract a hydraulic cylinder.
35.1 Knows that no pressure or low pressure, and no flow against the
load, indicates that the pump has failed or that the coupling is
broken or slipping.
36.2 Distinguishes between symbols for uni-directional and bi-directional,
and variable and fixed displacement pumps and motors.
37.2 Identifies correct and incorrect pressure settings in a boom extension
cylinder circuit.
39.1 Knows that excessive heat can be caused by high cycle rates,
leaking pressure relief valve, and using open center tools on closed
center systems.
41.1 Knows that noise can be generated by the hydraulic system
(restricted pump inlet, low fluid level, air in the system, and
chattering pressure control valve), or by the mechanical system
(carrier bearing, dry bushing, loose pump, or other loose or
misaligned parts).
44.1 Distinguishes between cylinder bypass leakage and leakage across
a counterbalance valve or pilot operated check.
71
17. A B C D E
75
18. A B C D E
78
19. A B C D E
82
20. A B C D E
86
21. A B C D E
91
22. A B C D E
96
23. A B C D E
99
24. A B C D E
103
25. A B C D E

6. Which pressure gauge in the figure shown could
read the highest pressure?
Maintenance
1. If the pump is mounted below the reservoir (flooded
inlet), low fluid level can be confirmed by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
overheating.
loss of pressure.
noise from the pump.
jerky action of a cylinder.
low fluid level on the dip stick.
3
Relief
Valve
2
2. What is the inside diameter of a -16 hose?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3/16 inch.
1/4 inch.
1/2 inch.
3/4 inch.
1 inch.
1
2
3
4
5
Work
Pump
Pressure
Gauge
1
Cylinder
4-Way
Valve
5
4
Suction
Strainer
3. Installing a hose twisted as little as 10 degrees can

shorten its service life as much as:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
20%.
40%.
50%.
75%.
90%.
4. How would a maintenance person determine when

to change a hydraulic filter that is not equipped
with a pressure drop indicator?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Cycle time.
Fluid color.
Machine noise.
Hours of operation.
Machine malfunction.
5. Which component must receive oil at operating

temperature to set the system pressure relief valve
accurately?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
7. Which way should the lips face on a Chevron

V-packing installed on a double-acting cylinder
piston?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Toward the cap end.

Toward the head end.
Toward each other.
Away from each other.
Direction is unimportant.
8. A hydraulic system is brought to operating temperature

before a sample is taken so that the oil:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
flows easier.
changes composition.
circulates through the filter.
releases heavy metal particles.
contains average contamination.
Pump.
Filter.
Cylinders.
Auxiliary port.

9. When hydraulic steel tube is being flared, as wall
thickness increases, the tube has a tendency to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
split.
neck down.
thin out at the flare.
slip in the holding block.
move the flare off-center.
10. Which part in figure shown prevents the tube from

twisting?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Nut.
Sleeve.
Cone fitting.
Inverted nut fitting.
Inverted cone fitting.
13. A hydraulic bucket loader circuit like that shown in

the figure is equipped with a main pressure relief
valve, bucket rollback circuit relief valve, return
line filter with bypass check valve and boom circuit
anti-cavitation valves. Which component could
see the highest pressure?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Filter
Pump.
Cylinders.
Reservoir.
System relief valve.
Boom
Bucket
11. Oxygen cannot be used to charge a hydraulic

accumulator because it:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
is too expensive.
contaminates the fluid.
could cause an explosion.
will leak through the bladder.
has the wrong expansion characteristics.
Field Repairs
12. Which one of the following would cause excess

dirt to build up on hoses connected to a stack
valve?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Seeping leak.
Air entrapment.
Misaligned hose.
High cycle rates.
Missing hose guard.
14. Which one of the following is the safest procedure

to bleed air from a hydraulic cylinder?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Crack a pressurized fitting.

Cycle a mounted cylinder under load.
Cycle unmounted cylinder with hoses connected.
Operate the system in neutral until it warms up.
Cycle the cylinder by hand with the hoses
connected.

Shop Repairs
Troubleshooting
15. What is the purpose for lowering the relief valve or

pressure compensator setting when installing a new
pump?
19. Which one of the following would increase the

pressure in the lift cylinder on the tow truck
shown?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Increase flow.
Lower the resistance.
Test system at low pressure.
Let air out of the reservoir.
Prevent air shocks from damaging the valves.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Heavier car.
Shorter boom.
Bigger pump.
Longer truck.
Larger bore cylinder.
16. If tightening the through studs on a segmented

directional control stack valve does not stop a leak
between two segments, what should be done next?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Replace the entire valve with a new one.

Replace the leaking stack valve segments.
Replace all the seals between the segments.
Replace the through studs with shorter bolts.
Isolate the leaking segments from the rest of
the valve.
17. When the flow from a 42 gpm fixed displacement

pump is restricted to 30 gpm, an accurate pressure
gauge reads 700 psi. If rated relief valve pressure
is 2200 psi, what does this indicate?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pressure relief valve is stuck open.

Pressure relief valve is stuck closed.
Pressure relief valve is operating properly.
Pressure relief valve is leaking across the seat.
Not enough is known at this point to make a
determination.
20. A front end loader that has a variable volume

pressure compensated pump and a closed center
system will not raise a loaded bucket when the
directional control valve is shifted. After
disconnecting the pump from the system, a flow
meter, pressure gauge, and load valve is connected
to the pump. The outlet of the test assembly is
connected to tank. The pump is then loaded to just
under its compensator setting. What condition
indicates that the pump is okay?
21. In the bucket cylinder circuit of a front end loader,
the position shown in the directional control valve
would cause the bucket to:
18. Cylinder tie rod bolts are pre-stressed by:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
pressurizing the cylinder.

heating the bolts in an oven.
work hardening them with a hammer.
changing their position around the cylinder.
torquing the tie rod nuts to specifications.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
float.
dump.
regenerate.
load the pump.
extend the cylinder.

22. Which one of the following would indicate that the
piston seal on the boom cylinder circuit shown is
bypassing?
a. Boom drifts up.
b. Tell-tale leak at the cylinder rod.
c. Changing the counterbalance valve fixes the
problem.
d. Changing the counterbalance valve does not fix
the problem.
e. With the machine off, shifting the control valve
makes no difference.
23. Which one of the following could cause no flow
from a good variable displacement hydraulic
pump?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Low operating rpm.

Bypassing actuator.
Leaking relief valve.
High operating temperature.
Incorrect pump compensator setting.
24. A pounding noise felt in a hydraulic tubing manifold

when the directional control valve is shifted is
probably caused by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
stuck cylinder
operator error.
shock loading.
sticking relief valve.
dry cylinder clevis pin.
25. If a hydraulic oil sample that has been standing

overnight looks hazy when held up to the light,
what should be done?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Boom
Replace the oil.

Replace the filter.
Replace the oil and filter.
Check the relief valve pressure.
Check nothing. This is a normal condition.

Maintenance
Outcome:
2.1 Associates low and high fluid levels with system operation.
4.1 Associated dash number with 1/16th inch I.D. sizes of hoses and
fittings.
5.1 Knows that twisting a hydraulic hose will result in reduced service life.
6.2 Knows when a hydraulic filter should be changed (for example,
pressure drop indicator, service interval, preventive maintenance check,
components failure, and when fluid is changed.
8.2 Knows that pressure relief valve settings may be different when the
system is cold than when the system is at operating temperature.
8.6 Knows where to install a pressure gauge when checking relief valve
settings.
13.1 Knows that the lip seal on a Chevron packing gland faces the
pressure.
14.2 Identifies the procedure for drawing hydraulic fluid sample from the
reservoir.
15.5 Associates common faults in flares (short or long flare, thick or thin
flare, thickness of flare, diameter of the tube).
17.2 Identifies the parts of a tube assembly (nut, sleeve, length of flare,
thickness of flare, diameter of the tube).
20.1 Identifies appropriate and unsafe gases to charge an accumulator.
Field Repairs
21.3 Knows to tighten, repair, or replace a hose assembly as required by
the following conditions: leaking port connections, excess dirt buildup,
missing clamps, guards, and shields.
23.1 Identifies relief valve setting from manufacturer specifications (from
a paragraph describing operation of the machine).
24.3 Knows the procedure to bleed a hydraulic cylinder safely.
Shop Repairs
27.3 Knows that pressure relief valve spring force is released to permit low
pressure flow to the reservoir from a new pump installation.
29.2 Knows that the seal between stack valve modules is made by
tightening bolts through the sections evenly, compressing new sealing
rings evenly inside at the through port recesses; and that when a
segmented stick valve is separated, that all segment seals are
disturbed and must be replaced.
32.1 Distinguishes between a pressure relief valve that is set incorrectly,
and one that is faulty (leaks across the valve seat or is not opening
and closing).
Page
10 1.
Answers
A B C D E
14
17
2.
3.
A B C D E
A B C D E
20
4.
A B C D E
25
5.
A B C D E
25
6.
A B C D E
33
7.
A B C D E
35
8.
A B C D E
37
9.
A B C D E
41
47
10. A B C D E
11. A B C D E
49
12. A B C D E
57
59
13. A B C D E
14. A B C D E
63
15. A B C D E
67
16. A B C D E
73
17. A B C D E

33.2 Knows that cylinder tie rod bolts are torqued to pre-stretch the tie rods.
Troubleshooting
34.3 Knows that cylinder pressure is caused by the load resistance, but
not by lack of pressure from the pump. (That is, the pump pumps fluid,
not pressure).
35.2 Associates no or low pressure but maximum pump flow with open
pressure relief valve, by-passing piston seal, stuck directional control
valve, broken directional control valve spool, or other open circuit
condition.
36.3 Understands features of open center, closed center, tandem center
through center (power beyond), and motor center directional control
valves.
37.3 Distinguished between cylinder piston seal leakage, load holding
valve leakage, and directional control valve spool leakage.
40.1 Associates no flow with faulty fixed displacement pump, or faulty
variable displacement pump compensator.
41.2 Distinguishes between noise generated by the hydraulic system
and noise generated by the mechanical system.
45.1 Identifies causes of foaming (aeration), cavitation (high inlet vacuum),
oxidation (overheating), and water (leakage or condensation).
75
18. A B C D E
78
19. A B C D E
82
20. A B C D E
86
21. A B C D E
91
22. A B C D E
97
23. A B C D E
99
24. A B C D E
105
25. A B C D E
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Pre-Test Answer Key
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Pre-Test Answer Key
MHM-1
MHM-2
MHM-3
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
2.
3.
3.
3.
4.
4.
4.
5.
5.
5.
6.
6.
6.
7.
7.
7.
8.
8.
8.
9.
9.
9.
10.
10.
10.
11.
11.
11.
12.
12.
12.
13.
13.
13.
14.
14.
14.
15.
15.
15.
16.
16.
16.
17.
17.
17.
18.
18.
18.
19.
19.
19.
20.
20.
20.
21.
21.
21.
22.
22.
22.
23.
23.
23.
24.
24.
24.
25.
25.
25.
Help Improve This Guide

Updates, corrections and revisions to this Manual are requested and encouraged. This Manual is an
on-going attempt at developing support materials for Certified Fluid Power candidates. It will undoubtedly
require improvement. It is up to Certified Fluid Power candidates and Accredited Instructors to provide input and
suggestions for improvement. The Fluid Power Certification Board, composed of industry volunteers, is responsible
for determining what revisions and improvements are made to this Manual. The Manuals are updated on a
regular basis and date stamped on each page.
Please send your suggestions for improvement to the executive director who is coordinating input on
behalf of the Fluid Power Certification Board.
Thank you very much for helping us improve these materials for future candidates.
ATTN: Executive Director
Fluid Power Society
Mailing: P.O. Box 1420, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034-0054
Shipping: 1930 East Marlton Pike, Suite A-2, Cherry Hill, NJ 08003-2142
Phone: 856-424-8998 Fax: 856-424-9248
Comments
F LUID P OWER C ER TIFICATION

Setting competitive standards for Fluid Power Professionals
Fluid Power Certification ...
How Can I Benefit?
Fluid Power Certification is a fastgrowing educational movement in the
industry today - and it's not surprising
why.
Much of the traditional training from
manufacturers, technical schools, and
universities has been of high quality,
but limited in its availability.
Consequently, few of the 350,000 people
working in the industry have been able
to take full advantage of Fluid Power
training. Many of today's fluid power
professionals learned about the
technology on the job and often did not
receive the recognition they deserved
for their educational accomplishments.
If the majority of your professional
training was on-the-job or limited to
short courses and workshops, then
fluid power certification may be just what
you need to stay competitive in today's
marketplace. Fluid power certification
gives you an opportunity to demonstrate
your extraordinary effort to enhance
your professionalism through education,
training, and peer review. It may provide
you with the credential you need to
open the door for career advancement.
For fluid power distributors, manufacturers and end-users, certification
offers a multitude of benefits:
Provides another measure with
which to assess new employees.
Establishes a minimal level of
Fluid Power knowledge and skills.
Educates your customers - so
you don't have to.
Helps satisfy requirements for
employee qualifications.
Demonstrates an individual's
efforts to achieve and maintain
the highest professional
proficiency available in the industry.
What's Involved in Certification?

Fluid power certification consists of
an optional review session, followed by
a three-hour written test and recognition
upon successful completion. For
Mechanics and Technicians certification, an additional three-hour job performance test is also required.
How Many Kinds of Tests Are Offered?

The Fluid Power Certification Board
currently offers nine Certification Tests
at four levels:
Mechanic: fabricates, assembles,

tests, maintains and repairs
systems and components, etc.
Master Mechanic
- Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic
- Industrial Hydraulic Mechanic
- Pneumatic Mechanic
Technician: troubleshoots systems,
tests and modifies systems,
prepares reports, etc.
Master Technician
- Mobile Hydraulic Technician
- Industrial Hydraulic Technician
- Pneumatic Technician
Specialist: analyzes and designs
systems, selects components,
instructs others in operations and
maintenance, etc.
Fluid Power Specialist
- Hydraulic Specialist
- Pneumatic Specialist
Engineer: has a technology or
engineering degree or is a current
Professional Engineer, has eight
years of work experience and has
passed the Hydraulic &
Pneumatic Specialist exams.
What Technologies are Covered

by the Tests?
Fluid power and motion control
technologies include questions on
hydraulics, pneumatics, electronic control,
and vacuum.
Who May Organize

a Review Training Session?
Educational institutions, end-user
companies, fluid power distributors,
fluid power component manufacturers,
for-profit educational organizations and
the Fluid Power Society (local chapters
or the national Headquarters), can
organize review training sessions.
Who Administers the Tests?

Written testing is conducted under
the supervision of local proctors
retained by the Fluid Power Certification
Board. Job performance testing may
only be administered by an FPS
Accredited Instructor. Tests are scheduled throughout the world in over 138
cities throughout the year.
How Will My Accomplishments

be Recognized?
Certified fluid power professionals
are encouraged to include their
certification on their business cards and
letterhead - even on work vehicle signage.
Certification patches are also available
for use on uniforms, as well as other
promotional items. All Certified
Professionals receive a certificate suitable
for framing, wallet card, are recognized
in the Fluid Power Journal, are listed in
the annual Certification Directory, and
on the Fluid Power Societys web site.
Will I Have to Renew My Certification?

Yes - Certifications are valid for five
years. After that time, you must apply
for re-certification based on a point
system. On the re-certification form,
you will be asked to list job responsibilities,
additional educational courses you
have taken or taught, and professional
involvement in Fluid Power or allied
organizations.
What Will This Cost Me?

The Fluid Power Certification Board
has made every effort to keep costs low
and make Certification available to as
many fluid power professionals as
possible. Many manufacturers and
distributors subsidize or even reward
this program because it provides a
great return on investment. A contribution
to the fluid power certification program
helps upgrade the skills of those
professionals committed to the industry
and elevates the level of professionalism
throughout the entire Fluid Power
Industry.
How Can I Receive More Information?

For fee schedules, review sessions,
manuals and other information, please
visit our web site at www.IFPS.org, contact Headquarters at 1-800-303-8520 or
write to:
Mailing: P.O. Box 1420,
Cherry Hill, NJ 08034-0054
Shipping: 1930 East Marlton Pike,
Suite A-2, Cherry Hill, NJ 08003-2142
Phone: 800-303-8520, 856-424-8998;
Fax: 856-424-9248
E-mail: askus@ifps.org;
Web: http://www.ifps.org;

Certification Coordinator, c/o Fluid Power Society P.O. Box 1420, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034-0054 Phone: (856) 424-8998 Fax: (856) 424-9248
CERTIFICATION TEST APPLICATION

There is a three year window from date of application to take the test. After this time, fees are forfeited.
Personal Information:
Company Information:
Name
Job Title
Address
Company Name
Address
City
State
Phone
Fax
Zip/Postal Code
City
State
E-mail Address (home)
Phone
Fax
Social Security Number (Serves as Test ID Number)
E-mail Address (work)
Zip/Postal Code
Preferred Mailing Address:

Home
Professional Member - Membership #____________ Student Member (Proof of full time included/12 credit minimum)
Membership Status:
Education Information:

Grade School . . . . . . . . . . . .Graduated Yes No

High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Graduated Yes No
Technical Institute . . . . . . . . . .Graduated Yes No
College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Associates Bachelors
Masters
Doctorate/PhD
Which test do you intend to take?
Work
Non-Member
Please Note:
Payment must be received by the test deadline date to:
- Receive study materials.
- Have test available at testing site.
- Avoid incurring additional fees.
(Please note, Job Performance Test must be taken once for Mechanic and Technician Certifications.)
Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic*

Industrial Hydraulic Mechanic*
Mobile Hydraulic Technician*
Industrial Hydraulic Technician*
Hydraulic Specialist
Job Performance Test
*Certification requires the Job Performance Test if it has not already been passed.
Test Date: ________________________________________

Test Date and Site to Be Determined
Item (Refer to Fee Schedule)
Amount
Written Test Fee

Job Performance Test Fee (if required)
Retake Fee - Written Test
Retake Fee - Job Performance Test
Short Notice Reschedule Fee
Pneumatic Mechanic*
Pneumatic Technician
Pneumatic Specialist
Test Site: __________________________________________

For Office Use Only
Member #
Prior Test:
Fee Received:
Study Manuals Sent:
Total Due
Payment Type:
Payment is required by test deadline date to receive study material and to have test available at location, without incurring additional fees.
Credit Card MasterCard

Credit Card Number
Visa
Check or Money Order Enclosed (in U.S. Funds)

Exp. Date
Signature
All FPS fees must be pre-paid and are non-refundable. Visit www.IFPS.org or call 800-303-8520 for complete Fee Policies.

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MOBILE HYDRAULIC

Including Study Guide,

Manual # 401 - 8/03

Safety is Everyones Responsibility

FLUID POWER SOCIETY

Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 1

John Seim, Alexandria Technical College

While the number of contacts with companies and

2 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

1.0. Replace an SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting. ............................................................................................8

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 3

4 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 5

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Working Pressurepsi = Burst Pressurepsi / Safety Factor

Tube Standard Bend Radius in = 3 x Tube Outside Diameter in

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 7

Replace an SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting.

Fig. 1. SAE O-ring boss (ORB) fitting

8 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 9

Add hydraulic fluid to the reservoir.

10 Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 11

Replace hydraulic filter elements.

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 13

Make up a crimped hose assembly.

Working Pressurepsi = Burst Pressurepsi / Safety Factor

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 15

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MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Align hoses and fittings.

Fig. 2. Bending radius of a

Mobile Hydraulic Mechanic Study Guide 17

Bend Radii in Inches

The minimum bend radius is figured

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MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

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Check condition of hydraulic filters.

Fig. 6. Location of filters in a system.

MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

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MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Examine hydraulic fluid for contamination.

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MHM Manual #401 - 8/03

Set pressure on a relief valve.